Changing Forest Carbon

Abstract

Under elevated conditions a possibility of decomposition occurring more then NEP, leading to loss of carbon, is predicted in some forest regions. A micro level study undertaken in the small mountain range of Kolli, located in the Namakkal District of Tamil Nadu, points towards a enhanced need to measure carbon stock deterioration amidst the struggle to fend off anthropogenic disturbances

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2  MAY - JU NE 2011  GE OGRA PHY A ND YOU
VOL. 11  ISSUE 66 MAY - JUNE 2011
GEOGRAPHY AND YOU
contents

GEOGR APH Y AN D YOU  MAY - J UNE 2011  3
FEATURES
4 Editor’s Note
THE LIV ING FOR ESTS
6 Story N H Ravindranath et al
Future Shock
Climate Change and Indian
Forest s: A dynamic
vegetation modelling
approach
13 Fact Fi le
The Emissions Scenarios
14 Story R Mohanraj a nd
J Saravanan
Stocking Forests
Changing Forest Carbon
18 Story Sanjoy Choudhury
and Dr N Prasad
Analysing Change
Forest s of the Northeast
22 Story Mohd Sajid Idrisi
and Sulagna Chat topadhyay
Forest People
Foraging through forests:
Gaddi
28 Story Subhadra Khaperde
Forest People
Guarding their Forests: Bhil
Editor
Sulagna Chattopadhyay
Associate Editor
Shubhra Kingdang
Legal Advisor
Krishnendu Datta
Cover Photograph
Summer evening in th e alpine pastures
interlaced with forested slopes of pine,
fi r and silver birch, a gur gling bro ok and
myriad birds, inde ed parad ise on ear th -
Gulmarg, Kashmir 2011 by Prasad
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CLIMATE CHANGE
32 Story T Srinivasa Kumar
Mapping Change
Coastal Vulnerability Index
36 Story Meloth Thamban and
Rasik Ravindra
World Climate
Warming in Coastal Antarctica
42 Story Dr MA Atman and et al
Change Adaptation
Freshwater for parch ed
islanders – Naturally
Desalination Plant at Minicoy
CENSUS 2011
44 Story Dr Saraswati Raju
Analysing Sex Ratio
Lives at Risk: Where have the
baby girls gone?
49 Concept Counter
Our census Ou r future...
50 Data You Can Use
Provisional Population Figures
INDIA OUTDOORS
54 Story S Srinivasan
Traveller’s Diary
An Ode to V inayak
All dispu tes are subject to the exclusive jurisdiction of compe tent cour ts and forums in Delhi/New D elhi only.
31 Ter m Po we r
39 Term Power Rating
52 Report: Data User’s Seminar Ajmer

6  MAY - JU NE 2011  GE OGRA PHY A ND YOU
THE LIV ING FOR ESTS
Climate change
& Indian forests
A dynamic vegetation
modelling approach

GEOGR APH Y AN D YOU  MAY - J UNE 2011  7
Story Rajiv K Chaturvedi, Ranjith Gopalakrishnan,
Mathangi Jayaraman, Govindasamy Bala,
N V Joshi, Raman Sukumar and N H Ravindranath
An assessment of the impact of climate change on forest ecosystems
in India has been attempted in this paper, based on climate
projections of the Regional Climate Model of the Hadley Centre
and the dynamic global vegetation model IBIS for A2 and B2
scenarios. A forest vulnerability index for India has also been
worked out based on the dynamic global vegetation modelling and
observed datasets of forest density, forest biodiversity as well as
model predicted vegetation type shift estimates for forested grids.
DENS E FOREST CA NOPY - GUL MARG, K ASHMIR

FUTURE SHOCK
8  MAY - JU NE 2011  GE OGRA PHY A ND YOU
Climate is one of the most important
determinants of vegetation patterns globally and
has significant influence on the distribution,
structure and ecology of forests. Several climate-
vegetation studies have shown that certain climatic
regimes are associated with particular plant
communities or functional types. It is therefore
logical to assume that changes in climate would
alter the distribution of forest ecosystems. Based
on a range of vegetation modelling studies, UN’s
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC) 2007 suggest potential forest dieback
towards the end of this century and beyond,
especially in tropics, boreal and mountain areas.
Assessments of potential climate change impacts
on forests in India were based on the BIOME model
(versions 3 and 4), which being an equilibrium
model, does not capture the transient responses
of vegetation to climate change. The recent study
(Ravindranath et al. 2006) concludes that 77 per
cent and 68 per cent of the forested grids in India are
likely to experience shift in forest types for climate
change under A2 and B2 scenarios, respectively
(refer to page 13 for special report on emission
scenarios - SRES). In addition there have been two
regional studies, the first focusing on potential
climate change impacts on forests in Himachal
Pradesh (Deshingkar 1997) and a second in the
Western Ghats (Ravindranath et al. 1997). These
studies indicated moderate to large scale shifts
in vegetation types with implications for forest
dieback and biodiversity. The studies conducted
for India so far have faced several limitations, e.g.,
coarse resolution of input data; and, use of BIOME,
an equilibrium model with limited capability in
categorising plant functional types and dynamic
representation of growth constraints.
Impacts of climate change on forests have
severe implications for people who depend on
forest resources for their livelihoods. India is a
mega biodiversity country where forests account
for more than one fifth of the geographical
area. With nearly 173,000 villages classified
as forest villages, there is a large dependence
of communities on forest resources. India has
a huge afforestation programme of over 1.32
mha per annum, and more area is likely to be
afforested under programmes ‘Green India
Mission’ and ‘Compensatory Afforestation Fund
Management and Planning Authority’ (CAMPA).
It is thus imperative to assess the likely impacts
of projected climate change on existing forests
and afforested areas, and develop and implement
adaptation strategies to enhance the resilience of
forests to climate change.
Status of forests in India
According to the Forest Survey of India (FSI)
‘all lands, more than one hectare in area, with a
tree canopy density of more than 10 per cent is
defined as forest’ (FSI 2009). The status of forests
and forest management systems contribute to
the vulnerability of forests to climate change.
The Forest Survey of India has been periodically
estimating the forest cover in India since 1987
using remote sensing techniques. In addition to
forest cover, FSI has also included the tree cover in
its 2001, 2003, 2005, and 2007 assessments.
Indian forests are extremely diverse and
heterogeneous. Classification of Indian forest
types is available from two main sources - Forest
Survey of India (FSI 2001) and Champion and
Seth (1968). Due to forest heterogeneity, Forest
Survey of India’s classification scheme has a pan-
Indian ‘miscellaneous forest’ category (with no
dominant species), which accounts for 63 per cent
of forest area. This large miscellaneous category
makes the FSI classification rather unattractive for
further analysis. However, Champion and Seth
(1968) classif y In dia n forest s into 16 dist inc t fore st
types, prompting us to opt for the Champion
and Seth classification for further analysis. The
distribution of forest types in India according to
Champion and Seth (1968) is shown in Fig 1.
Methods
The impacts of climate change on forests in India
are assessed based on the changes in area under
different forest types, shifts in boundary of forest
types and net primary productivity (NPP). Data
sets selected were: (i) spatial distribution of current
climatic variables, (ii) similar data for future
climate projected by relatively high resolution
regional climate models for two different climate
change scenarios, and (iii) vegetation types, NPP
and carbon stocks as simulated by the dynamic
model IBIS V.2 (Integrated Biosphere Simulator).
Vegetation model
The dynamic vegetation model IBIS is designed
around a hierarchical, modular structure.
The model is broken into four modules - land

GEOGR APH Y AN D YOU  MAY - J UNE 2011  9
Input data
IBIS requires a range of input parameters,
primarily climatological and soil characteristics.
The main climatological parameters used are:
monthly mean cloudiness (per cent), monthly
mean precipitation rate (mm/day), monthly mean
relative humidity (per cent), monthly minimum,
maximum and mean temperature (C) and wind
speed (m/s); while the main soil factor used is
texture (i.e percentage of sand, silt and clay). The
model also requires topographical information.
Observed climatology is obtained from Climatic
Research Unit (CRU), while soil data was
obtained from International Geosphere-Biosphere
Progra mme (IGBP). For climate change projections,
RCM outputs f rom H adley c entre mode l HadRM3
were used. The climate variables for future
surface module, vegetation phenology module,
carbon balance module and vegetation dynamics
module. These modules, though operating at
different time steps, are integrated into a single
physically consistent model that may be directly
incorporated within AGCMs (atmospheric
general circulation models). For example, IBIS is
currently incorporated into two AGCMs namely
GENESIS-IBIS and CCM3-IBIS. The model
allows an understanding of different light and
water regimes - enhancing comprehension of
competition for sunlight and soil moisture which
determines the geographic distribution of plant
functional types and the relative dominance
of trees and grasses, evergreen and deciduous
phenologies, broadleaf and conifer leaf forms,
and C3 and C4 photosynthetic pathways.
White areas represent non-forested grids. (VT - refers to Vegetation Types). The numbers refer to the following
vegetation types 1: tropical evergreen forest / woodland, 2: tropical deciduous forest / woodland,
3. temperate evergreen broadleaf forest / woodland, 4: temperate evergreen conifer forest / woodland,
5: temperate deciduous forest / woodland, 6: boreal evergreen forest / woodland, 7: boreal deciduous forest
/ woodland, 8: mixed forest / woodland, 9: savanna, 10: grassland/ steppe, 11: dense shrubland, 12 : open
shrubland, 13: tundra, 14 : desert, 15. polar deser t / rock / ice
Fig 1. Forest type, distribution and extent simulated by IBIS for the baseline case and A2 and B2 scenarios
VT-2085 (A2) VT-2085 (B2)
1 23456789101112131414
For analysis, we considered the forested grid points obtained from Forest Sur vey of India forest type classification
2001. Then, we identified grids where vegetation type (simulated by IBIS) is projected to change under A2 and B2
scenarios compared to baseline scenario (Fig. 2). Approximately 39 and 34 per cent of forested grid are projected
to experience vegetation type change under A2 and B2 climate scenarios, respectively. In agreement with earlier
studies, we find a trend towards expansion of wetter forest types. Tropical dry deciduous forests currently constitute
more than 40 per cent of the Indian forested grids. Our analysis suggests that approximately 47 and 42 per cent of
these tropical dry deciduous grids undergo change under A 2 and B2 climate change scenarios, respectively, as
opposed to less than 16 per cent grids for tropical wet evergreen forests. Tropical moist forests, which constitute 20
per cent of the grid points, appear to be relatively stable with only 38 and 34 per cent of forested grids experiencing
change under the two scenarios. However, tropical thorny scrub forest which constitutes 20 per cent of the Indian
forested area is projected to experience a larger change with majority of grids (more than 80 per cent) undergoing
change under A2 scenario and 50 per cent grids experiencing change under the B2 scenario.
VT-Baseline

