Determinants of competitive performance in rhythmic gymnastics. A review

Abstract

Rhythmic Gymnastics is as a complex artistic and aesthetic sport with a particular training process and which demands high levels of physical and psychological stress in competition. Not many studies explain a good proposal which determinate the predictors of a competitive performance and a useful interaction-model of training and sport performance for the different context, ages and levels in rhythmic gymnastic. In this perspective, based on a critical examination of the literature about "Rhythmic Gymnastics" and "Performance", the aim of this research was to identify the factors that have been studied to predict a higher performance in Rhythmic Gymnastics, analyze them and determinate an "effectively training proposal" to achieve the higher results in competitions. We divided the references in different groups: a) Physiological and biological condition; b) Technical aspects; c) Psychological factors; d) Training process, e) Other dimensions and f) Performance analysis. The results show that most studies on rhythmic gymnastics are descriptive studies about a topic, fewer studies have examined one or more variables related with the performance and more scarce are the studies that show a global perspective and try to explain the predictor of the level of performance. In conclusion, we found some determinants of a competitive performance in Rhythmic Gymnastics which define our proposal. Further intervention studies and studies on the way of the Metamodel studies, "The theoretical and interaction of training and sport performance", would permit identify the contribution of each factor to the performance and would explain our model on a properly and scientifically way.

Full text

VOLUME 8 | Proc3 | 2013 |
S711
Performance Analysis Workshop, 2 - 5 April 2013, Alicante, Spain
Determinants of competitive performance in
rhythmic gymnastics. A review.
MARTA BOBO-ARCE1, BELIA MÉNDEZ-RIAL2
1 University of A Coruña, A Coruña, Spain
2 University of Vigo, Vigo, Spain
ABSTRACT
Bobo-Arce M, Méndez-Rial B. Determinants of competitive performance in rhythmic gymnastics. A review.
J. Hum. Sport Exerc. Vol. 8, No. Proc3, pp. S711-S727, 2013. Rhythmic Gymnastics is as a complex
artistic and aesthetic sport with a particular training process and which demands high levels of physical and
psychological stress in competition. Not many studies explain a good proposal which determinate the
predictors of a competitive performance and a useful interaction-model of training and sport performance
for the different context, ages and levels in rhythmic gymnastic. In this perspective, based on a critical
examination of the literature about “Rhythmic Gymnastics” and “Performance”, the aim of this research was
to identify the factors that have been studied to predict a higher performance in Rhythmic Gymnastics,
analyze them and determinate an "effectively training proposal" to achieve the higher results in
competitions. We divided the references in different groups: a) Physiological and biological condition; b)
Technical aspects; c) Psychological factors; d) Training process, e) Other dimensions and f) Performance
analysis. The results show that most studies on rhythmic gymnastics are descriptive studies about a topic,
fewer studies have examined one or more variables related with the performance and more scarce are the
studies that show a global perspective and try to explain the predictor of the level of performance. In
conclusion, we found some determinants of a competitive performance in Rhythmic Gymnastics which
define our proposal. Further intervention studies and studies on the way of the Metamodel studies, “The
theoretical and interaction of training and sport performance”, would permit identify the contribution of each
factor to the performance and would explain our model on a properly and scientifically way. Key words:
HIGH PERFORMANCE, TRAINING PROCESS, TALENTS, SPORT.
1 Corresponding author. Belia Méndez Rial, Avda. Castrelos 292 1º 36210 Vigo (Spain) +34 616 122 728
E-mail: beliamendez@hotmail.com
Performance Analysis Workshop, 2 - 5 April 2013, Alicante, Spain.
JOURNAL OF HUMAN SPORT & EXERCISE ISSN 1988-5202
© Faculty of Education. University of Alicante
doi:10.4100/jhse.2013.8.Proc3.18
Proceeding

