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This study investigated the acute effects of a half-time re-warm up on performance and movement patterns in soccer match play. Using a crossover design, 22 professional male players performed traditional passive rest (CON) or a low-intensity re-warm up (RW) during the half-time period of two soccer matches. Before and after the first half and before the second half, maximal sprint and jump performance were evaluated. Time–motion analysis of the first 15 min of each half was conducted. Sprint and jump performance were reduced (P < 0.05) by 2.6% and 7.6%, respectively, during the half-time period in CON, whereas sprint performance was maintained and the decrement in jump performance (3.1%; P < 0.05) was lower after RW. No significant interaction for high-intensity running was observed, but less defensive high-intensity running was observed after RW than CON (0.14 ± 0.06 vs 0.22 ± 0.07 km; P < 0.01). Moreover, RW had more possession of the ball in the beginning of the second half. In conclusion, traditional passive half-time rest leads to impaired sprint and jump performance during the initial phase of the second half in professional soccer players whereas a re-warm up effectively attenuates such deteriorations. Less defensive high-intensity running and more ball possession were observed after RW, indicating a game advantage at the onset of the second half.
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Half-time re-warm up increases performance capacity in male
elite soccer players
P. Edholm1, P. Krustrup2,3, M. B. Randers2
1School of Health and Medical Sciences, Örebro University, Örebro, Sweden, 2Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports,
Copenhagen Centre for Team Sport and Health, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark, 3Sport and Health Sciences,
College of Life and Environmental Sciences, St. Luke’s Campus, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK
Corresponding author: Peter Edholm, School of Health and Medical Sciences, Örebro University, Fakultetsgatan 1, 70282 Örebro,
Sweden. Tel: +019 303969, Fax: +019 303486, E-mail: peter.edholm@oru.se
Accepted for publication 19 March 2014
This study investigated the acute effects of a half-time
re-warm up on performance and movement patterns in
soccer match play. Using a crossover design, 22 profes-
sional male players performed traditional passive rest
(CON) or a low-intensity re-warm up (RW) during the
half-time period of two soccer matches. Before and after
the first half and before the second half, maximal sprint
and jump performance were evaluated. Time–motion
analysis of the first 15 min of each half was conducted.
Sprint and jump performance were reduced (P<0.05) by
2.6% and 7.6%, respectively, during the half-time period
in CON, whereas sprint performance was maintained
and the decrement in jump performance (3.1%; P<0.05)
was lower after RW. No significant interaction for high-
intensity running was observed, but less defensive high-
intensity running was observed after RW than CON
(0.14 ±0.06 vs 0.22 ±0.07 km; P<0.01). Moreover, RW
had more possession of the ball in the beginning of the
second half. In conclusion, traditional passive half-time
rest leads to impaired sprint and jump performance
during the initial phase of the second half in professional
soccer players whereas a re-warm up effectively attenu-
ates such deteriorations. Less defensive high-intensity
running and more ball possession were observed after
RW, indicating a game advantage at the onset of the
second half.
The ability to perform large amounts of high-intensity
running is generally considered as an important perfor-
mance marker in soccer, and most (Reilly & Thomas,
1976; Ekblom, 1986; Bangsbo et al., 1991; Carling
et al., 2008; Ingebrigtsen et al., 2012) but not all (Di
Salvo et al., 2009; Rampinini et al., 2009) studies have
shown that professional soccer players perform more
high-intensity running during all stages of a match com-
pared with lower level soccer players. Interestingly,
several studies have reported that soccer players at all
levels including professional players perform less high-
intensity running during the initial phase of the second
half compared with the first half of a match (Mohr et al.,
2003, 2005; Bradley et al., 2009; Weston et al., 2011). In
fact, Mohr et al. (2005) showed that as much as 20% of
elite soccer players have their least intense 15-min
period in a match during the initial part of the second
half. This is remarkable, especially as the players just
before this period have had a 15-min half-time period,
aiming to give the players time to rest and recover so that
they can resume the second half of the game with
renewed vigor. The reason for this significant reduction
in high-intensity running is unknown. However, several
hypotheses have been suggested, including tactical
aspects, accumulated fatigue, half-time length, ambient
temperature, and lack of physical preparation prior to the
second half (Mohr et al., 2004; Mugglestone et al., 2013;
Zois et al., 2013). In addition to high-intensity running,
soccer players’ capacity to produce explosive actions
such as maximal sprint and jump performance is also an
important performance marker (Stolen et al., 2005).
Even small differences might be crucial in the critical
duels influencing the results of the game and a difference
of only 0.05 s in a 10-m sprint equals 0.25–0.5 m
depending on the running speed. In line with this, pro-
fessional soccer players have repeatedly been reported
to have higher sprint and jump capacity than non-
professionals (Stolen et al., 2005).
Before a match professional soccer players usually
perform a warm up routine typically lasting 30 min and
consisting of low- to high-intensity exercises (Towlson
et al., 2013). This type of physical preparation has been
shown to elevate muscle temperature, which in turn is
associated with enhanced sprint and jump performance
(Sargeant, 1987; Stewart & Sleivert, 1998; Bishop, 2003;
Mohr et al., 2004). Thus, the warm up regime performed
by professional soccer players before matches induces
physiological changes assuring that players are well pre-
pared to perform maximal efforts directly from the start
of match. Given the above discussion, it is interesting to
Scand J Med Sci Sports 2014: ••: ••–••
doi: 10.1111/sms.12236
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons A/S.
Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd
1
note that re-warm up regime specifically set up to
prepare the players for the second half of the game are
rarely used (Towlson et al., 2013). Indeed, the dominat-
ing routine during the half-time period in professional
soccer is traditionally restricted to passive seated recov-
ery, rehydration, and brief tactical advice from the coach
(Towlson et al., 2013). Such half-time regimes are prob-
ably not optimal as it has been shown that both core and
muscle temperature decreases during a passive half-time
period (Mohr et al., 2004; Lovell et al., 2007, 2013).
Moreover, those studies also reported that as a conse-
quence of the decrements in core and muscle tempera-
ture, the soccer players’ exercise capacity was impaired
including sprint, jump, and dynamic strength perfor-
mances. Thus, this sequence of event with passive seated
half-time recovery, decreased muscle temperature, and
impaired exercise capacity might at least, in part, be the
cause of the reduced amount of high-intensity running
seen during the initial phase of the second half in soccer
matches.
The issue of re-warm up before the second half during
90-min soccer matches is poorly studied and has been
addressed in only two reports (Mohr et al., 2004; Lovell
et al., 2013). Nevertheless, both of these two novel
papers suggest that a short-active re-warm up regime
(7 min of low-to-moderate aerobic running exercises at
approximately 70% of HRmax as a component of the latter
part of the 15-min half-time period) is an efficient
method to maintain elevated muscle temperature and
preserve sprint and jump performance over the half-time
period. However, both of these studies have some limi-
tations that need to be considered. First, both studies
were conducted on amateur players. Second, the study
design included either a friendly match where the
players repeatedly were replaced by substitute players
during muscle temperature sampling or a soccer game
simulation agility course aiming to replicate a competi-
tive match.
Thus, it is still unknown whether the proposed impair-
ments in sprint and jump performance after the half-time
period also are present in well-trained professional
players during real soccer matches and subsequently if a
half-time re-warm up regime outlined as above is an
effective method to attenuate such potential decreases in
performance capacity. Finally, it is also unknown
whether there are any connections between the reduced
performance capacity (i.e., sprint and jump perfor-
mance) and the reduced amount of high-intensity
running that are often observed during the initial part of
the second half, and whether a re-warm up during the
half-time period also results in an increased amount of
high-intensity running performed in the initial phase of
the second half.
Therefore, the aims of this investigation were to study
the effect of an active re-warm up program as a part of
the half-time period during match play in professional
soccer players. More specifically we investigated (a)
changes in maximal sprint performance and counter-
movement jump (CMJ) performance and (b) movement
pattern and technical skill during the initial 15 min of
each half.
Methods
Participants
Twenty-two male professional soccer players with a mean age of
25 (range: 18–33) years, an average height of 182 (175–195) cm,
and a mean body mass of 78.6 (69.3–93.6) kg playing in the same
team in the top league in Sweden (Allsvenskan) participated in the
study. The players participated in two 90-min matches separated
by 6 days of regular training. Only field players with complete test
data from both matches were included in the statistical analysis.
Three players were not able to complete both matches due to
injuries (one during the first match and two during training
between the matches).
Thus, a total of 17 players were included in the analysis. All
players were informed of the experimental procedures and pos-
sible discomforts associated with the study before giving their
written consent to participate. The study was conducted in accor-
dance with the guidelines set by the Swedish Central Ethical
Review Board.