FUTURE SHOCK
10  MA Y - JUNE 2 011  GEOGR APH Y AND YOU
scenarios were obtained using the method of
anomalies. Brief ly, this involved computing the
difference between projected values for a scenario
and the control run of the HadRM3 model, and
adding this difference to the value corresponding
to the current climate as obtained from CRU
climatology. Climate data operators (CDO)
software was used for the data editing and climate
data analysis tool (CDAT) for data processing and
generation of various maps and plots.
Selection of forested grids
Digitised forest map of India (FSI 2001) was used
to determine the spatial location of all forested
areas. This map was based on high resolution
mapping (2.5 by 2.5 inch), wherein India was
divided into over 165,000 grids. Out of these,
35,899 grids were marked as forested grids (along
with forest density and forest type). Further, the
forest grids were classified into three categories as
per forest density: ‘very dense forests’ with crown
density above 70 per cent; ‘moderately dense
forest’ with crown density between 40 and 70
per cent; and, ‘open forest’ with crown density
between 10 and 40 per cent.
Scenarios of climate change
SRES scenario A2 (740 ppm by 2085) is selected
as one of the scenarios. However, since a more
constrained emission pathway may emerge as a
result of global mitigation actions, we also chose
B2 scenario (575 ppm by 2085) in this study. The
results were then compared with the ‘baseline’
(also referred to as reference or control case)
scenario, which represents the simulation using
the 1961-91 observed climatology.
Impacts of climate change on forest
types and extents
CHANGES IN THE DISTRIBUTION OF FORESTS
The vegetation distribution simulated by IBIS
for baseline, A2 and B2 scenario in the forested
grids are shown in Fig 1. It is noticed that there
is an expansion of tropical evergreen forests (IBIS
vegetation type 1) in eastern India plateau for
both A2 and B2 scenarios. The same trend can be
observed in the Western Ghats. It is interesting
to note that there is a lmost no vegetation type
change in the northeast. Further, there is
a slight expansion of forests into the western
part of central India. Overall, there is negligible
difference between forest extents predicted for
the future in A2 and B2 scenarios except that
forest expansion is higher in the western part
of central India in the A2 scenario. This could
be attributed to higher precipitation levels in A2
scenario relative to B2 in this region. One caveat
to the expansion trend of forests (like tropical
ACHANAKMAR FORESTS, CHHATTISGARH
 Green indicates a vulnerability
index of 1 - least vulnerable
 colours of yellow to
red indicate increasing
vulnerability
 red indicates a vulnerability
level of 7 - most vulnerable.
13 57
6
42
Map not to sc ale
Fig 2. Distribution of forest vulnerability index for A2 climate
change scenario - for FSI forested grid points.

GEOGR APH Y AN D YOU  MAY - J UNE 2011  11
Northern and Northern and
central parts of central parts of
the Western Ghats the Western Ghats
is computed to is computed to
be significantly be significantly
vulnerable to vulnerable to
climate change. In climate change. In
fact open forests fact open forests
drive up the drive up the
vulnerability score vulnerability score
considerably. considerably.

FUTURE SHOCK
12  MAY - JU NE 2011  GE OGR APHY A ND YOU
evergreen) is the assumption that forests are
not fragmented, and there is no dearth of seed
dispersing agents. In the real world, forests are
indeed fragmented, and, seed dispersal may
not be efficient in the view of loss or reduction
in number of dispersal agents due to human
habitation pressures and climate change. As the
population of seed dispersing agents decline,
predicted forest expansion is not guaranteed.
Vulnerability index for India’s forests
Forests in India are already subjected to multiple
stresses including over extraction, insect
outbreaks, livestock grazing, forest fires and
other anthropogenic pressures. Climate change
is an additional one. Disturbed and fragmented,
forests and monoculture forests are likely to be
more vulnerable, to climate change. Therefore, a
vulnerability index, Fig 2, has been developed to
assess the risk factor of different forest types and
regions. The various vulnerability index classes
were defined by spatially combining information
on forest diversity (monoculture versus
natural forest), forest density (an indicator of
degradation) and IBIS vegetation type change
estimates for the forest grids under A2 scenario.
For example, if a particular forest grid had
monoculture vegetation, a low forest density
(or higher levels of degradation) and if there
was a vegetation type shift in the future as
predicted by IBIS, then this grid point is given the
highest vulnerability index of 7. The analysis thus
achieved, points towards nearly 39 per cent of
forested grids being vulnerable to climate change
in India. The forests in central India are highly
vulnerable. There are pockets of vulnerable
forests surrounded by non vulnerable regions in
that area.
A signif icant part of the Him alayan biodiversity
hotspot that stretches along the north western
part of India along the states of Punjab, Jammu
and Kashmir and Himanchal Pradesh is projected
to be highly vulnerable, mostly attributable to the
higher elevation of these regions. Our studies
have shown that these regions will experience
increased levels of warming.
Northern and central parts of the Western
Ghats also seem to be significantly vulnerable to
climate change. Northern parts of the Western
Ghats contain significant extent of open
forests, which drive up the vulnerability score.
High values of the index in the central part of
the Ghats are likely caused by the negligible
precipitation increase over there (with more
than 3°C rise in temperature). Forests in the
southern part of the Western Ghats appear to
be quite resilient as forests in this region are less
fragmented, more diverse and they also support
tropical wet evergreen forests which, according to
IBIS simulations, are likely to remain stable. In
the northeast of India, there are relatively few
areas that have a high vulnerability index. This
low vulnerability index in this regions is because
climate is predicted to get hotter and wetter,
which is conducive to the existing vegetation
types - tropical evergreen forests.
The aut hors are from the Indian Ins titute of Science,
Bangalore. nh.ravi@gmail.com,
The article is an ex tract of a previously o nline published work in
Springer Scienc e and Business Media BV in August 2010.
Tropical thorn forest
Tropical dr y evergreen forest
Subalpine a nd alpine forest
Himalayan dry temperate forest
Tropical semi evergreen forest
Tropical moist de ciduous fore st
Himalayan moist temperate forest
Littora l and swa mp forest
Subtropica l broad leaved hill forest
Tropical wet evergreen forest
Subtropica l pine forest
Subtropical dry evergre en forest
Montane wet temperate forest
0102030
A2 B2
40 50 60 70 80 90
Fig 3. Percentage of forest grids undergoing vegetation change by 2085 under A2 and B2
scenarios according to forest types

GEOGR APH Y AN D YOU  MAY - J UNE 2011  13
THE LIV ING FOR ESTS
A1. The A1 storyline and scenario
family describes a future world
of very rapid economic growth,
global population that peaks in mid
century and declines thereafter,
and rapid introduction of new and
more efficient technologies. Major
underlying themes are convergence
among regions, capacity building
and increased cultural and social
interactions, with a substantial
reduction in regional differences in
per capita income.
The A1 scenario family
develops into three groups that
describe alternative directions of
technological change in the energy
system. The three A1 groups are
distinguished by their technological
emphasis: fossil intensive (A1FI),
non fossil energy sources (A1T), or
a balance across all sources (A1B)
(where balanced is defined as not
relying too heavily on one particular
energy source, on the assumption
that similar improvement rates
apply to all energy supply and end
use technologies).
A2. The A2 storyline and
scenario family describes a
very heterogeneous world. The
underlying theme is self reliance
and preservation of local identities.
Fertility patterns across regions
converge very slowly, which
results in continuously increasing
population. Economic development
is primarily region oriented and
per capita economic growth
and technological change more
fragmented and slower than other
storylines.
B1. The B1 storyline and scenario
family describes a convergent world
with the same global population,
that peaks in mid centur y and
declines thereafter, as in the A1
storyline, but with rapid change
in economic structures toward a
service and information economy,
THE EMISSIONS
SCENARIOS
The Emissions Scenarios is prepared by the Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change (IPCC) and was published in the year 2000. The
emissions scenarios have been used to make projections of possible
future climate change.
with reductions in material
intensity and the introduction
of clean and resource efficient
technologies. The emphasis is on
global solutions to economic,
social and environmental
sustainability, including improved
equity, but without additional
climate initiatives.
B2. The B2 stor yline and scenario
family describes a world in
which the emphasis is on local
solutions to economic, social
and environmental sustainability.
It is a world with continuously
increasing global population, at a
rate lower than A2, intermediate
levels of economic development,
and less rapid and more diverse
technological change than in the
A1 and B1 storylines. While the
scenario is also oriented towards
environmental protection and social
equity, it focuses on local and
regional levels.
Source: IPCC (2001). CLIMATE CHANG E 2001: THE SCIENTI FIC BASIS. Contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment Repor t
of the Interg overnmental Panel on C limate Change, Edited by: J.T. Houghton, Y. Ding, D.J. Griggs, M. N oguer, P.J. van der Linden, X. Dai,
K. Maskell, C.A. Johnson (page 63 of the Repo rt; Chapter: Summary for Policy Maker s).