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INTRODUCTION
Rhythmic Gymnastics is as an artistic and aesthetic sport with a particular training process (very young
athletes, earlier specialization before bone maduration, big volume of training, many hours of intensive
training per week, lots of repetition, high level of technical elements performed, different abilities are
required…). Moreover, high levels of physical and psychological stress are demanded in competition. The
development of good rhythmic gymnasts requires an specific knowledge of the sport. Coaches, judges,
gymnast or other staff involved in it do not have time to write the way of training and sometimes they do not
want to explain it because there is competition. That is one reason why not many references are about this
topic.
A quickly review of the literature show that some studies try to identify useful indicators for talent
identification and development training plans but they explain separately each parameter: anthropometric
characteristics (e.g. Di Cagno et al., 2008, Di Cagno et al., 2009 or Wang, 1989), physiological parameters
(Di Cagno et al., 2013) or the explosive strenght (Douda et al., 2008). Hume (1993) explained some
predictors of attainment in rhythmic sportive gymnastics (physical, psychological and training measures to
performance of a sport) and Rutkauskaitė & Skarbalius (2009), Rutkauskaitė & Skarbalius (2011) and
Rutkauskaitė & Skarbalius (2012) established the preconditions of training optimization for 11 to 15 year old
rhythmic gymnasts.
In general, we did not find a completely proposal which could identify the determinants of a competitive
performance and a good interaction-model of training and sport performance for different context, ages
and levels in rhythmic gymnastic (Illustration 1).
That is why, the aim of this research was to establish, through a critical examination of the literature about
“Rhythmic Gymnastics”, the factors that have been studied to predict a higher performance in Rhythmic
Gymnastics. If we analyzed them, we could determinate an effectively training proposal to: a) Talent
identification and development (TID); b) Improve and optimize the training process and c) Achieve the
higher results in competition. It would we very usefull for all the protagonists involved in this sport
(gymnasts, parents, coaches, judges, federation and technical staff, politicians, others).
Figure 1. The Specific Context of Rhtythmic Gymnastics
RHYTHMIC GYMNASTS
• TID (Talent identification and
development).
• Physical, physiological and
antropometric characteristics.
• Persolanities traits.
• Family and social suport .
TRAINING PROCESS
• Training protocols and
programs.
• Learning -training process.
• Physical condition.
• Technical aspects.
• Psychological factors.
• Tactical implications.
RESULTS
• Competitive routine.
• Diferent levels of
performances and
competitions.

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MATERIAL AND METHODS
Data sources and searches:
The following databases were searched: SportDiscus and PubMed the 15th of March 2013 (table 1). The
coverage of both database are from 1949 until nowadays. After the combinations of key words entered with
boolean opertor: “performance“ and “rhythmic gymnastics” we found one hundred sixty-one references.
SportDiscus had one hundred forty-seven references and PubMed twenty-eight. Fourteen studies were
repeated. All other references were obtained from other citations but, we only included a hundred or
references at the end of this article.
Table 1. Data base analyzed
Data base
SPORTDiscus
PubMed
Description
Covers serial and monographic literature in
sport, recreation, exercise physiology, sports
medicine, coaching, physical fitness, the
psychology, history and sociology of sport,
training, and conditioning. Full text is available
for 550 titles.
Includes over fourteen million citations for
biomedical articles back to the 1950's. These
citations are from MEDLINE and additional life
science journals. PubMed includes links to many
sites providing full text articles and other related
resources.
Coverage
From 1949 to 15th of March 2013
From the 1950 to 15th of March 2013
Selection of studies and analysis process:
Each reference we found was read (title, abstract, key words and the full text in the articles we found) and
we analysed all of them acording to this five criteria:
1. Publication year: 1) before 1982; 2) from 1982 to 1991; 3) from 1992 to 2001; 4) from 2002 to 2011; 5)
after 2011;
2. Type of reference: 2) Academic Journal; 2) Book; 3) Dissertation/Thesis, 4) Electronical
resource/video recording; 5) Government document;
3. Topic of the study: 1) Physiological and biological condition; 2) Technical aspects; 3) Psychological
factors; 4) Training process; 5) Other topics and 6) Performance analysis;
4. Point of view of the study: 1) Group 1: Descriptive studies of a topic, aspect or variable; 2) Group 2:
Partial view, one or more aspects and the relationship with the performance and 3) Group 3: Whole
view studies, the relationship between training and performance;
5. Other information: 1) Gender differences; 2) type of sample; 3) age of the gymnastics sample and 4)
Level of the performance.
RESULTS
1. Publication year: One hundred and sixty references were analyze (Illustration 1). One of the studies
did not have the year of publication. Most of the references (78,8%) were publish between “1992 and
2011”. From 2012 to 2011 was the decade with more references (45,3%).