Experimental design
The players were divided into two teams according to playing
position and coach-evaluated skill level. The selection of the two
teams was made in close collaboration with the head coach to
make sure that the teams were of equal skill level. Thereafter, two
90-min matches separated by 6 days of training were completed
with the same subjects playing the same field position in the same
team during both matches. During the 3 days preceding each
match, training was standardized and consisted of low-intensity
soccer training. Before the start of each match, players performed
a 30-min standardized warm up, consisting of low-to-moderate
speed running, light individual calisthenics, and stretching exer-
cises followed by short bursts of high-speed running and different
playing exercises with the ball at a moderate intensity. During the
first match, the control group (CON) had a traditional 15-min
half-time period in the break between the first and the second half
of the game (including seated passive recovery, rehydration, and
coaching instructions), whereas the experimental group performed
a re-warm up regime (RW) essentially as described by Mohr et al.
(2004).
Thus, the RW protocol consisted of 7 min of traditional passive
rest (as described above), followed by 7 min of low-/moderate-
intensity jogging and light calisthenics at 70% of maximal heart
rate. The RW regime ended 1 min before the start of the second
half. The study was conducting using a crossover design, so that
the team who had the traditional half-time rest in the first match
performed the RW regime in the second game and vice versa.
To mirror a real competitive match as much as possible, the two
teams were separated during the matches, using separate dressing
room, test stations, and performed the half-time activities sepa-
rately. In addition, the two matches were supervised by official
referees with extensive experience from the top Swedish soccer
league. To minimize the influence of match tactics on individual
movement patterns, the playing system and tactics were standard-
ized in close collaboration with the head coach, as defensive/
offensive tactics might result in large inter-individual variation in
the amount of high-intensity running among players (Bradley
et al., 2011). During the matches the teams only had support of an
assistant coach, whose role was to assist and remind the players of
the preordained tactics.
Edholm et al.
2
The player’s net fluid loss during the matches was determined
by weighing the players without clothes immediately before and
after the matches, using a digital scale (Seca 708, Seca Ltd.,
Birmingham, UK). The players were allowed to drink water ad
libitum during the matches and their fluid intake was measured.
The fluid loss was calculated as fluid loss body weight +fluid
intake. The players wore soccer boots and clothing during all
trials, and were instructed to refrain from consumption of caffeine
(24 h) and alcohol (48 h) before each trial. The players maintained
their usual diet throughout the study period. We noted similar
weather conditions (5 vs 6 °C, 87% vs 84% humidity and 3 vs
2 m/s wind) when the two matches were played.
Performance tests
The players completed performance tests on three occasions: (a)
after the pre-match warm up, before start of the first half; (b) after
the first half, before start of half-time period; and (c) after the
half-time period just before the start of the second half (Fig. 1). All
the players were familiarized to all of the testing procedures 1
week before the first experimental day.
Each test occasion included two maximal 10-m sprints and two
maximal CMJs. The tests were always performed in the same
order during all test occasion. The 10-m sprint tests were per-
formed on grass at the side of the field with players wearing soccer
boots. Each player performed two trials separated by a 90-s walk
back recovery and the best result was used for data analysis. The
players were instructed to start with their feet in a parallel position
standing behind a mark, which were placed 0.5 m behind the first
set of photocells. The players were also instructed not to do any
kind of backward movement with the upper body or the feet, as
such procedure allowed the player to break the first photocell with
a forward acceleration movement and thereby reducing the sprint
time. Sprint time was recorded by infrared light sensor, with a
precision of 0.01 s and placed at a height of 1.0 m (Musclelab
4000, Ergotest, Oslo, Norway).
Immediately after the sprint test, the players performed two
maximal CMJs separated by 90 s of rest. The jumps were per-
formed indoors on a 25-mm hard tartan rubber carpet, which
allowed the player to perform the jumps while wearing soccer
boots. The best result was used for data analysis. The CMJ started
from a standing position with hands fixed to the hips. To make sure
that the player landed on their toes (with ankles in a dorsal flexion
position), the players were instructed to perform a small post-jump
direct after landing (not measured). This procedure ensured that
the players were jumping and landing on the ground with their toes
first and with straight legs, consequently giving a correct time
in the air. Jumping height was measured using portable
MicroMusclelab (Ergotest) units connected to infrared light rails.
Jumping height was calculated as h=tf2·g·8
1where h=jump
height, t=time in air, and g=gravity. Each team had their own
test station (sprint and jump) to make sure that the performance
test took a minimum amount of time.
Movement patterns and heart rate
During both matches all field players were filmed close up
throughout the first 15 min of each half (Fig. 1) using 20 digital
video cameras (Canon DM-MV 600, Canon Inc., Tokyo, Japan).
An additional camera was used to follow the ball. The cameras
were positioned at the side of the pitch, at the level of the midway
line, at a height of about 15 m, and at a distance of 30–40 m from
the touchline. The recordings were later replayed on a monitor for
computerized coding of activity pattern as described in detailed by
Bangsbo et al. (1991). The following locomotion categories were
used: standing (0 km/h), walking (6 km/h), jogging (8 km/h), low-
speed running (12 km/h), moderate-speed running (15 km/h),
high-speed running (18 km/h), sprinting (30 km/h), and backward
running (10 km/h). The locomotion categories were chosen in
accordance with previous studies (Bangsbo et al., 1991; Mohr
et al., 2003). High-intensity running was defined as all runs with
speeds above 15 km/h (encompassing moderate-speed running,
high-speed running, and sprinting). The number of occurrences of
each activity was recorded in each of the first 15 min of each half
in both matches. The distance covered in each activity for each
interval was determined as the product of the total time spent in
that activity category and mean speed for that activity. The total
distance covered during the first 15 min of each half was calcu-
lated as the sum of the distance covered during each type of
activity. The number of shoots, dribbles, and passing was counted
and possession of the ball was analyzed.
Offensive high-intensity runs were defined as high-intensity
runs while the team had possession of the ball. The pitch was
divided into three zones (defending zone (team 1)/attacking zone
(team 2), neutral zone, and attacking zone (team 1)/defending zone
(team 2). The neutral zone was defined as 19 m on each half of the
pitch from the halfway line. Effective playing time was defined as
the total playing time minus time used for stoppages. Data from
each 15-min period were subsequently divided into 5-min periods.
All recordings were analyzed by the same experienced observer.
Prior to the present analysis the experienced observed analyzed the
same matches not related to the present study with 6 months
between the analysis and a coefficient of variation for test–retest
analysis of <5% for each locomotion activity was found. The
observer was blinded for re-warm up regimes in both matches. The
recordings from the first and the second half of each match as well
as players from both teams were analyzed in a random order. Heart
rate was monitored in 5-s intervals throughout the games including
the half-time periods using Polar System heart rate monitors (Polar
Electro OY, Kempele, Finland).
Statistical analysis
Statistical analysis was performed using SigmaStat software
(version 12.0, Systat Software Inc., San Jose, California, USA).
Changes in sprint and jump performance, movement pattern, and
ball skill and technical standards were evaluated by a two-way
analysis of variance with repeated measures. When a significant
Test 1 Test 2 Test 3
Warm up 30 min 1st half 45 min
Half-time rest
15 min
(CON/RW) 2nd half 45 min
Heart rate monitoring
Video filming
15 min
Video filming
15 min
Fig. 1. Schematic view of the experimental design during the two matches. Sideward arrows denote end of filming; upward arrows
denote test of sprint and jump performance.
Half-time re-warm up and soccer performance
3
interaction was detected, data were subsequently analyzed using a
Newman–Keuls post-hoc test. Effect sizes (ESs; η2) were calcu-
lated and values of 0.01, 0.06, and >0.15 were considered small,
medium, and large, respectively (Cohen, 1988). Test–retest analy-
sis revealed high-reliability coefficient for both CMJ and 10-m
sprint (α=0.97 and 0.93), respectively. The differences in heart
rate between the matches and the first and second half were tested
with Student’s paired t-test. Correlation between two variables
was assessed using Pearson’s correlation coefficient. P-val-
ues <0.05 were considered statistically significant. Data are pre-
sented as mean ±standard deviation unless otherwise stated.
Results
Sprint performance
A significant time ×condition interaction was found for
10-m sprint performance (P=0.014; η2=0.05, i.e.,
small ES). Post-hoc test revealed that no differences in
the player’s 10-m sprint performance were found before
the first half between re-warm up (RW) and control
condition (CON) (1.89 ±0.04 vs 1.88 ±0.06 s). After
the first half sprint performance was reduced by 3%
during both RW and CON to 1.95 ±0.06 and
1.93 ±0.05 s, respectively (P<0.05). Immediately after
the half-time period, sprint performance was further
reduced by another 2.6% during CON (1.98 ±0.06 s),
whereas no further change was observed after RW
(1.94 ±0.05 s, P<0.05 vs CON; Fig. 2(a)).