14  M AY - JUN E 2011  GEOGR APH Y AN D YOU
Story R Mohanraj and J Saravanan
THE LIV ING FOR ESTS
Under elevated CO2 conditions a possibility of decomposition
occurring more than net primary production, leading to a loss of
carbon, is predicted in some forest regions. A micro level study
undertaken in the small mountain range of Kolli, located in the
Namakkal District of Tamil Nadu, points towards a enhanced need
to measure carbon stock deterioration amidst the struggle to fend off
anthropogenic disturbances.
Changing Forest Carbon
Cultivation in streams

GEOGR APH Y AN D YOU  MAY - J UNE 2011  15
Forest ecosystems play a crucial role in
global carbon cycles, acting as a sink
and a source. Forests form an active
carbon pool that accounts for 60 per
cent of carbon storage in the earth’s land surface.
T he r e fo r e, d y na m i c s o f c ar b on i n fo r e st v eg e t at i on
and soils are significant in terms of global climate
change policy framework. The rate of carbon
absorption is greatest in the earliest stages of
growth and regeneration, and declines as forests
mature. Tropical forests dominate the dialogue
in the global carbon flux, and carbon stocks.
It is thus such regions that require dedicated
research to estimate its carbon sequestration
potential. The tropical forests, both moist and
dry types, account for approximately 60 per cent
of global forests. While covering only 22 per cent
of potential vegetation by area, tropical forests
Table 1. Total carbon stock changes in Kolli Hills
Forest type Above ground
biomass
Soil
(up to 0.3m)
Woody debris Surface litter
2009 2010 2009 2010 2009 2010 2099 2010
Evergreen 0.82 1.43 0.83 0.56 0.00019 0.00034 0.00625 0.01602
Deciduous 2.21 1.97 3.12 2.03 0.00052 0.00337 0.01743 0.05333
Mixed 0.97 1.69 0.99 1.28 0.00021 0.00110 0.00716 0.01829
Open scrub 0.43 0.53 0.54 0.46 0.00009 0.00058 0.00286 0.00694
Plantation 0.06 0.06 0.05 0.07 0.00001 0.00003 0.00042 0.00001
Total stock 4.49 5.68 5.53 4.4 0.00102 0.00542 0.03412 0.09459
Kolli Hills – Landuse / Land Cover map
Legend
Dense forest
Mixed forest
Forest plantation
Settlement
Barren rock
Water body
Open scrub
Forest blan k
in teragram (Tg)

POLICY REFORMS
16  MA Y - JUN E 2011  GEOGR APH Y AN D YOU
The Kolli Hills region
is important for its
plantation products
which include coffee,
tea, jackfruit, pineapple,
black pepper and other
spices. Rice and other
minor millets form the
primar y food of the tribal
people who inhabit these
mountains.

GEOGR APH Y AN D YOU  MAY - J UNE 2011  17
important for its farm products which include
coffee, tea, jackfruit, pineapple, black pepper and
other spices. Rice and other minor millets form
the primary food of the tribal people who inhabit
these mountains. Kolli Hills are also well known
for their medical herbs and plants.
The Results
Evergreen and semi-evergreen forests in this area
occurs in upper plateau region with an elevation
of 900 m and above, while the slopes are
occupied by deciduous and thorn forests. Land
use and land cover analysis showed abundance
of different forest cover in the order deciduous
> mixed > evergreen > open scrub > plantation
with total area under forest cover extending up
to 26587.8 ha. Anthropogenic disturbances
such as mining, exotic plantation, agriculture
extension, shifting cultivation, over grazing,
tourism developments and firewood collection
occurred at several places. An earlier study
also hinted extensive mining activities in Kolli
Hills removing about 600 mg of soil per day for
cement and aluminium factories.
Our examination for carbon stock was limited
to the forest cover that is protected under reserved
forests. For comparative assessment, sample
studies were also undertaken in the open scrub
and plantation forests. Research revealed that the
carbon stock is undergoing a gradual change in
the forest system both above ground and within
the soil. For instance carbon stock in the above
ground biomass increased from 4.4 teragram
(Tg) in 2009 to 5.68 in 2010, while the soil
carbon stock decreased in the same proportion
(Table 1), which implies Kolli Hills forest is
neither a sink nor source. However, the increase
of carbon stock in woody debris and surface litter
indicates a possible addition to future soil carbon
stock, provided similar biophysical conditions
prevail without any anthropogenic disturbances.
Periodical examination of this and similar areas
is required to reveal if a particular region in the
forest ecosystem is undergoing any significant
change. Subsequently, the predominant drivers
behind the change can also be identified.
The aut hor is Asst. Profe ssor, Department of Environmental
Management, Bha rathida san Unive rsity, Tir uchirappalli.
mohan.bdu@gmail.com
have been estimated to account for 75 per cent
of the world’s terrestrial net primary productivity
(NPP). However, under elevated CO2 conditions
a possibility of decomposition occurring more
than net primary production (NPP) leading to a
loss of carbon is predicted in some forest regions.
In others, elevated CO2 and N deposition tend to
increase NPP more than decomposition, leading
to carbon storage. Given the uncertain scenario,
a micro level carbon flux examination of different
forest types alone can give a clear picture.
The two significant drivers of forest carbon
flux are biophysical processes operating at
various spatial and temporal scales; and the local
anthropogenic disturbances. In addition to this,
global climate change and other multiple stressors
such as ozone, sulphur and nitrogen depositions
also inf luence the productivity and carbon stock,
which has been largely ignored till date in the
Indian scenario. Many studies in the nation have
pointed out forest degradation and productivity
loss due to regional climate anomalies and trends,
fires, cultivation, mining, biomass extraction and
cattle grazing. The challenge for the scientific and
policy making community now lies in identifying
the major factor that affect the carbon flux in the
forest at micro level.
Study Area
In one such attempt we focussed on carbon stock
variations in the Kolli Hills forest regions of
Namakkal, Tamil Nadu, covering an area of about
500 km2. The forest occupies 44 per cent of the
total geographical area, agricultural activities take
place in 51.6 per cent and other activities occupy
less than 5 per cent of the total geographical area.
Annual rainfall is between 300 to 750 mm and
the soil type varies between red to black clay. The
highest point in the region is marked by Kollimalai,
1400 m above sea level, but the general elevation of
the Kolli Hills is not more than 1000 m. As per
Census 2001, the population residing in the area is
about 37 thousand.
As described in classical Tamil literature,
under varied nomenclature - Agananooru,
Silappathigaram, Manimekalai, Purananuru and
Ainkurnuru, Kolli Hills, historically witnessed a
good forest cover (75 per cent) which gradually
dwindled. However, even today the area is

18  MAY  J UNE 2 011  GEOGR APH Y AND YOU
THE LIV ING FOR ESTS
Forests of the Northeast
Story Sanjoy Choudhury and N Prasad
Over exploitation, habitat loss and fragmentation threaten the
biodiversity in the northeast region of India. Serious efforts have
to be made by the government as well as the people to protect and
conserve the vestiges of virgin forests that still remain in the most
forested zone of the country.
The eight states of Arunachal Pradesh,
Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram,
Nagaland, Sikkim and Tripura - the
northeast region of India, constitute
one of the 18 recognised biodiversity hotspots
of the world. Occupying 7.7 per cent of India’s
geographical area the northeast contains more
than one third of the country’s total biodiversity.
Of increasing concern is the region’s shrinking
greenery and degrading ecosystems. Reasons cited
for such destruction are:
■ conversion of forests into agricultural land with
growing demand for food, ■ reducing cycle of
shifting cultivation or jhum cycles in most parts of
PHOTO COURTE SY: MOEF

GEOGR APH Y AN D YOU  MAY  J UNE 2011  19
the region compounding the loss of forest cover, ■
grazing beyond the carrying capacity of moderate
forest cover by large herds of domestic animals,
■ recurrent forest fires, man made and natural,
besides destroying vegetation, harden the surface
decreasing soil porosity resulting in low rain
water infiltration, ■ lumbering for domestic and
commercial purposes with increasing industrial
expansion, urban growth and rapidly growing
human population that damage the natural forests,
and ■ multipurpose river projects that require large
reservoir area submerging pristine forested tracts.
LOSS OF LIVELIHOOD
The northeast is home to several tribal
communities for whom forests have been an
invaluable source of livelihood. The tribes
traditionally protected the forests. Echoes of
continuity in the age old practice may be found
still today as ‘sacred forests’ or ‘sacred groves’ in
Meghalaya, Manipur, Mizoram and Nagaland,
the ‘sacred landscapes’ in Sikkim and the ‘sacred
hilltops’ in Arunachal. Unfortunately such acts of
biodiversity conservation is slowly disappearing
with conversion from traditional animistic
religions to Christianity, western education
system, expansion of agricultural activities etc.
STATE OF FORESTS
A review, based on the State of Forest Report
20 09, published by Forest Surve y of India, reveals
some unexpected and contradictory trends in
States VDF MDF OF FA GA % of FA to GA
Tri pura 111 4770 3192 80 73 10491 76.9 5
Nagaland 1274 4897 7293 13464 16,579 81.21
Mizoram 134 6251 12855 19240 21081 91.27
Meghalaya 410 9501 7410 17321 22429 7 7.23
Ma n i pur 701 5474 1110 5 17280 2 2327 77.4
Assam 1461 11558 14673 27692 78438 35.3
Arunachal 20858 31556 14939 67353 83743 80.43
Sikkim 500 2161 696 3357 7096 47.31
Total 25449 76168 72163 173780 262184 66.28
VDF: Very dense forest; MDF: Moderately dense forest; OF: Open forest; FA: Forest area; GA: Geographic area
Table 1: Area and percentage of forests in the northeast Source: SFR, 2009
the northeast. Forests represented are classified
as very dense with tree canopy density of 70 per
cent and above; moderately dense with 40 to 70
per cent canopy density and open with density
between 10 to 40 percent. Below 10 per cent
it is classified as scrub. For the purpose of this
discussion we will restrict our analysis to the first
Hill top agriculture results in rapid erosion and
deterioration of top soil
PHOTO: M EGHAL AYA BY SANJOY C HOUDHU RY