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Figure 2. References “Rhythmic Gymnastics” AND “Performance” in SportDiscus and PubMed per year
(15th of March 2013)
2. Type of document: The “Academic Journal” was the most common type of references (88,2%). Eleven
references (6,8%) were books and seven (5%) were other type of document (Goverment document,
eletronical recource, video recording or dissertation/thesis).
Figure 3. References “Rhythmic Gymnastics” AND “Performance” in SportDiscus and PubMed per
type of document (15th of March 2013)
3. Subject/ topic: Classifying the studies per topic, some of them included more than one topic. In general
there were two hundred ninety-two topics. The analysis of the distributión of the topics (Illustration 4)
explained that the 47,2% of the references were about technical aspects (7,4%), twenty two about
psychological factors (8,2%), thirty-five related with the training process (13%) and fifty about physical
and biological condition (18,6%) opposite to the 52,8% of the references which explain Performance
(32%) and Other topics (20,8%).
Figure 4. References “Rhythmic Gymnastics” AND “Performance” in SportDiscus and PubMed per topic
(15th of March 2013)
5 (3,1%)
18 (11,2%)
54 (33,5%)
73 (45,3%)
10 (6,2%)
<1982 1982-1991 1992 -2001 2002-2011 >2011
Number of
references (%)
142 (88,2 %)
11 (6,8%) 3 (1,9%) 3 (1,9 %) 2 (1,2 %)
Academic Journal Book Government
document
Electronical
resource/video
recording
Dissertation/Thesis
Number of references
(%)
20 (7,4%) 22 (8,2%)
35 (13%)
50 (18,6%) 56 (20,8%)
86 (32%)
Technical Psychological Training Physical & BC Performance Others
Number of
references (%)

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Under each topic we found other dimensions analyzed.
3.1. Regarding the technical aspects, the dimensions analyzed (table 2) were five: apparatus,
kinematic analysis, motor abilities, skills and technical elements. Jumps are the skills mostly
studied (Di Cagno et al., 2008b; Di Cagno et al., 1995; Dyhre-Poulsen, 1987; Kums et al. 2005;
Miletić et al., 2004b; Mkaouer et al., 2012; Özengin et al., 2011 and Purenović et al., 2010) and we
did not found many studies about apparatus (Ávila-Carvalho et al. 2010; Ávila-Carvalho et al.
2011; Ávila-Carvalho et al. 2012 and Tsopani et al, 2012).
Table 2. Dimensions and studies about technical aspects
Dimensions of analysis
References
Apparatus: Apparatus motor skills, apparatus
(ball), Apparatus difficulty group routine (roops,
hoop and clubs).
Ávila-Carvalho et al. (2010), Ávila-Carvalho et al. (2011), Ávila-
Carvalho et al. (2012), Komanthi et al. (2012), Mkaouer et al.
(2012) and Tsopani et al. (2012).
Kinematic analysis: Kinematic analysis,
kynesiology skills evaluation, movement
analysis - motor aspects.
Purenović et al. (2010) and Šebić-Zuhrić & Smajlović (2009).
Motor abilities: Motor abilities, motor skills, basic
motor abilities.
Kioumourtzoglou et al. (1997), Miletic et al. (1998), Miletić et al.
(2004b) and Šebić-Zuhrić & Smajlović (2009).
Skills: Splits leaps (physiological recordings,
leaping performance) Leaping ability, Jumping
or leaping performance
Dyhre-Poulsen (1987), Di Cagno et al (1995), Di Cagno et al.
(2008b), Mkaouer et al. (2012), Özengin et al. (2011), Purenović
et al. (2010), Kums et al. (2005) and Tsopani et al. (2012).
Technical elements: Technical elements,
technical mastery or technical evolution.
Buarque (2003), Bozanic and Miletic (2011) and Sekulic et al.
(2002)
3.2. Studies about psychology, explaines psychological dimensions in the higher performance (anxiety,
attentional and pre-attentional process, self-consciousness); behaviour analysis (preceptual
process, movement analysis); personality traits and other studies.
Table 3. Dimensions and studies about psychological factors
Dimensions of analysis
References
Psychological dimensions in the higer
performance:
Attentional and pre-attentional process Anxiety
state on the performance, trait anxiety and
competitive state anxiety.
Self-consciousness or Self-efficacy.
Daroglou (2011), Fan et al. (2004), Ferrand et al. (2002), Ferrand
& Tedard (2001) and Tsopani et al. (2011).
Behaviour:
Preceptual process or perceptual and
cognitive abilities. Movement analysis - mental
aspects.
Ermolaeva et al. (1998), Giannitsopulou et al. (2002), Hökelmann
et al. (2006), Kioumourtzoglou et al. (1997) and Li and Guo (2000).
Personality traits: Personality.
Ferrand et al. (2005)
Others: Biofeedbak. Ethical implications for
the Sport psychologist. Job satisfaction
coaches.
Drakou et al. (2008), Ferrand & Tedard (2001), Johns (1993),
Peper & Schmid (1983).
3.3. Training process was analysis from three points of view: perspective of the learning process, the
specific training process and the itneraction between the training and the performance (table 4).