Jump performance
Also for CMJ a significant time ×condition interaction
was found (P=0.043; η2=0.05, ES =small). Post-hoc
test revealed that before the start of matches, there were
no differences in the players’ CMJ performance between
RW and CON (38.7 ±3.7 vs 39.0 ±2.9 cm) and after the
first half CMJ performance was still unchanged during
both RW and CON (38.7 ±3.8 and 39.4 ±3.8 cm,
respectively). However, directly after the half-time
period CMJ performance was significantly reduced by
3.1% during RW (37.5 ±3.7 cm) and 7.6% during CON
(36.4 ±3.9 cm), with a larger (P<0.05) reduction in
CON than in RW (Fig. 2(b)). Before the start of match,
there was a significant correlation between sprint and
CMJ performance during both RW and CON (r=−0.52,
P<0.05 and r=−0.58, P<0.05 for RW and CON,
respectively), whereas no such correlations were
observed after the first half or after the half-time period.
Heart rate
The mean heart rate for the players during the two
matches were 162 ±10 and 164 ±10 beats/min for RW
and CON, respectively, which corresponded to
84% ±2% (RW) and 85% ±2% (CON) of maximal
heart rate. The average heart rate was higher (P<0.05)
during the first half compared with the second half of the
matches during both RW (167 ±7vs157±12 beats/
min) and CON (167 ±8vs161±11 beats/min). More-
over, the average heart rate was also higher (P<0.05)
during the first 5 and 15 min of the first half compared
with the second half both in RW (163 ±7vs159±10
and 168 ±8vs161±12 beats/min) and CON matches
(164 ±9 vs 158 ±14 and 168 ±9vs163±12 beats/
min). Immediately before start of the second half, the
heart rate was higher (P<0.05) after RW compared with
CON (117 ±10 vs 109 ±12 beats/min), and the time for
the heart rate to increase to values taxing average heart
rate of the second half was faster (P<0.05) after RW
(71 ±34 s) compared with CON (129 ±44 s; Fig. 3).
Weight loss
The average body weight loss for the players was
0.9 ±0.3 and 1.0 ±0.3 kg during RW and CON
#
*
#
*
#
(a) (b)
Pre 1st half
Time (min) Time (min)
Pre 2nd halfPost 1st half
0
Pre 1st half Pre 2nd halfPost 1st half
101
100
99
98
97
96
95
94
93
0
104
102
100
98
96
94
92
90
88
RW
CON
RW
CON
% of pre-match sprint performance
% of pre-match jump performance
Fig. 2. Ten-meter sprint performance (a) and countermovement jump performance (b) during soccer matches. Closed bars ()
represent re-warm up (RW) condition and open bars () represent control (CON) condition during half-time rest. N=17. Data are
presented as means ±standard error of the mean. #P<0.05 post first half vs pre second half. *P<0.05 RW vs CON.
Edholm et al.
4
condition matches, respectively. The fluid intake was
0.3 ±0.2 kg (RW) and 0.3 ±0.2 kg (CON); thus, the cal-
culated total fluid loss was 1.2 ±0.4 kg (1.5% ±0.3% of
body weight) and 1.3 ±0.3 kg (1.7% ±0.3% body
weight) during RW and CON, respectively. There were
no significant differences between RW and CON condi-
tion matches regarding fluid loss.
Match activities, distance covered, and technical skill
Total distance covered during the initial part of the
second half was significantly shorter than during the first
half for both RW (9%, P<0.001) and CON (4%,
P<0.05), with a larger drop in RW compared with CON
(P<0.05, η2=0.02, ES =small). No significant interac-
tion was observed for distance covered with high-
intensity running (P=0.294) or sprinting (P=0.804).
Re-warm up during half time had no effect on the
number of high-intensity runs or sprints as no
time ×condition interaction was found. When focusing
on the initial 5 min of each half the statistical
analysis showed no significant time ×condition
interactions (Table 1).
Defensive and offensive high-intensity runs
For the distance covered with defensive high-intensity
running, a significant time ×group interaction was
observed (P<0.05, η2=0.06, ES =medium) and post-
hoc tests showed that this distance was lower in the
initial 15 min of the second compared with the first half
(0.14 ±0.06 vs 0.21 ±0.07 km, P<0.01) in RW but
not in CON (0.22 ±0.07 vs 0.21 ±0.11 km). The
defensive high-intensity running distance was different
between the two conditions in the second (P<0.01)
but not in the first half (P=0.937). These differences
between the two conditions were due to the number
of defensive high-intensity runs, which decreased
(P<0.05) in the second half for RW (13.9 ±5.7 vs
22.3 ±7.8) but not for CON (21.1 ±4.8 vs
22.9 ±10.6), whereas no difference was observed in the
mean length of the defensive high-intensity runs for
either RW (10 ±2vs10±2 m) or CON (10 ±2vs
9±2 m). No difference was observed in offensive
high-intensity running in the initial 15 min of each
half. In the initial 5 min of each half, a significant
interaction was found for the distance covered with
defensive high-intensity running (P<0.05, η2=0.06,
ES =medium). Post-hoc tests showed that the distance
tended (P=0.095) to be lower in the second half
compared with the first half in RW (0.05 ±0.04 vs
0.08 ±0.03 km) but not in CON (0.08 ±0.04 vs
0.08 ±0.04 km) with a significant difference between
RW and CON in the second (P<0.01) but not in the
first half (P=0.683). No difference was observed in
the number of defensive high-intensity runs or the
mean distance of those runs. Moreover, no significant
interactions were found for the distance covered with
or the number of offensive high-intensity running
during the initial 5 min of each half.
Effective playing time
The effective playing time was 69% ±1% for the initial
15 min of the second half and 80% ±0% for the similar
period in the first half. Also for the initial 5 min of each
half less effective playing time was observed for the
second half compared with the first half (67% ±10% vs
75% ±6%).
(a)
Heart rate (beats/min)
(b)
*
0
180
170
160
150
140
130
120
110
30 60 90
Time (s)
120 150 1800
Mean RW
Mean CON
Heart rate (beats/min)
0
180
170
160
150
140
130
120
110
30 60 90
Time (s)
120 150 1800
Mean RW
Mean CON
Fig. 3. Mean heart rate kinetics response during the initial 3 min of (a) first half and (b) second half. Dashed line ( ) represent
re-warm up (RW) condition and dotted line ( ) represent control (CON) condition during half-time rest. N=17. Data are presented
as means ±standard error of the mean. *P<0.05 RW vs CON.
Half-time re-warm up and soccer performance
5
Match activities adjusted for effective playing time
When the match activities were related to effective
playing time and analyzed as distance covered per min
effective playing time (MEPT), a significant time ×con-
dition interaction was observed for total distance covered
(P<0.05, η2=0.02, ES =small) and post-hoc test
showed that a significant longer total distance was
covered in the first 15 min of the second half compared
with the same period in the first half for both RW
(0.17 ±0.02 vs 0.16 ±0.01 m per MEPT, P<0.05) and
CON (0.19 ±0.02 vs 0.17 ±0.02 m per MEPT,
P<0.001), with a shorter distance covered in RW than
CON in the first 15 min of the second half (P<0.001)
but not in the first half (P=0.120). In accordance
with the main analysis, high-intensity runs (P<0.05,
η2=0.05, ES =small) and sprinting (P<0.05,
η2=0.02, ES =small) were performed less frequent in
RW than in CON (3.3 ±0.7 vs 3.8 ±1.3 and 0.5 ±0.2 vs
0.6 ±0.2 times per MEPT).
Ball possession and specific actions
Ball possession increased in RW in both the initial 5 and
15 min in the second half compared with the correspond-
ing period in the first half. Moreover, the ball possession
increased in both the attacking and defending zone,
whereas ball possession in the neutral zone decreased in
both periods (Table 2).
The number of ball entries into the attacking zone was
12 and 11 in RW and 8 and 11 in CON in the first 15 min
of the second half compared with the similar period of
first half. In the initial 5 min of the second half and the first
half, the number of ball entries into the attacking zone was
4 and 3 in RW and 2 and 3 in CON, respectively.
The number of passes and dribbles was lower in the
second half compared with the first half for RW (100 ±4
vs 113 ±13 and 20 ±2vs26±11, respectively) and
CON (89 ±7vs108±9 and 17 ±4vs22±11), whereas
2±1 shots on goal in the second and 1 ±2 shots on goal
in the first half were observed in both conditions.