ANALYSING CHANGE
20  MAY  JU NE 2011  GEO GRA PHY A ND YOU
three classification as the northeast is known for
its resplendent forests.
At the outset forested area of the eight
northeast states computed in the Report stands
at a whopping 66.28 per cent, much above the
target of 33 per cent set by the government of
India. Mizoram stands tallest with 91.27 per cent
of its area under forests, followed by Nagaland
and Arunachal. Understandably, Assam, being
the most industrialised state in the area, has the
lowest forest cover of 35.30 per cent, which is still
higher than the national target.
But this broad picture does not capture
the nuances of change that are taking place
in the northeast. Delving deeper into the net
change matrix of different forest types the
degradation is palpable. Dense forests in Tripura
are disappearing. In two years, from 2005 to
2007 the decline measured is nearly 2 percent.
Similarly in Nagaland, although less, a decline of
nearly 0.5 per cent in dense forest cover has been
noted. Opposed to this however, is a huge gain
of nearly 19 per cent in Meghalaya, offsetting
the marked decline in other northeast regions.
Analysis of moderately dense forests reveals a
decline at each stage, with Nagaland topping the
list. In fact, the three states of Nagaland, Assam
and Arunachal have mapped a decline in every
category of forests. In case of Assam the decline
in forest cover is significantly discernible in
Kokrajhar, Karbi-Anglong and North Cachar
Hills districts. It is also to be understood that
forest areas move from one category to the other,
but decline of moderately dense forests and
increase of open forests may be taken as a proxy
variable to demarcate degradation of forests. In
totality the northeast has lost 599 km2 amounting
to nearly 0.8 per cent of moderately dense forest
and gained 1121 km2 (about 1.6 per cent) of open
forests.
STEPS TAKEN BY THE GOVERNMENT
Three factors that primarily threaten the
biodiversity of the northeast are over exploitation,
habitat loss and fragmentation. Serious public
private partnerships efforts have to be made
in tandem with governmental interventions to
protect and conserve the forests. The National
Forest Policy of India, 1998, is now in force.
The policy emphasises on increasing the area
under forest cover to 33 per cent or one third of
the country’s total geographical area and to 60
per cent in the hills of northeast India. Also the
Forest Development Agency (FDA) is a central
agency which provides financial help to the
state governments for the planting of trees and
Figure in parenthesis indicates per cent change in area
VDF: Very dense forest; MDF: Moderately dense forest; OF: Open forest; FA: Forest area; GA: Geographic area
Net change data for Sikkim was not available.
Table 2: Net change from 2005 to 2007 in km2Source: SFR, 20 09
States VDF MDF OF
Tripura -2 (-1.8 0) - 46(-0.96) -52 (-1.63)
Nagaland -6(-0.47) -175(-3.57) -20(-0.27)
Mizoram 0(0) -133(-2.13) 773(6.01)
Meghalaya 76(18.54) -26(-0.27) 66(0.89)
Manipur 12(1.71) -48(-0.88) 364(3.28)
Assam -3(-0.21) -95(-0.82) 32(-0.22)
Arunachal -1(0) -76(-0.24) -42(-0.28)
Total change forest type wise 76(0.30) -599(-0.81) 1121(1.57)
Analysis of moderately dense forests reveals a decline at each stage,
with Nagaland topping the list. In fact, the three states of Nagaland, Assam and
Arunachal have mapped a decline in every category of forests.

GEOGR APH Y AN D YOU  MAY  J UNE 2011  21
conservation of forest area. The policy of joint
forest management (JFM) introduced during
the 1980’s also encourages participation of local
communities in forest management.
In a recent development, the government of
Assam has formulated a forest policy, developing
a common approach to manage both environment
and biodiversity. The new policy is comprehensive
and considers all major environmental concerns
- flora, fauna, wildlife, soil fertility etc. The
policy provides a comprehensive strategy for
environmental conservation and improved support
system for livelihood of the people living in the
fringe areas of forests and thereby seeks to overcome
degradation of biodiversity and forest cover.
END NOTE
Environmental stability, biodiversity conservation,
food security and sustainable development
have been widely recognised at many aspects
of conservation strategies. Conservation of
forest resources would entail management of
biosphere reserves, national parks, sanctuaries
etc.; regulation of sacred groves; introduction of
sustainable afforestation programmes; regulations
o f c o m m u ni t y f or e s t m a na g e m e nt ( CF M ) ; p o s s i bl e
replacement of areas under jhum by alternative
economic activities; adoption of ecosystem based
forest management to maintain ecological balance;
regulation of reforestation in the deforested areas
to restore the ecological balance; compulsory
plantation projects in educational institutes, youth
clubs and communities; watershed management
through afforestation programmes; and, provision
of alternate livelihoods for forest dwellers of north
east India.
The Aut hor is Le cturer, Departme nt of Geography, St.
Edmund’s College, Shillong, sanjoychoudury@yahoo.com
Conversion
of forests into
agricultural land
with growing
demand for food
and reduced
cycles of shifting
cultivation in most
parts of the region
compounds the
loss of forest cover
in the region.
PHOTO: M EGHAL AYA BY SANJOY C HOUDHU RY

22  MAY - JU NE 2011  GEO GRA PHY A ND YOU
Story Mohd. Sajid Idrisi and Sulagna Chattopadhyay
Photo Sajid Idrisi
THE LIV ING FOR ESTS
FORAGING
THROUGH
FORESTS:

GEOGR APH Y AN D YOU  MAY - J UNE 2011  23
Among the various transhumant tribes that inhabit the Himalaya, the
Gaddi herders share a causal relationship with the deodar and chir
forests. Guarded by ferocious dogs the sheep and goat owned or loaned
by the herder, forage through ancestral tracks to reach the alpine
meadows every summer. With the enactment of the Forest Rights Act
in 2008, the lives of the Gaddi are slowly but surely changing for the
better as historic injustice is being undone.

FOREST PEOPLE
24  MAY - JU NE 2011  GEOG RA PHY A ND YOU
Gaddi, the nomadic sheep herding
scheduled tribe of Himachal Pradesh,
are among the traditional pastoralists of
Himalayas, the others being Gujjar, Bakarwal,
Kinnaur, Kauli and Kanet. Environmentalists
have long perceived pastoralists’ livestock as an
enemy to wildlife conservation, even though the
livestock may not be that different from wildlife.
Plus, increasing evidence is emerging for positive
effects of pastoralism on the environment (Ilse
Köhler-Rollefson and the Life Network, Keepers
of Genes). Based on the informal interviews with
the Gaddi pastoralists the author met at different
locations while undertaking a mammal survey in
Himachal, here are some facts that reveal their
causal relationship with the forested realms.
LIVESTOCK BASE
Gaddi herders perceive livestock as asset to the
community - their livelihood depends on the
sale or exchange of animals and their products
to obtain foodstuffs and other necessities. With
an economy that is today a mix of commercial
herding and subsistence cultivation, the Gaddi
sell wool, aging female sheep, and male lambs and
kids. Goat milk is the principal source of food
for the herders, and goat wool is used to make
blankets. Gaddi however are semi nomadic tribes,
a s t he y do ha ve so me fo rm of pe rma ne nt dw el li ng s
unlike other nomadic grazers such as Gujjar and
Changpa who migrate with their whole families
from one pasture to another. Gaddi communities
undertake cultivation within permanent villages
located along the migratory route. Up to two
crops may be harvested annually, involving a
labour intensive intermeshing of the herding and
cultivation cycles. (Vasant K Saberwal, Pastoral
Politics)
Gaddi communities are primarily located in
and around four districts of Himachal - Chamba,
Kinnaur, Kangra and Dharamshala. By caste
they belong to Rana, Rajput, Thakur or Khatri
and follow Hinduism. Gaddi herders travel
extensively and are believed to cover a distance
of almost 400-500 km in one season over an
elevational gradient of 13,000 ft with single herd
constituting more than 500 sheep and goats. The
pastoral cycle of the Gaddi largely depends on
the availability of forage during different seasons.
They usually inhabit marginal lands on the
periphery of settled societies and eke resources
in a way not possible by sedentary communities.
In summer, they migrate to the alpine meadows
of Dhauladhar and Pir Panjal while in winters
they forage through the Siwaliks. They migrate
during the transitional seasons i.e. autumn and
spring, walking longer distances and taking short
halts in between.
In the forests the stock survive exclusively
by grazing. During the lean season in winter
the Gaddi source forage through mutual
understanding and reciprocity with the sedentary
establishments. Farmers invite the Gaddi herders
to pen stock on their farms for the night in lieu
of land enrichment through sheep and goat
droppings. Hay offered by the farmers for this
service ensures the survival of the stock.
GRAZING RIGHTS
The access of Gaddi herders to the forested
realms has been and still is an extremely complex
issue. The present government policies take off
from nineteenth century mindsets, wherein
grazing was seen as a hindrance to biodiversity
regeneration, culminating into accelerated soil
erosion - necessitating a need to debar such
activities. In ancient times the Gaddi may have
achieved grazing rights from kings and colonisers
- some families still exert formal rights and are
granted permits to graze specific tracts herded
for generations, but today these rights are a
contentious issue. The forest authorities have
earmarked developmental projects in various
areas where the Gaddi herders are prohibited to
forage for a stipulated period, say 5 to 7 years.
The Gaddi thus tend to group their livestock
with relatives, an activity which is again banned
by the forest authorities as denser stocks result in
enhanced stress on the carrying capacity of the
foraging tract. The Gaddi also migrate to the
adjacent states of Punjab, Haryana and Uttar
Pradesh depending on the need and agreement
with state authorities.
ASSERTING TRANSHUMANCE RIGHTS
The Forest Rights Act [Scheduled Tribes and
Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition
of Forest Rights)] notified on January 1, 2008,