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Table 4. Dimensions and studies about training process
Dimensions of analysis
References
Learning process: teaching program, learning
gymnastics skills, teaching systems, learnig.
Feedback, process correcting technical mistakes. RG
Curriculum, Levels.
Cristina-Elena (2012), Gloucester (1993), Komanthi et al.
(2012), Loquet (2011) and Tsopani et al. (2012)
Training process: planning, methods, training cicle
model, improving training levels, training volume,
exercise training, problems, models. Precompetition
warm-up, Pre-competition training and Competitive
period.
Fang Huixin (1994), Fan et al. (2004b), Guiddeti et al.
(2009), Hu (2001), Madelyn et al. (2008), Kroetenheardt
(1989), Rutkauskaite (2005), Rutkauskaitė & Skarbalius
(2009), Rutkauskaite (2005), Rutkauskaitė & Skarbalius
(2011), Rutkauskaitė & Skarbalius (2012), Sundgot-Borgen
(1996) and Viru & Smirnova (1995)
Interaction between training (models) and
performance.
Rutkauskaite (2005) and Rutkauskaitė & Skarbalius (2012).
3.4. The physical and biological condition is one of the topics mostly studied (table 5) on the way of:
the anthropometric values, physical condition, physiological parameters and psychomotor
dimensions.
Table 5. Dimensions and studies about physical and biological condition
Dimensions of analysis
References
Anthropometric values: Antrhopometric values, profile
or characteristics. Somatic constitution, dynamic body
equilibrium, body composition. Dermatologyfics,
somatitype and morphological models. Growth and
pubertal development.
Deutz et al. (2000), Quintero et al. (2011), Di Cagno et al.
(2008), Di Cagno et al. (2008b), Douda et al. (2008),
Georgopoulos et al. (1999), Menezes & Filho (2006),
Poliszczuk & Broda (2010) and Wang (1989).
Physical condition: Physical fitness, Physical aptitude
characteristics.
Balance (vestibular system, body sway, postural
strategies (postural trials) or control in lateral
directions).
Stretching/ Static stretching.
Flexibility or general flexibility
Beyer (1959), Calavalle et al. (2008), Di Cagno et al. (1995),
Menezes & Filho (2006), Napias (1997), Özengin et al.
(2011) and Tsigilis et al. (1998).
Physiological parametres: physiological
characteristics, indices, determinants or respones.
Exhaustion, energy defits, maximal effort, energy
Organic prerequisites, heart-rate responses, blood
lactates, lipid profile and redox, ACE and AGTR1
polymorphisms.expenditure and rating perceived
exertition.
Alexander et al. (1987), Bensar & Steender (1989), Case et
al. (1980), Deutz et al. (2000), Di Cagno et al. (2013), Douda
et al. (1997), Douda et al. (2006), Douda et al. (2008),
Guerra et al. (2001), Mihaela et al. (2012), Miletić et al.
(2004), Polischuk, (2001) and Portier et al. (2006).
Psychomotor dimensions: Corporal language or Body
conception. Spatial-temproal orientation.
Coordination or situational motor-coordination.
Rhythm perception, musical abilities or rhythmic
ability. Latteral differenciation or homolateral hand
and food.
Antunes (1991), Capranica et al. (2005), Corat (2012),
Fotiadou et al. (2006), Ma Xun (1993), Pavlidou et al.
(2009), Penedo et al. (2006), Petkovic (2004), Popovic
(2004), Soares (1981) and Wolf-Cvitak & Starosta (2002).