Table 1. Distance covered with and number of occurrences of sprinting, high-intensity running, and in total during the initial 5- and 15-min periods in the
first and second half after active half-time re-warm up (RW) or a passive half-time period (CON)
Distance (km) Sprinting High-intensity running Total
RW CON RW CON RW CON
First half 0–5 min 0.03 ±0.02 0.03 ±0.02 0.13 ±0.05 0.15 ±0.07 0.64 ±0.07 0.68 ±0.07
5–10 min 0.03 ±0.02 0.04 ±0.04 0.14 ±0.06 0.16 ±0.08 0.68 ±0.07 0.70 ±0.09
10–15 min 0.03 ±0.02 0.03 ±0.02 0.11 ±0.04 0.10 ±0.06 0.63 ±0.05 0.63 ±0.06
0–15 min 0.08 ±0.03 0.10 ±0.04 0.37 ±0.11 0.41 ±0.19 1.95 ±0.15 2.01 ±0.18
Second half 45–50 min 0.03 ±0.02 0.05 ±0.03 0.13 ±0.05 0.15 ±0.06 0.60 ±0.07 0.67 ±0.07
50–55 min 0.02 ±0.02 0.02 ±0.02 0.09 ±0.04 0.12 ±0.05 0.58 ±0.07 0.63 ±0.06
55–60 min 0.03 ±0.02 0.04 ±0.02 0.12 ±0.05 0.15 ±0.06 0.59 ±0.07 0.63 ±0.09
45–60 min 0.08 ±0.03 0.10 ±0.04 0.34 ±0.03 0.42 ±0.14 1.77 ±0.171.92 ±0.18*
No. of occurrences (n)
First half 0–5 min 1.8 ±1.4 2.4 ±1.5 14.1 ±6.4 15.7 ±6.7 102 ±14 102 ±9
5–10 min 1.8 ±1.4 2.8 ±1.9 14.3 ±3.6 15.8 ±6.6 104 ±9 102 ±13
10–15 min 1.9 ±1.1 1.7 ±1.2 11.3 ±4.1 11.5 ±5.8 95 ±893±11
0–15 min 5.4 ±2.8 6.9 ±2.4 39.6 ±10.4 43.0 ±17.4 301 ±19 296 ±30
Second half 45–50 min 2.0 ±1.2 2.4 ±1.5 12.6 ±4.7 14.7 ±6.7 97 ±12 101 ±13
50–55 min 1.1 ±1.1 1.4 ±1.9 8.3 ±3.2 12.3 ±6.6 82 ±12 88 ±12
55–60 min 1.9 ±1.1 2.1 ±1.2 12.4 ±3.7 13.7 ±5.8 88 ±10 90 ±13
45–60 min 5.1 ±1.9 6.0 ±1.7 33.2 ±6.9 40.7 ±11.7 267 ±27 278 ±34
N= 17. Distance covered (km) and number of occurrences (n) are expressed as average per player. Data are presented as means ±standard deviation.
*Denotes significantly different from RW (P<0.001).
Denotes significantly different from first half (P<0.05).
Denotes significantly different from first half (P<0.001).
Table 2. Possession of the ball during the initial 15 min of both halves in game with active half-time re-warm up (RW) or a passive half-time period (CON)
in total and possession of the ball in defending, neutral, and attacking zone
RW CON
Total
possession (%)
Defending
(%)
Neutral
(%)
Attacking
(%)
Total
possession (%)
Defending
(%)
Neutral
(%)
Attacking
(%)
0–15 min first half 53.7 20.1 24.2 9.5 46.3 18.2 20.6 7.5
0–15 min second half 57.2 23.5 22.3 11.2 43.0 14.2 19.8 8.9
0–5 min first half 46.7 19.0 21.9 5.8 53.3 22.0 22.2 8.8
0–5 min second half 55.2 27.8 19.9 7.5 44.8 18.9 17.6 8.3
Edholm et al.
6
Discussion
The main findings of the current study were that an
active half-time re-warm up (RW) regime attenuated the
decreases in sprint and jump performances observed
after traditional passive half-time period (CON) in pro-
fessional soccer match play. These findings are in line
with previous results obtained for sub-elite players
(Mohr et al., 2004; Lovell et al., 2013) and emphasized
that these types of performance decrements also occur in
well-trained professional soccer players during actual
match play.
The magnitude of the impaired sprint performance
after passive half-time period in this study (CON, 2.6%)
was similar to that reported by Mohr et al. (2004) (2.6%)
but lower than Lovell et al. (2013) (6.2%). These differ-
ences might be attributed to several different factors,
including the fact that Lovell et al. (2013) used a soccer
match simulation agility course to mimic a soccer game
instead of investigating changes in the player’s physical
performance capacity in relation to a real soccer match
play. Thus, the players movement pattern and exercise-
induced fatigue might have differed from actual soccer
match play. However, other factors such as starting pro-
cedure during the sprint test (3.0 vs 0.5 m rolling start)
and differences in the player’s physical capacity (sub-
elite vs professional soccer players) might also contrib-
ute to differences in sprint performance deteriorations.
In the study by Mohr et al. (2004), sprint performance
was measured through a repeated sprint test (3 ×30 m,
rest 25 s). However, movement analysis has revealed that
the mean distance of a single sprint during a soccer game
is 12–15 m and it is very seldom that players performed
high-intensity running over 30 m or longer (Reilly &
Thomas, 1976; Bangsbo et al., 1991; Valquer et al.,
1998; Mohr et al., 2003; Di Salvo et al., 2009).
Previous studies have also shown that while profes-
sional soccer players have a significantly better sprint
capacity over short distances (e.g., 10 m) than sub-elite
soccer players, such patterns do not seem to exist at
longer distance (e.g., 30 m) (Cometti et al., 2001; Stolen
et al., 2005). This suggests that long sprint distances
such as a 30-m dash do not mirror actual game situa-
tions. Thus, from a physiological point of view it might
be argued that data on performance capacity over shorter
distance such as 10 m that were used in the current study
are more relevant if the aim is to examine professional
soccer players’ maximal sprint performance capacity.
Nevertheless, result from the current study supports the
previous findings by Mohr et al. (2004) and Lovell et al.
(2013) in that a short, low-intensity re-warm up program
is an efficient method to limit the decrements in sprint
performances observed during traditional passive half-
time period in soccer players.
In the present study, jump performance was signifi-
cantly reduced after the half-time period during both
RW and CON condition (pre half-time period vs post
half-time period). However, the RW regime was associ-
ated with a reduction in the CMJ performance deterio-
ration as the decrease jump height was significantly
lower after RW compared with CON condition (3.1% vs
7.6%). This indicates that the RW regime at least to some
extent also had a positive effect on preserving jump
capacity over the half-time period in professional soccer
players. Studies investigating the effect of different
warm up protocols on jump performance in well-trained
athletes have shown that warm up protocols, which
include some brief but high-loading exercises such as
jumping or squats with heavy load, are more efficient in
improving the jumping ability than a traditional warm up
(5-min jogging and some half-squats with low load)
(Saez Saez de Villarreal et al., 2007). In line with this,
Gullich and Schmidtbleicher (1996) suggest that in
addition to elevated muscle temperature, the warm
up-induced increases in jump performance might also be
ascribed to an increased recruitment of higher order
motor units. Thus, it might be that the RW regime, which
consisted of low-intensity jogging and light calisthenics,
should be modified to contain some brief but more
neuromuscularly challenging stimuli such as squat
jumping in order to increase its efficiency regarding
preservation of the players jump performance.
After RW players restarted the game with higher heart
rate levels than after CON condition (+7.3%) and were
able to reach mean second half heart rate values faster
than after CON (Fig. 3(b)). Previous studies have
reported that a close relationship exists between heart
rate and oxygen uptake responses during varying non-
steady states activities (Bot & Hollander, 2000) and
faster oxygen uptake kinetics and the ability to maintain
sprint performance during repeated sprints (Dupont
et al., 2010). Therefore, the association between RW and
both faster recruitment of the aerobic system and
reduced contribution of anaerobic metabolism to meet
the metabolic demand appears to be a reasonable
hypothesis.
In this study, the muscle temperature of the players
was not measured and this could be regarded as a limi-
tation. The reason for not including such measurement
was that this procedure would have either required an
extended half-time period or that the players were tem-
porarily taken out of the game for sampling, as per-
formed in the study by Mohr et al. (2004). As one of the
aims of the present study was to investigate the re-warm
up concept during real match play and to evaluate its
potential effect on movement pattern both of those
options were excluded. Moreover, previous studies have
repeatedly shown that muscle temperature decreases
during passive half-time rest and that a RW regime such
as that utilized in this study inhibits such decreases
(Mohr et al., 2004; Lovell et al., 2013). Mohr et al.
(2004) also reported that there was a correlation between
changes in muscle temperature and repeated sprint per-
formance over the half-time period, suggesting that
Half-time re-warm up and soccer performance
7
muscle temperature has a key role in the reduced physi-
cal performance capacity seen in soccer players after the
half-time period. However, other mechanisms such as
increased neuromuscular function, elevated blood flow
in working muscle, and oxygen uptake kinetics could
also be involved (Hodgson et al., 2005). Nevertheless,
the exact mechanism through which soccer players’ per-
formance capacity is compromised during passive half-
time rest, and consequently that a RW regime effectively
attenuates remains unclear, thus warrants further
research.
The second key finding of this study was that the total
distance covered was lowered from the initial 15 min of
first half to the initial 15 min of the second half in both
RW and CON, but to a higher extent in RW (9% vs 4%,
respectively). Interestingly, no significant interaction
was found for distance covered with high-intensity
running and sprinting; thus, high-intensity running was
not lowered in the initial 15 min of the second half as
often observed (Mohr et al., 2003, 2005; Bradley et al.,
2009; Weston et al., 2011) in neither RW nor CON.