GEOGR APH Y AN D YOU  MAY - J UNE 2011  25
Literature suggests that there is no scientific evidence to indicate that
Gaddi grazing is leading to degradation. Rather, the thought springs from an
assumption that degradation is taking place as a natural outcome of grazing.
forged new grounds and brought fresh hopes
for the battered Gaddi community. The Act
conferred rights over natural resources in order
to secure a living coupled with the responsibility
of using forest resources sustainably. (Pernille
Gooch, Van Gujjar: The Persistent Forest
Pastoralists) By combining livelihood with use and
conservation of natural resources, the Act opens
up the possibility of sustainable pastoralism.
On the downside, the Act perpetuates
what the colonisers had set up - individual/
household permits in lieu of community rights.
As sustainability concerns are community driven,
perhaps conferring community rights would
have been an appropriate option. As of now the
Gaddi herders are applying to village/community

FOREST PEOPLE
26  MAY - JU NE 2011  GEOG RA PHY A ND YOU

GEOGR APH Y AN D YOU  MAY - J UNE 2011  27
committees already set up, or are in the process of
constituting a village committee.
SUSTAINABLE FOR AGING
The Gaddi herders believe that they use the
forests and pastures sustainably. Considerable
consensus is being built up today citing examples
from world over that grazing may be beneficial
after all and should be encouraged within
reserved forests. In fact pastoralists’ livestock can
benefit wildlife conservation as there is a long
history of coevolution between wild species and
livestock. Evicting the livestock from wildlife
reserves may lead to an exodus of predators, or
resu lt in habitat changes that make it unattract ive
for wildlife. The Gaddi herders claim that they
constitute a responsible disaster mitigation group,
especially in the context of forest fires. Their
stocks minimise the growth of high grass, thus
preventing fires from spreading too far during
the hot and dry summers. The Gaddi and many
such grazers in the Himalaya also act as sentinels
and first responders, warning forest officials of
impending or ongoing wild fire danger. In many
cases they have also stepped in as volunteers to
stop the spread of forest fires.
Gaddi gra zers reiterate generations of learning,
which emphasises that foraging livestock help
stimulate biodiversity more luxuriant and diverse
in growth. Also they claim that browsing on
young saplings leads to better root development,
making the shrub or tree drought resistant.
These herders of Himachal add that their
stocks are healthy and disease resistant as the
breed, again named Gaddi, have evolved in the
wild. With ever increasing selection pressure,
the Gaddi provide a crucial counterbalance to
the narrowing genetic base of industrial breeds.
This important role of pastoralist production
systems in maintaining domestic animal
diversity needs to be appreciated and fully
recognised. Unfortunately, at present pastoralists’
livestock face scorn from both ends, with wildlife
conservationists denoting stock as ‘domestic’
animals, thus opposed to wildlife, while animal
scientists dismiss them as unproductive.
POLICY INTERVENTIONS
The Gaddi need legally sanctioned and managed
access to forest commons to protect the
traditional means of conservation of Himalayan
flora and fauna. The Forest Rights Act confers
access rights, but procedural delays remain.
With increased technological upgradation,
monitoring the movement of Gaddi and other
transhumant tribes can be undertaken through
GPS and participation interlinked with tangible
biodiversity improvement studies. Research on
carrying capacity and changing mindsets of
forest and wild biodiversity experts can enhance
the role of the Gaddi in establishing sustainable
environments. Experiences from other countries
should be analysed for their applicability to India
and the Gaddi could gain much from exposure to
such programmes.
END NOTE
With various employment schemes and other
benefits offered by the government, it is odd that
the Gaddi have preferred to bear various levels
of hardship in order to continue their traditional
vocation. But, times are changing - lucrative short
term employment schemes in the offing coupled
with reduced long term rights to forage are slowly
pushing herders out of business. Agriculture now
holds more promise, the Gaddi feel and their
future depends on the political decisions made by
state and central governments.
A more participatory and inclusive approach
by the forest authorities in grazing and
herders’ rights would be effective for long term
conservation, management of forest resources
and sustainable grazing practices.
The aut hors are Asst. Field Of ficer, Wild Species
Programme, Wildli fe Trust of India , Uttar Pr adesh an d Editor,
G‘nY respectively. sajididrisi@yaho o.com
With increased technological upgradation, monitoring the movement
of Gaddi and other transhumant tribes can be undertaken through GPS and
participation interlinked with tangible biodiversity improvement studies.

28  MAY - JU NE 2011  GEOG RA PHY A ND YOU
The Sondwa Block of Jhabua, Madhya Pradesh saw unprecedented
commercial exploitation of its forests which upset the fragile
hilly ecosystem. The Bhil livelihood was the most affected with
dwindling forest resources on one end and the Indian Forest Act
on the other which deemed them criminals in their own backyard.
In 1983, the Bhil of Alirajpur began organising themselves to
protect the forests - their lifeline.
Story Subhadra Khaperde
THE LIV ING FOR ESTS
I
felt very angry that after cutting down all
our forests to supply timber to the cities,
the forest authorities should blame us for
the destruction. So I got the women of
our village together and started protecting these
hills. Now nobody can blame us anymore,” said
Daheli Bai, a Bhil tribal woman of Attha village
in Alirajpur district of Madhya Pradesh replying
to a question as to what had prompted them to
protect their forests and render them as verdant
as they are.
The Sondwa Block of Alirajpur flanks River
Narmada and is ver y hilly, constituting the edge of
the Vindhyas, before the river debouches onto the
Bharuch Plains in Gujarat. The slopes have thin
red soils while narrow strips in the valleys contain
black soil of medium depth. This is underlain by
basaltic hard rock with poor ground water aquifer
characteristics. The average annual rainfall is
GUARDING
THEIR FORESTS
BHIL
900 mm occurring in the monsoon season (mid-
June to mid-October). The indigenous people
of this region, Bhil, have adapted to this semi
arid ecosystem by practising organic agriculture
in the valleys and supplementing it with forest
produce. Deciduous trees, teak, sisam, anjan
and salai and various grasses, shrubs and herbs
grow in abundance here. Despite hard rock
underneath, the forest cover ensures that there
is enough natural recharge of groundwater with
the rain percolating through fissures in the rock.
Consequently, streams gurgle with fresh water
throughout the year.
The reorganisation of states in 1956 and the
formation of Madhya Pradesh changed things
drastically. Alirajpur had earlier been ruled by a
feudal prince, who exerted a loose control over
the Bhil. The community mostly lived in tightly
knit tribes bonded by customs of labour pooling.
PHOTO: WFS
“

GEOGR APH Y AN D YOU  MAY - J UNE 2011  29
Under Daheli’s guidance, the women of Attha
formed groups of five or six and began patrolling
the forest to ensure that they were not gra zed
and root stock regenerated. Thereafter, they
made sure that the new trees were not cut.

FOREST PEOPLE
30  MAY - JU NE 2011  GEOG RA PHY A ND YOU
When the area was handed over to the Forest
Department the commercial exploitation of the
forests for timber production began.
This upset the fragile hilly ecosystem and
with the forests gone and thin soil layers washed
away, the natural recharge of the rain was greatly
reduced, drying up the streams. Of course, the
Bhil livelihood was most affected as the fertility
of their lands as well as the supply of forest
produce declined drastically. Simultaneously,
the provisions of the Indian Forest Act ensured
that they were deemed criminals in their own
backyard and forced to pay bribes to the forest
authorities staff to access forests.
Then in 1983, the Bhil began organising
themselves to demand their rights, especially the
right to protect the forests - their lifeline. They
formed the Khedut Mazdoor Chetna Sangathan
(KMCS) to rebuild and protect the denuded forests
in about fifty villages of the Sondwa Block. The
women of Attha village, under the leadership of
Daheli Bai, began the struggle which soon spread
to nearby villages. Daheli Bai and her comrade
Vesti Bai, travelled upstream along the rivulet that
ran through their village to reach the villages of
Gendra and Fadtala. They explained that since the
stream originated in Fadtala, full benefits of forest
protection in terms of greater availability of soil,
water and forest produce would only be gained if
they all joined hands to protect their forests. The
stream in Attha had begun to go dry with heavy
deforestation, but in over a decade - early 1990s -
the stream became perennial once again.
The uniqueness of this conservation effort
is its reliance on the traditional labour pooling
custom of the Bhil. Under Daheli’s guidance,
the women of Attha formed groups of five or six
and began patrolling the forest to ensure that
they were not grazed and root stock regenerated.
Thereafter, they made sure that the new trees
were not cut. The grass would be cut only after
the monsoons and distributed equally among
protecting families to be used as fodder for cattle.
Emboldened with their success, the Attha
women then began another conservation activity.
The small teams began working in groups on
farms of their members to plug the gullies in
between the farms with stones so as to catch the
soil and some of the runoff. Since the mid 1990s,
establishment of hundreds of such gully plugs
have led to an increase in productivity and soil
profile of many small plots. This practice, too,
was replicated in many other villages in A lirajpur.
Adjoining Alirajpur, in the village of Kakrana
the winds of taking charge spelt hard decisions.
The courageous Bhil posted a permanent
member in the forest to sound an alarm whenever
poachers arrived. Raija Bai, and her husband
Dilu, were the first to take up this challenge and
built their hut in the forest. Even today they live
there alone with their children.
The villagers of Jhandana, Sugat, and
Chameli initially had trouble protecting another
forests too - however, after much fighting, they
were able to resolve their differences with the help
of members of the KMCS. Today, this forest too is
resplendent and visible from a long distance.
“Collective action by the community for
forest, soil and water conservation is the only
sustainable way in which the productivity of
fragile ecosystems in hilly, semi arid and hard
rock regions of the country can be ensured,”
opines Rahul Banerjee, who has spent twenty five
years in researching and implementing natural
resource management projects in the region.
Banerjee, a graduate in civil engineering from
the Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur,
adds, “Growing forests, greater availability
of flowing water leading to reduced demand
for artificial energy and greater agricultural
productivity achieved through organic practices
all contribute significantly to mitigating climate
change.” And when this is done through
communitarian collective action, the gains in
terms of social justice are an added benefit.
Art icle co ntribution Women’s Feature Services, New De lhi.
The Bhil organised themselves to demand their rights - they
formed the Khedut Mazdoor Chetna Sangathan to rebuild and protect the
denuded forests in about fifty villages of the Sondwa Block, Jhabua.