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3.5. The performance analysis was very mentioned (table 6) with the aesthetic parameters;
choreography process; the exercise (trends, visual model, knowledge or exercises); the predictors
and results of the performance and the competitive success.
Table 6. Dimensions and studies about performance analysis
Dimensions of analysis
References
Aesthetic parameters: Aesthetic competence
parameters, Artistic value
Ávila-Carvalho et al. (2008); Avila et al. (2011)
Choreography: choreography creation and
expresion
Nicklas et al. (1996)
Exercise: Rhythmic gymnastics exercises,
Trends or tendencies and analyses, Visual
model and knowledge of performance
Gantcheva (1987), Magill & Schoenfelder-Zohdi (1996), Sekulic et
al. (2002), Stefanova & Yakimova (1987) and Wolf-Cvitak &
Starosta (2002).
Predictors and results of the performance:
Determining elements of the performance,
factors influencing performance, predictor of
attainment, performance characteristics,
Sport performance, performance results,
Level of the performance (reliability).
Di Cagno et al. (2009), Ferrando & Tedard (2001), Hume et al.
(1993), Polischuk, T. (2001), Rutkauskaitė & Skarbalius (2011) and
Rutkauskaitė & Skarbalius (2012).
Success: Success or competitive success.
Petkovic (2004) and Kroetenheardt (1989)
3.6. Other topics included different perspective about ryhtmic gymnastics associate with (table 7):
appreciation of the beauty, computering support systems; sport context (socio-cultural, ethical
implications, etc.); descriptive studies of rhythmic gymnastics and gymnasts; judge´s process,
medical supervision and gealth promotion focusing specially in eating disorders or talent
identification.
Table 7. Dimensions and studies about other topics
Dimensions of analysis
References
Beauty: Apreciation of the beauty
Li (1999)
Disability: deafness
Fotiadou et al. (2006)
Informatics: Computer support system
Cuk et al. (1992)
Context: Socio-cultural, ethical implications
conditioning and gender differences,
Di Cagno et al. (2002) and Johns (1993).
Descriptive studies: evolution of performance,
teams, general information about rhythmic
gymnastics, sport, competition, interviews,
clinics.
Bensar & Steender (1989), Crumlis (2001), Crumlish (2005), FISU
(2003), Ho (1988), Kroetenheardt (1989), Kroetenheerdt & Brzank
(1988), and Yi (2000).
Judges: Judge´s process, evaluation criteria,
score, problems, computorized analysis,
coherent majority average, comparative
studies of judging or judgment of actions in
experts
Babiloni et al. (2009), Bandettini & Piazza (1985), Bormann (1988)
and Gianfranco & Gaetano (2012).
Medical supervision and health promotion:
Medical supervision Nutritional needs,
nutitional behaviours, Eating disorders
(fasting & festing, energy intake.
Fang Huixin (1994), Gianfranco & Gaetano (2012), Johns (1993),
Johns (1998), Vitali et al. (2003) and Sundgot-Borgen (1996).

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Talent identification, development and
promotion.
Di Cagno et al (2008), Di Cagno et al. (2008b), Di Cagno et al.
(2009), Di Cagno et al. (2013) and Douda et al. (2008).
4. Point of view: In respect of the point of view, only four studies (2,5%) explained a whole view about the
relationship between training and performance [Group 3: Hume (1993), Rutkauskaitė & Skarbalius
(2009), Rutkauskaitė & Skarbalius (2011) and Rutkauskaitė & Skarbalius (2012)], thirty-one (19,3%)
explained the relationship between one or more aspects and the performance (Group 2), and all other
references, hundred and twenty six (78,3%) focused in a description of a topic, aspect or variable
(78,3%).
Figure 5. References “Rhythmic Gymnastics” AND “Performance” in SportDiscus and PubMed per point of
view (15th of March 2013)
The review of the literature give us the information about that some studies started to identify and describe
the determinants of a rhythmic gymnastics performance (Table 8). Some of them (Douda et al., 2008;
Miletic et al., 2004; Di Cagno et al., 2009) explained only the relationship between antropometric and
technical determinants of the rhytmic gymnastic performance. Others added the psychological factors and
the training process in the first parametres (Hume, 1993; Rutkauskaite & Skarbalius, 2009; Rutkauskaite &
Skarbalius, 2011; Rutkauskaite & Skarbalius, 2012).
Table 8. Some studies about determinants of a rhythmic gymnastic performance
Reference
Title
Sample of rhythmic
gymnasts studied
P
P&B
TC
PSY
TR
OF
Douda et al
(2008)
Physiological and anthropometric
determinants of rhythmic
gymnastic performance.
n = 34
elite (n = 15)
no-elite (n = 19)
X
X
Miletic et al
(2004)
Some anthropologic factors of
performance in rhythmic
gymnastics novice
n = 50
Age 7.1 +/- 0.3 years
X
X
X
Di Cagno et al.
(2009)
Factors influencing performance
of competitive and amateur
rhythmic gymnastics-gender
differences
n = 24
12 male and 12 female
Age range 22±4 years
X
X
X
Hume (1993)
Predictors of attainment in
rhythmic sportive gymnastics
n =106
Aged 7-27 years
X
X
X
X
X
X
Rutkauskaite &
Skarbalius
(2009)
Training and sport performance of
the 11-12 years old athletes in
rhythmic gymnastics
n =25 National gymnasts
Age 11—12 year old
X
X
X
X
X
X
126 (78,3%)
31 (19,3%)
4 (2,5%)
Group 1 Group 2 Group 3
Number of
references (%)