The lower physical match performance observed in
RW may be related to lower physical demands as it was
observed that ball possession was higher in RW. A pre-
vious study has shown that a team’s physical perfor-
mance is related to the level and performance of the
opposing team (Rampinini et al., 2007). Moreover,
another study by the same research group showed that
successful teams covered less total distance, high-
intensity running, and very high-intensity running than
less successful teams, but covered significantly more
distance with possession of the ball in the same catego-
ries (Rampinini et al., 2009). Similar findings have been
shown in another study (Di Salvo et al., 2009), indicating
that high-intensity running distance covered with or
without the ball may be a better indicator of performance
although it should be noticed that ES were small to
moderate. Thus, the shorter distance observed in RW in
this present study may simply be a consequence of their
higher percentage of ball possession and therefore higher
physical demands put on CON chasing and trying to
regain possession of the ball. It should however be noted
that the ES on almost all workload parameters were only
small. Although the used design tries to limit confound-
ing variables, match-to-match variation in workload,
especially high-intensity running and sprinting, between
consecutive soccer matches has been shown to be high,
which complicates the use of real matches when evalu-
ating interventions and therefore possibly resulting in
small ESs (Gregson et al., 2010).
Few studies have highlighted the importance of relat-
ing workload to the effective playing time instead of only
total playing time as these parameters may vary from
game to game and throughout the periods of the game
(Castellano et al., 2011; Dellal et al., 2013). In this study,
the effective playing time was 11% and 8% lower in the
initial 15- and 5-min period of the second half compared
with the corresponding periods in first half. However, as
most high-intensity running is performed during effec-
tive playing time (Castellano et al., 2011), we divided
distances covered with the effective playing time in the
respective periods as applied by others (Lago-Peñas
et al., 2012; Dellal et al., 2013). When related to the
effective playing time, more total distance was covered
in the first 15 min of the second half compared with the
similar period in the first half, which is in contrast to
when analyzed as total time. Moreover, when related to
effective playing time more high-intensity running and
sprinting was performed in the initial phase of the
second half than in the first half. Although relating work-
load to effective playing time changed the results regard-
ing differences between the first and second half, no shift
was observed in the relation between RW and CON.
Thus, CON had a higher workload than RW during the
initial part of the second half. This may also be explained
by the higher ball possession in RW, and thereby more
ball chasing by CON. Moreover, these results highlight
the importance of taking effective playing time into
account when comparing workload between different
periods of a match or between matches.
It might be argued that the type of RW regime used in
this study could result in accumulated fatigue and thus
compromise the player’s ability to perform maximally
during the later stage of the game (e.g., through acceler-
ated glycogen depletion (Gollnick et al., 1973), dehydra-
tion (Edwards et al., 2007), and/or increased thermal
heat strain (Nadel et al., 1980). However, results from
both Mohr et al. (2004) and Lovell et al. (2013) contra-
dict this speculation as no differences in muscle tem-
perature or sprint performance were observed during the
later stage of the game when comparing traditional
passive half-time period and an active re-warm up
regime. Moreover, although HR was elevated after per-
forming RW, no differences in HR were observed during
the later part of the second half and no differences in
fluid loss (1.5% vs 1.7% of body weight) were seen
between RW and CON matches. Accordingly, this type
of short-to-moderate intensity RW regime does not
induce additional fatigue and therefore does not compro-
mise the player’s performance capacity during later
stage of match.
Although outside the scope of this study and accord-
ingly not investigated here, it is very interesting to note
that several researchers have reported an increased risk
of muscle injury (i.e., non-contact injuries) during the
initial stage of the second half of match play in soccer
(Hawkins & Fuller, 1996; Rahnama et al., 2002). As it is
well known that a decrement in muscle temperatures
such as those typically reported after passive half-time
period in soccer players (1.5–2.0 °C) (Mohr et al., 2004;
Lovell et al., 2013) is associated with an increase risk of
muscle injuries (Safran et al., 1989), and that a re-warm
up regime such as that utilized in this study attenuates
such decrements (Mohr et al., 2004; Lovell et al., 2013),
Edholm et al.
8
it might be speculated that half-time re-warm up also is
an effective method to prevent muscle injuries during the
initial phase of the second half. Thus, the potential of
half-time re-warm up regimes as an injury prevention
tool in professional soccer warrants further research.
In summary, the present study demonstrates that a
traditional passive half-time period during soccer match
play results in impaired sprint and jump performance
during the initial phase of the second half in professional
soccer players and that a re-warm up protocol effectively
attenuates such deteriorations. Despite an increased
physical work capacity, RW did not increase the amount
of high-intensity running performed by the players
during the initial phase of the second half. Nevertheless,
time–motion analysis did reveal a higher ball possession
and less defensive high-intensity sprints after RW, which
indicates a game advantage at the onset of the second
half.
Perspectives
This study adds to the growing body of evidence
showing that a traditional passive half-time period
during soccer match causes temporary impairment in the
players’ physical performance capacity and, accord-
ingly, is not an optimal procedure to prepare the players
for the second half of the game. The study also shows
that if a short-duration low-intensity re-warm up regime
is performed during the second part of the half-time
period, such deteriorations in performance capacity are
diminished or neutralized. Moreover, time–motion
analysis revealed that inclusion of such a re-warm up
regime might result in game advantages as players
increased their ball possession and reduced their amount
of defensive high-intensity running during the initial
phase of the second half after re-warm up. Taken
together, the enhanced performance capacity in profes-
sional soccer players after an active re-warm up regime
might contribute to decisive actions during the initial
phase of the second half of the game. As the initial phase
of the second half during soccer match also has been
identified as a period of increased “vulnerability” to inju-
ries (Reilly & Hardiker, 1981), the results from this
study provide a strong rationale for professional soccer
team to evaluate and adapt their half-time period regime
so that the players are optimally physically prepared to
perform during the first part of the second half in com-
petitive matches.
Key words: Football, high-intensity exercise, sprint per-
formance, countermovement jump, time–motion analysis.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to gratefully acknowledge the assistance
from Jimmy Högberg, Johan Svensson, and Mattias Olsson; the
cooperation with the coaches and soccer players participating in
this study; and the financial support from the Swedish Football
Association.
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Edholm et al.
10
... However, passive recovery often leads to a significant drop in body temperature, which impairs neuromuscular function and decreases performance in high-intensity actions such as sprinting and jumping (Gonzalez et al., 2023). This cooling effect slows reaction times and reduces muscle power, ultimately contributing to a decline in game-specific sharpness that adversely impacts decision-making and reaction efficiency (Edholm et al., 2014). Such effects can drastically affect performance during the first 15-min of the 2 nd -half, a period in which players experience the highest frequency of maximum speed actions, regardless of their position (Oliva-Lozano et al., 2022). ...
... For example, a study by Ltifi et al. (2023a) demonstrated that a brief 3minute Re-w using weighted vests at 5% and 10% of body mass significantly improved 20-m sprint performance in U15 elite soccer players, highlighting the effectiveness of shorter, low-load (micro-dose) interventions. Similarly, Re-w involving 7-min of low to moderate-intensity jogging and light calisthenics enhanced sprint and jump performance (Edholm et al., 2014). High-intensity Re-w (i.e., leg-press at 5-repetition maximum) also improved flighttime to contraction-time ratio (9.4%), peak velocity (4%), mean velocity (3%), and acceleration (18%) in soccer players (Zois et al., 2013). ...
... The metaanalysis presented in a recent systematic review revealed moderate and significant beneficial effects of Re-w protocols on CMJ (Gonzalez et al., 2023). In addition, previous studies have demonstrated positive effects of a Re-w on vertical jump, minimizing loss (Edholm et al., 2014) or enhancing performance (Zois et al., 2013) in a CMJ compared to a situation involving passive recovery. Although PAP using heavy loads seems to offer a superior neuromuscular stimulus for enhancing vertical jump performance (Lum and Chen, 2020), implementing this strategy presents some challenges that are difficult to overcome in the context of soccer competition. ...
... These passive periods have the potential to nullify the positive metabolic effects of the warmup, thereby increasing the risk factors for injury, particularly in the lower limb. 3,19 hence, this discussion aims to explore the practical applicability of re-warmup during the periods between the warmup and the start of the match, and during the half-time break of the match. ...
... 18 The author recommends moderate-intensity aerobic exercise (70% of maximum heart rate) during the interval to avoid the negative effects associated with interval sedentariness. a study by edholm et al. 19 studied two male professional players who performed traditional passive rest and lowintensity warmup during half-time of two soccer games. Sprinting and jumping performance were reduced by 2.6% and 7.6%, respectively, during half-time in the passive rest athlete, while sprinting performance was maintained, and the decline in jumping performance (3.1%) was less after re-warmup. ...