GEOGR APH Y AN D YOU  MAY - J UNE 2011  31
Power
TERM
Here is an exercise that is intended to introduce you to a gamut of
terms related to forests that you know but just cannot define. Pick the
right option and check how you fare. The answers are on page 39.
1. CA NOPY
a. Shrubs growing on forest
bottom
b. Uppermost layer of forest
foliage
c. Trees in a forest
2. DECIDUOUS
a. Trees and plants that shed
their leaves at the end of
growing season
b. Trees and plants that retain
their leaves throughout the
year
c. Trees and plants that die at
the end of growing season.
3. LITTER
a. Freshly fallen leaves on
forest floor
b. Animal carcass on forest
floor
c. Undecomposed organic
debris on surface of forest
floor
4. ANGIOSPERMS
a. Flowering plants with seeds
dispersed by wind
b. Flowering plants that
produce seeds enclosed in
fruit
c. Flowering plants with
pollen spread by bees
5. AUTOTROPH
a. An organism that eats other
organisms
b. An organism that uses energy
from sun to digest its food
c. An organism that makes
its own food from light or
chemical energy without
eating
6. CARRYING CAPACITY
a. The maximum number
of animals of a given
species that can live in an
area.
b. The maximum number of
plants that can grow in an
area.
c. The maximum number of
animal species in a given
area.
7. DISPE R SE RS
a. Animals that do not live in
herds
b. Animals that spread plant
seeds
c. Plants species that are
spread out in a forest

32  MAY - J UNE 2011  GE OGR APHY A ND YOU
Scientific study of the natural hazards and coastal processes has
assumed greater significance after the December 2004 tsunami
as the country learnt lessons from the high impact damage to life,
property and environment. The nation’s want for reliable coastal
vulnerability information has created a need for classifying coastal
lands and evaluating its hazard vulnerability.
Story T Srinivasa Kumar
CLIMATE CHANGE
Coastal
Vulnerability
Index
KAVARATTI, LAKSHADWEEP

GEOGR APH Y AN D YOU  MAY - J UNE 2011  33
Coastal regions of our nation are
facing tremendous population and
developmental pressure for the last four
decades. According to the 1992 estimates of
United Nations more than half of the world’s
population lives within 60 km of a shoreline.
In the 1950s there were only two mega cities -
New York and London, which notched upto 20
by 1990, and as recent projections predict, it is
likely that we have 30 mega cities by 2010 with a
population of 320 million. According to United
Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) report
the average population density in the coastal zone
rose from 77 people per sq km in 1990 to 87 in
2000 and was projected as 99 for 2010.
Collectively, this is placing additional demands on
coastal resources as well as exposing more people
to coastal hazard. About 200 million people were
estimated to live in the coastal f loodplain in 1990
(in the area inundated by a 1 in 1000 year flood)
- it is likely that their number increases to 600
million by the year 2100. Furthermore, global
climate change and threat of accelerated sea level
rise exacerbate the already existing high risks of
storm surges, severe waves and tsunamis. Over
the last 100 years, global sea level rose by 1.0 to
2.5 mm/year. Present estimates of future sea level
rise induced by climate change, range from 20 to
86 cm for the year 2100, with a best estimate of
49 cm. It has been estimated that a 1 m rise in sea
level could displace nearly 7 million people from
their homes in India (IPCC WG1, 2001).
Officials and resource managers responsible
for dealing with natural hazards need accurate
assessments in order to take informed decisions
before, during, and after hazard events. Such
study or analysis of risk is increasingly being
presented with the intention of contributing data
to physical and territorial planning specialist as
an ingre dient within the de cision ma ki ng pr ocess.
Disciplines such as geography, physical,
urban or territorial planning, economics and
environmental management helped to strengthen
what is perhaps an applied science approach to
disasters. Maps became more and more common
due to greater participation of geologists,

MAPPING CHANGE
34  MAY - JU NE 2011  GEOG RA PHY A ND YOU
geotechnical engineers, hydrologists and other
experts. They were able to provide required data
for the adequate identification of the danger or
hazard zones, according to the area of influence
of natural phenomena. Also tools such as GIS
have facilitated identification and analysis.
Methodology
Vulnerability may be defined as internal risk of
a subject or system that is exposed to a hazard
and corresponds to its intrinsic predisposition to
be affected, or to be susceptible to damage. In
general, the concept of ‘hazard’ is now used to
refer to a latent danger or an external risk factor
of a system or exposed subject. Hazard can be
computed mathematically as the probability
of occurrence of an event of certain intensity
in a specific site, during a determined period
of exposure. Vulnerability, however may be
mathematically expressed as - feasibility that the
exposed subject or system may be affected by
the phenomenon that characterises the hazard.
Risk, therefore is the potential loss to the exposed
subject or system, resulting from a combination of
hazard and vulnerability. Risk may be expressed
in a mathematical form as the probability of
surpassing a determined level of economic, social
or environmental consequence at a certain site
and during a certain period of time.
Although a viable, quantitative predictive approach
is not available, the relative vulnerability of
different coastal environments to sea level rise may
be quantified at a regional to national scale using
basic information on coastal geomorphology, rate
of sea level change, past shoreline evolution, etc.,
to estimate the coastal vulnerability index (CVI).
This approach combines the coastal system’s
susceptibility to change with its natural ability to
adapt to changing environmental conditions, and
yields a relative measure of the system’s natural
vulnerability to the effects of sea level rise. The
method uses a rating system that classifies the
coastal area based on degree of vulnerability -
low, medium and high.
The method of computation of CVI in the
present study is similar to that used in Thieler
and Hammar-Klose (1999), Thieler (2000) and
Pendleton et al., (2005). In addition to the 6
parameters used by earlier resea rchers, the present
study uses a n additional geologic process variable,
i.e. coastal regional elevation. The seven relative
risk variables used are shoreline change rate, sea
level change rate, coastal slope, mean significant
wave height, mean tidal range, coastal regional
elevation and coastal geomorphology. Most of
the above parameters are dynamic and require
a large amount of data from different sources to
be acquired, analysed and processed. Once each
section of coastline is assigned a risk value for each
variable, the CVI is calculated as the square root
of the product of the ranked variables divided by
the total number of variables (Pendleton et al.,
2005).
Results
This is the first study to look at vulnerability on
synoptic scales (1:1,00,000) that covers the entire
Indian coastline. The resulting map is shown
in Figure 1. The general trend shows that the
northern parts of the coastal states: Tamil Nadu,
Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Kerala, Maharashtra,
and Goa indicate high and very high vulnerability
indices as compared to the southern and central
parts of the states’ coastlines - Gujarat being
an exception. The north south trend is also
apparent in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Lakshadweep Islands indicate high to very high
indices due to the sea level and terrain elevation
of the region, with Minicoy recording very high
vulnerability index. The Gulfs of Kambhat and
Kachchh in Gujarat show very high vulnerability
indices, with the inlets of Kachchh showing
localised vulnerability. Sunderban in West
Bengal shows high and very high vulnerability
index in majority of its locations, while the north
eastern patches show low vulnerability indices,
due to mangroves in slightly elevated regions. It
Coastal vulnerability index (CVI) = √ [(a*b*c*d*e*f*g)/7]
Where
a = risk rating assigned to shoreline change rate
b = risk rating assigned to sea level change rate
c = risk rating assigned to coastal slope
d = risk rating assigned to significant wave height
e = risk rating assigned to tidal range
f = risk rating assigned to coastal regional elevation
g = risk rating assigned to coastal geomorphology
The CVI values are categorised into very high, high,
medium and low vulnerability coasts based on the equal
interval of the CVI percentile.

GEOGR APH Y AN D YOU  MAY - J UNE 2011  35
Very Hig h
High
Medium
Low
Vulnerability classes
Map not to sc ale
The vulnerability map indicates that the northern parts of the coastal states
-Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Kerala, Maharashtra, and Goa fall
in the high and very high vulnerability zones as compared to the southern and
central parts of the states’ coastlines - Gujarat being an exception. The north
south trend is also apparent in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
has been well documented that the mangroves
break waves, dissipating the energy and hence
acts as a natural barrier.
The study depicts vulnerable areas as per the
seven parameters considered. These maps are
therefore not maps of total vulnerability, but of
essential aspects constituting overall vulnerability.
They depict the problematic regions, and
therefore further attention should be directed to
these regions to analyse their vulnerability in the
context of nested scales and on higher resolution.
Use of additional parameters such as cyclone,
storm surge and coastal flooding will add an
additional dimension to the current study.
The coastal vulnerability maps produced
using this technique serve as a broad indicator
of threats to people living in coastal zones.
This is a objective methodology to characterise
the risk associated with coastal hazards and
can be effectively used by coastal managers
and administrators for better planning to
mitigate the losses due to hazards as well
as for prioritisation of areas for evacuation
during disasters.
The aut hor is senior sci entist, Indian National Cen tre for
Ocean Information Servi ces (INCO IS). sriniva s@incois.gov.in
Fig 1. Coastal vulnerabilit y index along the Indian coast overlaid
on the ESR I world topographical map.

36  MAY - JU NE 2011  GEOG RA PHY A ND YOU
Story Meloth Thamban and Rasik Ravindra Photos NCAOR
CLIMATE CHANGE
Warming in Coastal
Antarctic Scrutiny of instrumental data from Antarctic
reveals that the Continent has undergone significant changes in the
recent decades, with an increase in atmospheric temperature in most
parts. The largest annual warming trends are found in the West
Antarctic and Antarctic Peninsula in particular. In contrast, the East
Antarctic has experienced little warming. However, recent studies reveal
that the warming had affected many sites in the coastal East Antarctic.
Importantly, the complexity of Antarctic climate is still poorly
understood because of the limited periods of observational data.