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Reference
Title
Sample of rhythmic
gymnasts studied
P
P&B
TC
PSY
TR
OF
Rutkauskaite &
Skarbalius
(2011)
Interaction of training and
performance of 13-14 year old
athletes in rhythmic gymnastics
n =15 National gymnasts
Age 13—14 year old
X
X
X
X
X
X
Rutkauskaite &
Skarbalius
(2012)
Models and interaction of
intensive training and sport
performance of 14-15 years old
athletes in rhythmic gymnastics.
n =10 National gymnasts
Age 14-15 year old
X
X
X
X
X
X
*Note: P = Performance; P&B = Physical and Biological Condition; TC = Technical aspects; PSY = Psychological factors; TR = Training process; OF = others
factors.
5. Other information: A part from the four aspects we analyze in this article [1), Publication year, 2) Type
of reference, 3)Topic of the study, 4) Point of view] other dimensions have been studied and included
in the tittle of the reference: gender differences, type of sample, age of the gymnasts or level of the
performance. The aspects analyze were:
5.1. Gender differences: in amateur rhythmic gymnastics (Di Cagno et al., 2009) or related with
technical mastery (Bozanic & Miletic, 2011).
5.2. Type of sample: Gymnasts and runners (Deutz et al., 2000); artistic and modern rhythmic
gymnastics (Bormann, 1988); gymnasts and no gymnasts (Pavlidou et al., 2009); artistic and
rhythmic female gymnasts (Douda et al., 1997); coaches (Drakou et al., 2008); judges (Gianfranco
& Gaetano, 2012); experts (Babiloni et al., 2009); teams (Bensar & Steender, 1989; Case et al.,
1980; Fang Huixin, 1994; Yi, 2000) or Recognized Gymnasts: Irina Superestar (FISU, 2003); Inna
Zhukova (Crumlish, 2005); Irina Chaschina (Crumlish, 2001).
5.3. Age of the gymnastics sample: children (Cuk et al., 1992); children with deafness (Fotiadou et al.,
2006); infantile and pre-infantile rhythmic gymnastics (Penedo et al., 2006); rhythmic gymnastics
novices (Miletic et al., 2004); youth age (Di Cagno et al., 2002); teenagers female gymnasts
(Guerra et al., 2001); college women (Beyer, 1959); Female sport students (Ferrand et al., 2002;
Ferrand et al., 2005); Rhythmic gymnasts girls (Poliszczuk & Broda, 2010); young female rhythmic
gymnasts (Tsopani et al., 2011); 11 to 12 years old athletes in rhythmic gymnastics (Rutkauskaitė
& Skarbalius, 2009); 13 to 14 years old athletes in rhythmic gymnastics (Rutkauskaitė &
Skarbalius, 2011) or 14 to 15 years old athletes in rhythmic gymnastics (Rutkauskaitė &
Skarbalius, 2012) or older women (Capranica et al., 2005).
5.4. Level of the performance: female gymnasts from different qualification levels (Menezes & Filho,
2006); amateur rhythmic gymnasts (Di Cagno et al., 2008); national gymnasts (Fang Huixin,
1994); sub-elite gymnasts (Guidetti et al., 2009); elite female gymnasts (Ávila-Carvalho et al.
2010; Deutz et al., 2000; Di Cagno et al., 1995; Di Cagno et al., 2008; Georgopoulos et al. 1999;
Guidetti et al., 2009); Top level rhythmic gymnasts (Fan et al., 2004) or World and European
rhythmic gymnastics (Bandettini & Piazza, 1985).
DISCUSSION
The results are similar to other researches, which have mentioned that not many studies explain a proposal
of the determinants a competitive performance in Rhythmic Gymnastics (Hume, 1993).