Article
INTRODUCTION: Passive time, during the post-warmup and half-time, decreases athletes’ performance and increases injury risk factors in the active phases of the soccer match. Objective. This narrative review aims to research and synthesize existing evidence to identify brief re-warmup strategies that may find applicability in the post-warmup and half-time of a soccer match. EVIDENCE ACQUISITION: The analysis was conducted on PubMed, Web of Science, PEDro, SPORTDiscus and Google Scholar. Due to the lack of evidence, no temporal time was established, preferring most up-to-date articles. The data were synthesized in relation to the objectives, following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines. EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS: Our research yielded a total of 753 studies, 463 related to re-warmup, 136 articles on re-warmup in soccer, and 154 articles on re-warmup during half-time. Of these, 26 met the inclusion objectives and were included in this research. Our findings confirm that a re-warmup can mitigate the decremental effect of static rest on performance. From the studies considered, we have identified a work that emphasizes how a 1-minute warmup of high-intensity exercise at speed corresponding to 90% of VO2max can prevent decreases related to passive time, in sprint performance and muscle strength, as well as improve muscle temperature. These results could apply to both post-warmup and half-time scenarios of a soccer match. CONCLUSIONS: From this narrative review, it has been possible to highlight a one-minute high-intensity re-warmup that improved sprint performance, increased core temperature, and enhanced muscle activation, not leading to additional physiological or psychological fatigue.
... On the other hand, a correlation between lower muscle and core temperature and the decrease in sprint performance was observed in soccer after a passive half-time period [32]. Some other studies also found significant differences in running performances after inactivity [31,34,55]. However, our speed test results were different from these findings, perhaps due to the different methodology used. ...
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In team handball, coaches can make unlimited substitutions, allowing players to enter the game at any time, even if they haven't been active on the bench. The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of inactivity following a warm-up on the physical performance and physiological responses of female elite team handball players. The secondary aim of the study was to examine a possible connection between the examined parameters. Twelve female adult elite field handball players (n = 12; age, 31.9 ± 4.05 years; weight, 66.1 ± 5.8 kg; height 173 ± 3.8 cm and body mass index, 2.2 ± 0.2 kg/cm2) were examined. All tests were assessed in two distinct situations: (a) immediately after warm-up (T1-AW) and (b) after a 15-minute inactivity period (T2-IP). The physical tests performed were: countermovement jump with arms fixed (CMJ AF), squat jump (SJ), medicinal ball rotational throw test right (MBTT-R) and medicinal ball rotational throw test left (MBTT-L) and 10 m acceleration test (TA 10m). Heart rate (HR) was me
... On the other hand, a correlation between lower muscle and core temperature and the decrease in sprint performance was observed in soccer after a passive half-time period [32]. Some other studies also found significant differences in running performances after inactivity [31,34,55]. However, our speed test results were different from these findings, perhaps due to the different methodology used. ...
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In team handball, coaches can make unlimited substitutions, allowing players to enter the game at any time, even if they haven't been active on the bench. The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of inactivity following a warm-up on the physical performance and physiological responses of female elite team handball players. The secondary aim of the study was to examine a possible connection between the examined parameters. Twelve female adult elite field handball players (n = 12; age, 31.9 ± 4.05 years; weight, 66.1 ± 5.8 kg; height 173 ± 3.8 cm and body mass index, 2.2 ± 0.2 kg/cm2) were examined. All tests were assessed in two distinct situations: (a) immediately after warm-up (T1-AW) and (b) after a 15-minute inactivity period (T2-IP). The physical tests performed were: countermovement jump with arms fixed (CMJ AF), squat jump (SJ), medicinal ball rotational throw test right (MBTT-R) and medicinal ball rotational throw test left (MBTT-L) and 10 m acceleration test (TA 10m). Heart rate (HR) was measured during warm-up and at T2-IP, while body temperature (BT), lactic acid (LA), serum glucose (G), and blood oxygen saturation (SpO2) were measured at T1-AW and T2-IP. Significant differences were found at T2-IP for RSI1 (t= 2.88, p < 0.01) and PP (t= 2.24, p < 0.05), specific to CMJ AF and RSI1 (t= 3.88, p < 0.01), and for PP specific to SJ (t= 2.28, p < 0.05). All physical indices correlated positively with the physiological ones. In addition, two significant correlations were identified, one between the decrease in the RSI 1-CMJ AF index and the PP-CMJ AF index (r=0.59, p<0.05) and another between the decline in the PP-SJ and Tc (r=0.60, p<0.05). The results obtained from the present study indicate that short-term inactivity can negate some of the physical and physiological benefits that players gain from warming up. The study revealed a significant reduction in certain parameters related to jump tests after a 15-minute period of inactivity. Moreover, it was observed that there is a direct correlation between the decrease in body temperature and the reduction in peak power specific to squat jump performance. This implies that lower body temperatures that result from a short period of inactivity can have a negative impact on jumping performance just before players enter the game.
... After the 45 min of passive rest, the tracksuit, muscle temperature probe and aural thermistor were removed and the participants returned to the indoor track to perform a 15-min re-warm-up, simulating the half-time period. Participants performed light ball work for the initial 5 min; in the following 7 min participants performed the soccer-specific aerobic field test agility course, involving a repeated 20-m soccer-specific runs based on targeting to maintain 70% HR Max (Edholm et al. 2014;Lovell et al. 2013;Mohr et al. 2004), allowing 3 min to travel to and from the indoor running track. Following this, participants again entered the environmental chamber for an additional 45 min to replicate the role of a substitute for the 2nd half of a match. ...
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Purpose Soccer substitutes are exposed to periods of limited activity before entering match-play, likely negating benefits of active warm-ups. This study aimed to determine the effects of using a passive heat intervention following a pre-match, and half-time warm-up, on muscle and core temperature in soccer players during ambient (18 °C) and cold (2 °C) conditions. Methods On four occasions, 8 male players, completed a pre-match warm-up, followed by 45 min of rest. Following this, participants completed a half-time re-warm-up followed by an additional 45 min of rest, simulating a full match for an unplaying substitute. During periods of rest, participants wore either standardised tracksuit bottoms (CON), or heated trousers (HEAT), over typical soccer attire. Results Vastus lateralis temperature declined less in HEAT compared to CON following the 1st half in 2 °C (Δ − 4.39 ± 0.81 vs. − 6.21 ± 1.32 °C, P = 0.002) and 18 °C (Δ − 2.48 ± 0.71 vs. − 3.54 ± 0.88 °C, P = 0.003). These findings were also observed in the 2nd half for the 2 °C (Δ − 4.36 ± 1.03 vs. − 6.26 ± 1.04 °C, P = 0.002) and 18 °C (Δ − 2.85 ± 0.57 vs. − 4.06 ± 1 °C, P = 0.018) conditions. In addition, core temperature declined less in HEAT compared to CON following the 1st (Δ − 0.41 ± 0.25 vs. − 0.84 ± 0.41 °C, P = 0.037) and 2nd (Δ − 0.25 ± 0.33 vs. − 0.64 ± 0.34 °C, P = 0.028) halves of passive rest in 2 °C, with no differences in the 18 °C condition. Perceptual data confirmed that participants were more comfortable in HEAT vs. CON in 2 °C (P < 0.01). Conclusions Following active warm-ups, heated trousers attenuate the decline in muscle temperature in ambient and cold environments.
Article
The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of half-time simulated soccer matches on the sprint kinematics of amateur soccer players. This study was a pilot experimental study with a pre-test/post-test design. Eighteen amateur-level soccer players (age: 22.88±4.19 years) attending a preparatory camp for the senior national championship were recruited for the study. Baseline assessments of sprint kinematics using a 30 m linear sprint test were conducted before the simulated soccer match. The F-V profiling of the participants was the dependent variable. Post-assessments were conducted immediately after the simulation protocol. Although there were no statistically significant changes (p = 0.12 to 0.65) observed from pre- to post-test, trivial to small effect sizes were found, with percent changes ranging from 0% to 3.7%. The results showed that half-time simulation had a negative effect (i.e., trivial to small) on sprint kinematics in amateur-level soccer players. The findings of this study suggest that half-time simulated soccer matches negatively affect sprint kinematics in amateur-level soccer players.
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Introdução: A avaliação da recuperação dos atletas fornece informações valiosas sobre o estado de prontidão para realizar um novo estímulo, possibilitando o gerenciamento das cargas de treinamento, otimização e individualização do treinamento, redução dos riscos de lesões, detecção precoce de overreaching e minimização da possibilidade de overtraining. O estudo de ferramentas de avaliação das respostas fisiológicas e de métodos de prevenção de lesão sempre despertou interesse, tanto para atletas, quanto para cientistas do esporte que buscam aprimorar o rendimento esportivo e garantir a manutenção da saúde do atleta. Objetivo: Apresentar por meio de uma revisão narrativa as ferramentas mais utilizadas no futebol e no futsal para avaliar o dano muscular, estado de fadiga e recuperação. Metodologia: Trata-se de uma revisão narrativa na qual o conteúdo tomou como referência uma busca na base de dados Pubmed. O conteúdo foi estruturado em 6 tópicos, sendo eles: a) Biomarcadores sanguíneos; b) Circunferência dos membros c) Escalas psicométricas; d) Performance em Testes físicos; e) Termografia Infravermelha f) Variabilidade da Frequência cardíaca. Ao longo de cada tópico foram debatidos a fundamentação teórica, bem como, o momento de avaliação e os valores de referência de cada um dos parâmetros. Conclusão: Os achados nos permitem concluir que a avaliação de um conjunto de indicadores ajuda a caracterizar o dano muscular, a fadiga e qualidade de recuperação de forma mais abrangente, pois cada sintoma relaciona-se a algum marcador fisiológico específico. Além disso, foi observado que algumas ferramentas apresentadas já possuem um certo de nível de evidência e por isso sua aplicação no contexto prático já está bem estabelecida, como é caso de grande parte dos biomarcadores, da termografia, do salto com contramovimento e da variabilidade da frequência cardíaca. No entanto, outros parâmetros como a análise da circunferência dos membros, alguns biomarcadores como a relação testosterona/cortisol e até mesmo alguns testes de desempenho físico como o sprint, exigem um maior nível de evidência científica, garantindo assim um maior grau de confiabilidade e assertividade das avaliações realizadas.