GEOGR APH Y AN D YOU  MAY - J UNE 2011 37
Annual scientific research expeditions to
the Antarctic by the National Centre for
Antarctic and Ocean Research (NCAOR),
Goa, utilises its singular environment as a great
natural laboratory for scientific investigations that
assists the understanding of global environment
change. India established its first station in
Antarctic at Dakshin Gangotri in 1983, followed
by the second permanent station at Maitri in
1989. A third station Bharati is being established
at the Larsemann Hills area of East Antarctic.
The present study investigates the fluctuating
Antarctic climate system on sub-annual to
centennial time scales, with a complex interplay
of the ice sheet, ocean, sea ice, and atmosphere.
Scrutiny of instrumental data from Antarctic
based on the few available records reveal that
Antarctic had undergone significant changes in
recent decades, with an increase in atmospheric
temperature in most parts of the Antarctic
continent. The largest annual warming trends
are found on the western and northern parts of
the Antarctic Peninsula. Contrastingly, interior
parts of East Antarctic seems to have experienced
little warming or even slight cooling at certain
locations. However, the spatial and temporal
complexity of Antarctic climate is still poorly
understood because of the limited and short
periods of observational data.
Analyses of ice core proxy records provide one
of the most accurate methods to reconstruct the
Antarct ic climate change beyond the instru mental
limits. Ice core records from polar regions offer
continuous and highly resolved proxy records on
major atmospheric parameters like temperature,
composition and trace gases. Among the various
proxy variables used, the stable isotope ratios
of oxygen (δ18O) and hydrogen (δD) offer the
most critical information on the past changes
in temperature. Additionally, glaciochemical
parameters like ionic and trace metal
composition of the ice cores are extensively used
for reconstructing past changes in atmospheric
circulation, global volcanism, dust input, sea ice
extent/concentration, oceanic productivity, as
well as environmental pollution.
ANTARCITC IS WARMING
Considering the importance of chronicling
Antarctic environmental change in the context
of global warming, Indian researchers have made
systematic efforts to retrieve and study ice core
records from the coastal regions of East Antarctic.
Further to understand the coastal Antarctic
variability during the past few centuries with
annual to sub-annual resolution, several ice cores
have been collected from the coastal sites of East
Antarctic. Among these, two ice cores from the
centra l Dronnin g Maud Land region (IND-22/B4
and IND-25/B5, Fig 2) with reliable chronological
constraints were studied extensively for various
proxy parameters. W hile the IND-25/B5 provided
2000
-35
δ18O (per mil)
Age (AD)
‘Novo’ Jan Temp (oC) Ice core SAT (oC)
(4 year low-pas s filtered)
-30 -25 -1
-31.5 δ18O-28.0 0.0 2.2
01-35-30-25-20-15
199 0
198 0
196 0
1970
1950
194 0
1930
1920
1910
Fig 2. Reconstructed temperature records of ice cores
from the coastal regions of Dronning Maud Land,
East Antarctic
Fig 1. SAM Index

WORLD CLIMATE
38  MAY - JU NE 2011  GEO GRA PHY A ND YOU
high-resolution records of the past 100 years
(1905-2005), the IND-22/B4 core represented the
past ~470 years (1530-2002) of climate change in
coastal East Antarctic. The considerable variation
in δ18 O records on an interannual to decadal
scale seems to be associated with changes in low
and mid latitude climatic modes. The IND-25/B5
δ18O record revealed a significant relation to the
Southern Annular Mode (SAM) and the El Niño
Southern Oscillation (ENSO). Conversely, on a
decadal scale, the influence of ENSO diminishes
and a significant relationship between δ18O and
SAM is established. Application of the δ18O-
temperature relationship in the region to the
IND-25/B5 ice core record revealed an average air
temperature of -25.5°C during 1905-2005 AD.
Compared to this, extended δ18 O records of IND-
22/B4 revealed an average temperature of -19.3°C
during 1530-2002.
The reconstr ucted temperature record of IND-
25/B5 exhibited an average warming of 1°C for
the entire century (1905-2005) with a warming
trend of 0.1°C/10 years. The records also revealed
a greatly enhanced warming of ~3°C during 1930-
2005 (~0.4°C/10 years). The temperature record
of IND-22/B4 exhibited relatively more negative
δ18O values during periods of reduced solar
activity like the Dalton and Maunder Minima,
suggesting significant influence of solar activity
on Antarctic climate. The estimated warming
trend for this site was ~0.6°C per century, with
relatively increased warming during the recent
decades.
The reconstructed temperature records of ice
cores as well as the available observational data
thus suggest that the coastal regions of Dronning
Maud Land in East Antarctic are experiencing
significant warming in the recent decades. The
findings have considerable implications for the
coastal Antarctic ice sheet stability and possible
sea level changes. On a broader perspective,
effects of such enhanced warming could affect
the fragile Antarctic ecosystem. Any loss of sea ice
due to warming could adversely affect the coastal
Antarctic food chain system since any decrease
in sea ice algae would affect the krill population,
which in turn would affect the Adélie Penguin
population.
Our studies while confirming the
instrumental record of recent warming at
the Novo Antarctic station data, contradict
the observed slight cooling at the South Pole
Amundsen-Scott Station. Considering such
large spatial and temporal heterogeneity in the
environmental conditions, the current estimation
of temperature trends across the East Antarctic
based on extrapolations using few station records
needs to be vigorously tested. It is suggested that
spatially distributed ice core derived temperature
profiles could provide valuable data in filling
the large gaps as well as extending the climatic
records in Antarctic.
The aut hors are Scien tist E and Director, resp ectivel y at
the National Centre for Antarctic and O cean Research, G oa.
meloth@ncaor.org
Findings about warming trends have considerable implications for
the coastal Antarctic ice sheet stability and possible sea level changes. On a
broader perspective, effects of such enhanced warming could affect the fragile
Antarctic ecosystem.
Ice core drilling in progress at Dronning Maud Land

GEOGR APH Y AN D YOU  MAY  J UNE 2011  39
1. CA NOPY
Ans (b); A layer of foliage in a
forest stand. This most often
refers to the uppermost layer
of foliage, but it can be used
to describe lower layers in a
multistoried stand. Leaves,
branches and vegetation that
are above ground and/or water
that provide shade and cover
for fish and wildlife.
2. DECIDUOUS
Ans (a); Plants characterised
by a specific growth and
dormancy cycle, with certain
parts falling at the end of the
growing period, as leaves,
fruits, etc., or after anthesis,
as the petals of many flowers
- as contrasted with evergreen
which remains verdant
throughout the year.
3. LITTER
Ans (c); The loose, relatively
undecomposed organic debris
on the surface of the forest
floor made up typically of
leaves, bark, small branches,
and other fallen material.
4. ANGIOSPERMS
Ans (b); Angiosperms are
flowering plants that produce
seeds enclosed in fruit. They
are the dominant type of
plant today with over 250,000
species. Their flowers are used
in reproduction. Angiosperms
evolved 125 million years ago
and became the dominant
plants about 100 million years
ago. Angiosperms are divided
into the monocots (like corn)
and dicots (like beans).
5. AUTOTROPH
Ans (c); An autotroph (or
producer) is an organism that
makes its own food from
light or chemical energy
without eating. Most green
plants, many protists (one-
celled organisms like slime
moulds) and most bacteria are
autotrophs. Autotrophs are the
base of the food chain.
6. CARRYING CAPACITY
Ans (a); The carrying capacity
of an area is the maximum
number of animals of a given
species that can live there. This
number is limited by amount
of food in that region, by the
amount of sheltering area
required by the species, and
other factors. The carrying
capacity of a region is difficult
to calculate.
7. DISPE R SE RS
Ans (b); Dispersers are animals
that spread plant seeds. Some
dispersers include birds,
insects, bats, and furry animals
like squirrels and monkeys.
RATINGS
Power
TERM
1 to 3 Correct - Informed
4 to 5 Correct - Knowledge bank
5 to 7 Correct - Encyclopedia

40  MAY - JU NE 2011  GEOG RA PHY A ND YOU
CLIMATE CHANGE
FRESHWATER
FOR PARCHED
ISLANDERS –
NATURALLY
DESALINATION
PLANT AT
MINICOY

GEOGR APH Y AN D YOU  MAY - J UNE 2011  41
The mismatch between increasing demand and decline in water
availability due to overexploitation and climate change is a critical
issue for policy makers. Desalination, which is the conversion of
seawater to potable water through various physical and chemical
methods, has emerged as a potential solution to India’s looming
water crisis. The most important concern however is cost
effectivity of the methodology, type of energy used for desalination
and sustainability of the plant.
Story S V S Phani Kumar,
M V Ramana Murthy and M A Atmanand
Rapid urbanisation, population explosion
and over exploitation of ground water
resources are some of the reasons for the
increasing freshwater demand in regions of the
country. Coastal and island communities of the
nation however, can eke potable water with the
use of desalination technologies. Some of the
common conventional desalination technologies
are reverse osmosis (RO), multistage flashing
and multi effect distillation. In RO water from
a highly concentrated region is transferred
to a region of low pressure. A semi-permeable
membrane having pore diameter from 0.5
nm to 1.5 nm separates the two sections. The
technology has the limitations - pretreatment of
water to protect membranes, higher pumping
power proportional to feed pressure, biofouling
of membranes, frequent change of expensive
membranes, etc., apart from causing ecosystem
imbalances through discharged water. Similarly,
Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of low temperature thermal desalination
plant using shell and tube condenser