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We identify some studies which explain the predictors of a high performance in rhythmic gymnastics
through a whole perspective (Illustration 6) and in which training and performance are related (Hume, 1993;
Rutkauskaite & Skarbalius, 2009; Rutkauskaite & Skarbalius, 2011; Rutkauskaite & Skarbalius, 2012) and
other studies which explain some predictors such as anthropometric characteristics, physical condition or
technical aspects of a competitive performance separately (Douda et al., 2008, Miletic et al., 2004; Di
Cagno et al., 2009).
Figure 6. Dimensions of a competitive performane in the specific context of the Rhythmic Gymnastis
Researches has not established models of training and sport performance (as well as their interaction) of
rhythmic gymnastics athletes of different ages and sport performance levels (basic and special)
(Rutkauskaite & Skarbalius, 2009; Rutkauskaite & Skarbalius, 2011; Rutkauskaite & Skarbalius, 2012).
Like other authors have explained (Di Cagno et al., 2008; Di Cagno et al., 2008b; Di Cagno et al., 2009; Di
Cagno et al., 2013; Douda et al., 2008) if we verified which parameters are useful indicator and their
contribution to a successful performance rhythmic gymnastics, we could have a guideline for talent
identification, selection, development and promotion.
In general, the line of investigation needs to continue because it is not enough to understand and have a
useful and empirical proposal of “training and sport performance” based on the theory and apply in the
practice in the specific context of rhythmic gymnastics (Illustration 7).
Figure 7. Interaction model of training-sport performance in competition in rhythmic gymnastics
Rhythmic
Gymnastic
Performance
Gymnasts, coaches,
judges, technical
staff, federation staff,
parents, ..
Physical &
Biological
Condition
Learning &
Training
process
Other factors
Technical aspects
(Group/individual/
Skills/ Apparatus)
Physiological
factors
OUT-
PUTs
TRAINING
COMPETITION
IN-PUTs

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CONCLUSIONS
After the analysis of more than a hundred of references about Rhythmic Gymnastics and Performance from
two data bases here are the conclusions:
1. The digital references are increasing in the Database every year since 1982, a good sign of applied
new technologies in sport.
2. The most common type of document still being Academic Journal something not new because we
analyze two digital database but it is a good symptom of the investigation in rhythmic gymnastics. We
found other types of document but in less number (Books, Government document, electronical
resource/video recording and Dissertation/Thesis).
3. Most studies were descriptive studies about a topic (78,3%), fewer studies have examined one or more
variables related to the performance (19,3%) and more scarce are the studies which show a global
perspective and try to explain the predictor of the level of performance (2,5%) (Hume et al, 1993;
Rutkauskaita and Skarbalius, 2009; Rutkauskaita and Skarbalius, 2011; Rutkauskaita and Skarbalius,
2012).
4. The usual topics studied were: the Performance (32%), Physical Condition & Biological aspects
(18,6%) and training process (13%). Psychological (8,2%), technical aspects (7,4%) and other studies
(20,5%) were the other topic studied.
5. Some dimensions of a competitive performance in Rhythmic Gymnastics which define part of a future
proposal were found. Some of the dimensions are: a) Technical aspects (Aparatus, kinematic analysis,
motor abilities and skills and technical elements); b) Psychological factors (Psychological dimensions in
high performance, behavior analysis, personality traits and other factors); c) Training process
(Learning, training, interaction between training and performance); d) Physical and biological condition
(anthropometric values, physical condition, physiological parameters, psychomotor dimensions); e)
Performance analysis (aesthetic parameters, choreography, exercise, predictors and results of the
performance, success) and f) Other factors (beauty, informatics, context, descriptive studies, judge´s
process, medical supervision and health promotion, talent identification; others).
6. This study suggested that is necesary increse the research in this area. Some implications were found
(Illustration 8) but further research could explain the determinants of competitive performance in
rhythmic gymnastics and an interacion model of training – competition for diferent context, ages and
levels in rhythmic gymnastics.

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Figure 8. Implications and conclusions of this study
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