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Background Strength and power represent two crucial physical qualities for the attainment of a high level of performance considering the frequency and the importance of explosive actions occurring during elite soccer match-play. Evaluation of strength and power is a multifaceted concept involving a vast array of tests and outcome variables. Nevertheless, a comprehensive and systematic search of strength and power assessment procedures in elite soccer has yet to be undertaken. Objectives The aims of this systematic review were to: (1) identify the tests and outcome variables used to assess strength and power of elite male soccer players; (2) provide normative values for the most common tests of strength and power across different playing levels; and (3) report the reliability values of these strength and power tests. Methods A systematic review of the academic databases MEDLINE, CINAHL, SPORTDiscus, Web of Science and OVID for studies published until August 2023 was conducted, following the Preferred Reporting Items of Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Studies were eligible for inclusion if they: (1) were original research studies, published in a peer-reviewed journal, and written in English language; (2) had the primary aim to assess strength and/or power; (3) players were male and older than 17 years of age (i.e., mean age of the group); and (4) their playing level was defined as “professional”, “international” or “elite”. Results Regarding strength testing, 115 studies and 29 different tests were identified. The three most frequent strength tests were the knee extensor isokinetic strength test (58 studies), the knee flexor isokinetic strength test (55 studies) and the Nordic hamstring strength test (13 studies). In terms of power testing, 127 studies with 31 different tests were included. The three most frequent power tests were the countermovement jump with hands fixed on hips (99 studies), the squat jump (48 studies) and the vertical jump with arm swing (29 studies). Conclusions The wide range of different tests and outcome variables identified in this systematic review highlights the large diversity in the employed testing procedures. The establishment of a hybrid testing approach, combining standardised and widely accepted tests for establishing normative standards and enabling comparisons across different contexts, with flexible context-specific testing batteries, has the potential to maximise the impact of testing information for practitioners. In addition, the limited reporting of reliability data across studies highlights the need for practitioners to establish their own reliability measure within their specific contexts, informing the selection of certain tests and outcome variables.
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Background: Soccer involves many physically challenging actions and engaging in such activities can induce a decline in performance due to physical fatigue which predisposes players to develop injuries. The present study aimed to examine the impact of post-match fatigue on functional performance and Inter-Limb Asymmetry Index (LSI) in adolescent soccer players. Methods: Thirty-eight adolescent male soccer players (15-18 years) completed a battery of functional performance measures (Rate of Perceived Exertion (RPE) scale, 10 m sprint, agility T-test, and Single leg hop for distance (SLHD) test). The data collection started prior to a soccer match and consisted of two testing sessions; two hours before the match, while the subsequent testing session was performed within two hours immediately following the match. Results: The study results revealed a significant effect of post-match fatigue on change of direction abilities and SLHD (moderate effect size). However, no significant differences were observed in the 10 m sprint test and LSI (P>0.05). Conclusions: Functional performance measures such as agility test and SLHD test can detect physical ability changes due to post-match fatigue in adolescent soccer players. The study findings offer insightful and practical information on the importance of employing field-based functional performance measures in monitoring players' recovery following a game.
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Objectives The warm-up (WU) and re-warm-up (R-WU) regimes in many team-sports, especially football and competition, plays an essential role in improving physical function and increasing communication between brain networks. The present study aimed to evaluate the effects of the R-WU on brain networks and physical performance in young soccer players. Methods After familiarizing the laboratory conditions, twelve young male soccer players (age 18.2 ± 0.5 years) performed only one WU protocol, which included 25 minutes and two parts of general and specialized warming up in one session. In addition to warming up in the next session, the participant performed an R-WU that included four sets of plyometric movements, five jumps from obstacles to a height of 40 cm, followed by crossing the agile ladder. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), 20 m speed, and Illinois test were used to evaluate the function of brain networks and physical function. Results The subjects showed a significant increase in the performance of both speed and agility in the R-WU session compared to the warm-up session (P ≤ 0.01). Also, a positive relationship was observed between the performance of default, executive, and attention networks in the R-WU session compared to the WU session (P ≤ 0.01, P ≤ 0.03). Conclusions The present study demonstrated that the R-WU program improved the relationship between brain networks and physical function in soccer players. Résumé Objectifs Les protocoles d’échauffement (WU) et de ré-échauffement (R-WU) dans de nombreux sports d’équipe, en particulier le football et la compétition, jouent un rôle essentiel dans l’amélioration de la fonction physique et l’augmentation de la communication entre les réseaux cérébraux. La présente étude visait à évaluer les effets du R-WU sur les réseaux cérébraux et la performance physique chez de jeunes footballeurs. Méthode Après familiarisation avec les conditions de laboratoire, 12 jeunes footballeurs masculins (âgés de 18,2 ± 0,5 ans) ont effectué un seul protocole WU, qui comprenait 25 minutes et deux parties d’échauffement général et spécialisé en une seule session. En plus de s’échauffer lors de la session suivante, le participant a effectué un R-WU qui comprenait quatre séries de mouvements pliométriques, cinq sauts d’obstacles à une hauteur de 40 cm, suivis d’un franchissement de l’échelle agile. L’imagerie par résonance magnétique fonctionnelle (fMRI), la vitesse de 20 m et le test de l’Illinois ont été utilisés pour évaluer la fonction des réseaux cérébraux et la performance physique. Résultats Les sujets ont montré une augmentation significative des performances de vitesse et d’agilité dans la session R-WU par rapport à la session d’échauffement (p ≤ 0,01). De plus, une relation positive a été observée entre les performances des réseaux par défaut, exécutif et d’attention dans la session R-WU par rapport à la session WU (p ≤ 0,01, p ≤ 0,03). Conclusion La présente étude a démontré que le programme R-WU améliorait la relation entre les réseaux cérébraux et la fonction physique chez les joueurs de football.
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The response of muscle to volitional or electrically induced stimuli is affected by its contractile history. Fatigue is the most obvious effect of contractile history reflected by the inability of a muscle to generate an expected level of force. However, fatigue can coexist with post-activation potentiation (PAP), which serves to improve muscular performance, especially in endurance exercise and activities involving speed and power. The measured response of muscular performance following some form of contractile activity is the net balance between processes that cause fatigue and the simultaneous processes that result in potentiation. Optimal performance occurs when fatigue has subsided but the potentiated effect still exists. PAP has been demonstrated using electrically induced twitch contractions and attributed to phosphorylation of myosin regulatory light chains, which makes actin and myosin more sensitive to Ca2+. The potentiated state has also been attributed to an increase in α-motoneuron excitability as reflected by changes in the H-reflex. However, the significance of PAP to functional performance has not been well established. A number of recent studies have applied the principles of PAP to short-term motor performance as well as using it as a rationale for producing long-term neuromuscular changes through complex training. Complex training is a training strategy that involves the execution of a heavy resistance exercise (HRE) prior to performing an explosive movement with similar biomechanical characteristics, referred to as a complex pair. The complex pair is then repeated for a number of sets and postulated that over time will produce long-term changes in the ability of a muscle to generate power. The results of these studies are equivocal at this time and, in fact, no training studies have actually been undertaken. The discrepancies among the results of the various studies is due in part to differences in methodology and design, with particular reference to the mode and intensity of the HRE, the length of the rest interval within and between the complex pairs, the type of explosive activity, the training history of the participants, and the nature of the dependent variables. In addition, few of the applied studies have actually included measures of twitch response or H-reflex to determine if the muscles of interest are potentiated. There is clearly more research required in order to clarify the functional significance of PAP and, in particular, the efficacy of complex training in producing long-term neuromuscular adaptations.
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While warm up is considered to be essential for optimum performance, there is little scientific evidence supporting its effectiveness in many situations. As a result, warm-up procedures are usually based on the trial and error experience of the athlete or coach, rather than on scientific study. Summarising the findings of the many warm-up studies conducted over the years is difficult. Many of the earlier studies were poorly controlled, contained few study participants and often omitted statistical analyses. Furthermore, over the years, warm up protocols consisting of different types (e.g. active, passive, specific) and structures (e.g. varied intensity, duration and recovery) have been used. Finally, while many studies have investigated the physiological responses to warm up, relatively few studies have reported changes in performance following warm up. The first part of this review critically analyses reported changes in performance following various active warm-up protocols. While there is a scarcity of well-controlled studies with large subject numbers and appropriate statistical analyses, a number of conclusions can be drawn regarding the effects of active warm up on performance. Active warm up tends to result in slightly larger improvements in short-term performance (10 seconds, but 2). While active warm up has been reported to improve endurance performance, it may have a detrimental effect on endurance performance if it causes a significant increase in thermoregulatory strain. The addition of a brief, task-specific burst of activity has been reported to provide further ergogenic benefits for some tasks. By manipulating intensity, duration and recovery, many different warm-up protocols may be able to achieve similar physiological and performance changes. Finally, passive warm-up techniques may be important to supplement or maintain temperature increases produced by an active warm up, especially if there is an unavoidable delay between the warm up and the task and/or the weather is cold. Further research is required to investigate the role of warm up in different environmental conditions, especially for endurance events where a critical core temperature may limit performance.
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This paper provides a large-scale study into the motion characteristics of top class soccer players, during match play, according to playing position. 432 top-class outfield soccer players were monitored during the 31 matches of the UEFA EURO 2008 using a computerized match analysis system. Data were analyzed using an analysis of variance (ANOVA) and a paired sample t-test. Results suggest that midfield players covered a significantly greater total distance than the groups of defenders and forwards did (p < 0.01). Significantly more distance was covered in the first half compared to the second (5136±468 m vs 5063±461, p<0.01). However, this difference may be explained by the fact that the effective playing time of the first half was significantly greater than the corresponding one for the second half of the match (27.4±2.2 min vs. 26.9±2.4 min, p<0.05). The findings suggest that the consideration of the effective playing time provides more precise information about competitive physicals demands.
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Abstract Recent research has challenged the typical pre-match and half-time (HT) interval warm-up (WU) routines currently used by professional soccer players. This study surveyed 2010/11 season WU strategies and their underpinning scientific reasoning and situational factors via an internet-based questionnaire, which was distributed to English Premier League and Championship practitioners, of which 43% responded. The pre-match WU duration was 30.8 (8.2) min, ranging between 15-45 min, and 89% of practitioners administered a WU of ≥ 25 min. Respondents also reported a 12.4 (3.8) min period between the end of the WU and match kick-off. Eighty-nine per cent recognised the physiological benefits of re-WUs during this "down-time" period, with 63% instructing players to engage in such activity. During HT, 58% instructed players to re-WU either on the pitch or within stadia facilities, but "unwillingness of the coach/manager" (42%) and a "lack of time" (63%) were major constraints. Practitioners reported that 2.6 (1.6) min might be available for HT re-WUs. Factors such as match regulations, league policy, and stadia facilities were not generally considered as major barriers to the delivery of WUand re-WU strategies. We suggest that researchers consider the time-demands and barriers faced by practitioners whendeveloping experimental designs to examine WU regimens.
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PQ] © by IAAF 11:4:67-81,1996 % ^ /n numerous sports and sport events performance is, to a great extent, determined by the level of speed-strength. An optimal preparation (worm-up) is necessary to achieve the highest possible realization of speed-strength in training and competition. Some top international athletes ore said to have produced the highest speed and speed-strength performances immediately after having performed a few Maximal Voluntary Contractions (MVCs). However, os yet no target-oriented and systematic studies of MVCs. as an element of warm-up programmes, have been conducted. Therefore the focus of the following study is on the following questions: (1) To what extent can the short-term potentia-tion of speed-strength induced by MVCs be considered us a general effect? (2) Can effects of post-tetanic potentiation be triggered in human beings by MVCs? (3) To what extent Is there a connection between possible short-term increases in speed-strength and neuronal effects of post-tetanic potentiation? The results of two complex training experiments show that MVCs carried out during the warm-up can really lead to a considerable increase In speed-strength performances of the lower extremities in alt athletics sprint and jumping events and of the upper extremities in the shot put and the throws, m ^ Dr Arne Gütlich was. from 1992 to 1996.
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The effects of high-intensity, short-duration, re-warm-ups on team-sport-related performance were investigated. In a randomised, cross-over study, participants performed 2×26-min periods of an intermittent activity protocol (IAP) on a non-motorized treadmill, interspersed by 15-min of passive recovery (CON); 3-min small-sided game (SSG); or a 5RM leg-press. Measures included counter-movement jump, repeated-sprint, the Loughborough soccer passing test (LSPT), blood lactate concentration, heart-rate, and perceptual measures. Data were analyzed using effect size (90% confidence intervals), and percentage change; determining magnitudes of effects. A 5RM re-warm-up improved flight-time to contraction-time ratio when compared to SSG (9.8%, ES; 0.5±0.3) and CON (ES: 9.4%, 0.7±0.5) re-warm-ups, remaining higher following the second IAP (8.8%, ES; 0.5±0.3 and 10.2%, ES; 0.6±0.6, respectively). Relative-maximum rate-of-force development was greater in the 5RM condition following the second IAP compared to SSG (29.3%, ES; 0.7±0.5) and CON (16.2%, ES; 0.6±0.6). Repeated-sprint ability during the second IAP improved in the 5RM re-warm-up; peak velocity, mean velocity, and acceleration were 4, 3, and 18% greater, respectively. Within groups, the SSG re-warm-up improved LSPT performance post-intervention; 6.4% (ES: 0.6±0.8) and following the second IAP 6.2% (ES: 0.6±0.6), compared to pre-intervention. A 5RM leg-press re-warm-up improved physical performance, while a SSG re-warm-up enhanced skill execution following standardized intermittent exercise.
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Background In modern professional soccer, the ability to recover from official match-play and intense training is often considered a determining factor in subsequent performance. Objective To investigate the influence of playing multiple games with a short recovery time between matches on physical activity, technical performance and injury rates. Methods The variation of physical (overall distance, light-intensity, low-intensity, moderate-intensity and high-intensity running) and technical performance (successful passes, balls lost, number of touches per possession and duels won) of 16 international players was examined during three different congested periods of matches (six games in 18 days) from the French League and Cup (n=12), and the UEFA Champions’ League (n=6) during the 2011–2012 season and compared with that reported in matches outside these periods. Data were collected using a computerised match analysis system (Amisco). Injury rate, time loss injuries, as well as the mechanism, circumstances and severity of the injury were also analysed. Results No differences were found across the six successive games in the congested period, and between no congested and the three congested periods for all the physical and technical activities. The total incidence of injury (matches and training) across the prolonged congested periods did not differ significantly to that reported in the non-congested periods. However, the injury rate during match-play was significantly higher during the congested period compared with the non-congested period (p<0.001). The injury rate during training time was significantly lower during the congested period compared with the non-congested periods (p<0.001). The mean lay-off duration for injuries was shorter during the congested periods compared with the non-congested periods (9.5±8.8 days vs 17.5±29.6 days, respectively p=0.012, effect sizes=0.5). Conclusions Although physical activity, technical performance and injury incidence were unaffected during a prolonged period of fixture congestion, injury rates during training and match-play and the lay-off duration were different to that reported in matches outside this period.
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A methodology to assess work rate in competitive professional football was designed and validated. The technique required monitoring by observation the intensity and extent of discrete activities during match play and was found to have a measurement error of less than one percent. Performance was observed over 51 games. A complete match typically involved approximately nine hundred separate movement activities per player. The overall distance covered per game was observed to be a function of positional role, the greatest distance covered in outfield players being in mid fielders, the least in centre backs.
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Half time interval seems to influence the performance of soccer players at the beginning of the second half. In this period the players cover less distance and especially in high intensity. This fact may be related with passive half time interval which reduces core and muscle temperature. The purpose of this paper was to analyze record and report the effect of passive and active re-warm-up strategies at half time interval. For such, a research with the following keywords was performed: -soccer; football; half time interval, practices and strategies; re warm up practices and strategies in Medline, Scopus and Sport Discus databases. Although the limited number of studies about this aspect, it is obvious that an active re-warm-up can maintain body temperature and physical performance of soccer players. However is needed more studies to clear the duration and the intensity of the exercises that can used for re-warmup.
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The optimal physical preparation of elite soccer (association football) players has become an indispensable part of the professional game, especially due to the increased physical demands of match-play. The monitoring of players’ work rate profiles during competition is now feasible through computer-aided motion analysis. Traditional methods of motion analysis were extremely labour intensive and were largely restricted to university-based research projects. Recent technological developments have meant that sophisticated systems, capable of quickly recording and processing the data of all players’ physical contributions throughout an entire match, are now being used in elite club environments. In recognition of the important role that motion analysis now plays as a tool for measuring the physical performance of soccer players, this review critically appraises various motion analysis methods currently employed in elite soccer and explores research conducted using these methods. This review therefore aims to increase the awareness of both practitioners and researchers of the various motion analysis systems available, and identify practical implications of the established body of knowledge, while highlighting areas that require further exploration.