CHANGE ADAPTATION
42  MAY - JU NE 2011  GEOG RA PHY A ND YOU
multistage flashing and multi effect distillation
plants are economical for higher capacity
desalination plants especially when warm water
above 60oC can be produced using waste heat
from power plants. However, in the Indian
context there are very few plants that work
with these technologies - since the ultimate cost
of desalination would include the cost of the
waste heat that is used to take the water to the
required inlet temperature. The generation and
maintenance of vacuum and the problems of
scaling are two technical challenges associated
with such technologies.
On the other hand, low temperature thermal
desalination (LTT D) process uses naturally
available temperature difference in the ocean
layers, and provides an option that is completely
environment friendly with the added advantage
of minimum maintenance. The process entails
evaporation of warmer surface sea water at low
pressures and condensation of the resultant pure
vapour using deep sea cold water available at
about 400m below sea level. Simple and easy to
maintai n, the desalination plant requires just a few
components - a flash chamber for evaporation, a
condenser for liquefying the vapour, sea water
pumps, vacuum system, a long pipe to draw
cold water from 400m below sea level, marine
structures such as sump, plant building and
bridge. The LTTD with ocean thermal gradient
is an environment friendly technology as it uses
naturally available heat. Fig. 1 shows a schematic
diagram of LTT D process.
Desalination Plant for Islanders
Reali sing the misery of the isla nders, Lakshadweep
was identified as the most suitable for setting up
of the LT T D technology on experimental basis
to produce freshwater. Also, for most islands
here, a 400m depth is available within 600 to
800 m from the shore. The Ministry of Earth
Sciences through the National Institute of
Ocean Technology (NIOT) decided to set up a
desalination plant at Kavaratti, with a capacity of
1 lakh litres/day in 2005 to provide potable water
from the sea and alleviate the scarcity of drinking
water faced by the communities. The plant is
being operated by local islanders since 2006 and
meeting the drinking water requirements of the
10,000 strong local communities for over six
years. Studies conducted by a team of doctors
have shown an improvement in public health
among the beneficiaries with a drastic drop in the
water borne diseases.
Minicoy Desalination Plant
Satisfied with the ease of operation, utility
and performance of the successful Kavaratti
desalination plant, Lakshadweep administration
1. View of sump during its tow.
2. Wave activity in the breaker
area. 3. An aerial view of
Minicoy Plant showing the plant
building, bridge and sump
PHOTO COURTESY: NIOT
1
3
2

GEOGR APH Y AN D YOU  MAY - J UNE 2011  43
approached NIOT to put up similar plants in
other islands of the region. Works in Agatti and
Minicoy were taken up in the first phase. The
plant at Minicoy, was commissioned on 22 April
2011 to mark the Earth Day celebrations.
Challenges
Construction of marine structures that can
withstand all weather conditions is the most
challenging part of the project. The 400 tonne
sump that houses the sea water pumps are initially
cast inside the island lagoon, pushed into water,
floated and towed about 10 km to the eastern
side of the island, for its final installation at the
site. The construction of piers of the bridge that
connects the sump to the shore was a daunting
task considering the fact that the piers in the
breaker area experience constant wave action at
every 10-15 second period.
The 700 m long HDPE pipe that draws the
cold water from 400 m below the sea level is
connected to the island through 12 m pieces,
welded in the lagoon and towed to reach the
site and then deployed to connect one end to
the sump and leave other end at about 400 m
depth. The pipe is designed to withstand all
weather conditions in an oceanic environment.
The design of process equipment is optimised to
facilitate the ease in construction, transportation
and erection in remote islands, while meeting the
project requirements of minimal power usage to
cut down running costs, compatibility for sea
water use and containment of total project cost.
Concluding Remarks
LTTD is a fairly new development with
significant scope for cost reduction as the
technology matures. The process involves about
1 per cent conversion resulting in zero brine
disposal problems, and hence does not interfere
with the fragile ecosystem of the area. The
discharged cold water that is let out at about 17oC
is rich in nutrients and attracts a variety of fish.
This results in spin offs like air conditioning for
land based plants and mariculture. Considering
the projected demand for drinking water in the
near future, it is important to promote LTTD for
parched coastal and island communities.
The authors are Scien tist E, Scientist F and Director,
respec tively at National In stitute of Ocean Technology,
Chennai. mvr@niot.res.in
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44  MAY - JUN E 2011  GEOGR A PHY AN D YOU
Story Dr Saraswati Raju
CENSUS 2011
The declining number of girls vis-à-vis
boys in the age-group 0-6 in India,
commonly known as child sex ratio
(CSR), has caught the attention of a
wide ranging group of scholars, activists and
policy makers in India. The declining sex ratio is
a proxy variable for societal apathy towards girls
- they are either not allowed to be born or face
discriminatory treatment soon after being born
to the extent that they perish.
More boys are conceived and are born
naturally, but more boys die within first few
months – this is the nature’s way to keep the
bal ance prov ided there i s no exter nal inte rventions .
The earlier explanations for skewed CSR drew
from this observation. That is, it was argued that
with the improvement in reproductive health and
pre-natal and post-natal child care, fewer boys
now die and therefore the initial advantage that
the baby boys have continue to remain. Other
reasons cited were selective under enumeration
of girls and differential mortality between boys
and girls. It was soon clear that these explanations
were only partially true in accounting for the
rapidly falling number of girls.
The temporal data for the sex ratios at birth
(SRB), however, showed that over the decades the
number of boys born per 100 girls was crossing
the normally accepted ratio of 105 boys per
100 girls to touch SRB of 111 baby boys to 100
Lives at
Risk
The 2011 provisional figure for the sex ratio in the age group 0-6 (CSR)
is a mixed bag of hope and despair. While on one hand the tempo
with which CSRs were becoming skewed in favour of boys over the last
two decades has slowed down and the worst areas have shown some
improvement, on the other, there is rapid spread of low CSRs to regions
well beyond the traditional strongholds known for discriminatory
practices towards girls. A combination of factors responsible for such
spread demand contextualised short and long term interventions.
Where have the baby girls gone?

GEOGR APH Y AN D YOU  MAY - J UNE 2011  45
Sex selective abortions
distort the natural process of
balancing of child sex ratios.
Prior to availability and access
to technology, families would
still desire sons and would
bear several daughters till that
desired son arrives. Now with
selection of the sex of unborn
babies possible, desirable sex
composition is being achieved
without going into multiple
pregnancies.

ANALYSING SE X RATIO
46  MAY - JUN E 2011  GEOG RA PHY AN D YOU
baby girls at the national level albeit with a wide
ranging regional differences - from 104.4 in
Kerala to 119.5 in Punjab.
Such skewed SRB clearly indicates that the
very birth of a baby girl is being manipulated.
This has become possible through amniocentesis,
a process of taking a sample of amniotic fluid
from mother’s womb – a technology which was
to diagnose babies’ chromosomal and other
abnormalities including the lungs’ condition.
Unfortunately, its ability to detect the sex of
the unborn baby is what has made a milestone
technology an eyesore, particularly in north-
western parts of India, to begin with, which
have been traditionally characterised by ‘son
preference’. However, it will be subsequently seen
that areas of skewed CSRs are expanding much
beyond the ‘traditional’ strongholds.
Sex selective abortions distort the natural
process of balancing of CSRs. Prior to availability
and access to the technology, families would still
desire sons and would bear several daughters till
that desired son arrives. Existing rituals such as the
virtue of kanyadān and Raksha Bandhan would
mean that at least daughters were not unwelcome
even if not too many. Now that technology makes
it possible to select the sex of unborn babies,
desirable sex composition of children can be
achieved without going into multiple pregnancies.
There are enough evidences to endorse the
increasing practice of sex selective elimination of
girls through abortions. A recent study in Lancet
(May 24th, 2011, available online), which draws
upon annual birth histories and child mortality
rates for 1990-2005 from three rounds of the
National Family Health Survey (NFHS) - a large-
scale, nationally representative survey of rural
and urban Indian households, found that the
More boys are conceived and are born naturally, but more boys die
within first few months – this is the nature’s way to keep the balance provided
there is no external interventions.
Fig 1. Children under six: How many girls for every 1,000 boys?
Minimu m – 766 (Fatehgar h Sahib)
Maxi mum – 1035 (East Ka meng)
Average – 92 7
Minimu m – 774 (Jhajjar)
Maxi mum – 1013 (Lahul & Spiti)
Average – 914
Child S ex Ratio (0- 6 years) 2001
India Average-927
Highe st - 1035
(East Kameng)
Lowes t - 766
(Fatehgarh Sahib)
Mean - 930
Standard
Deviation -47.7
India Average-914
Highe st - 1013
(Lah ul & Spiti)
Lowes t - 774
(Jhajjar)
Mean - 918
Standard
Deviation -43.2
Sex Ratio
760-7 74 774-786
160 90
140 80
120 70
100 60
80 50
60 40
40 30
20 20
010
0
845-858 929-942 1013-1026
No. of Distr icts
No. of Distr icts
Maps not to s cale
Sex Ratio
NA
Below 850
850-90 0
901-950
951 and above
Child S ex Ratio (0- 6 years) 2011
Sex Ratio
847-858 919-930 991-1002
Sex Ratio
NA
Below 850
850-90 0
901-950
951 and above
2001 2011

GEOGR APH Y AN D YOU  MAY - J UNE 2011  47
sex ratio for the second-order births when the
firstborn was a girl, fell from 906 per 1000 boys
in 1990 to 836 in 2005. This decline amounts to
an annual decline of 0.52 per cent. As opposed
to this, the second-order births did not show any
significant decline in the sex ratio if the first born
was a boy. The researchers adjusted for excess
mortality rates in girls. Even then the estimated
number of selective abortions of girls rose from 0
to 2 million in the 1980s, to 1.2 to 4.1 million in
the 1990s, and to 3.1 to 6.0 million in the 2000s.
The study’s worst and counter-intuitive
observation is that the declines were much greater
where mothers had 10 or more years of education
as compared to mothers with no education
and in wealthier households compared with
poorer households. Other studies also suggest
the association between worst CSRs and the
developmental parameters, not only in terms of
conventional indicators of women’s enhanced
status such as female literacy, higher age at
marriage, lower fertility rates, but also in terms of
overall development such as urbanisation, poverty
levels and per capita income. It is known for
example that the district of South Delhi - the most
aff luent and rich part of Delhi is characterised by
the worst CSRs in the State. This trend continues.
Moreover, as the following discussion shows, areas
which were earlier not in this league are showing
increasingly worsening of the CSRs, obliterating
the well known regional differences between the
north and the south in India, for example.
There is consensus now that the skewed SRB in
favour of baby boys is what has contributed to the
alarmingly worsening of CSRs. This realisation has
resulted in several agencies including members of
civil society, activists, researchers as well as central
and state apparatus becoming concerned about the
issue with several corrective measures in place. The
Prenatal Diagnostics Techniques (Regulation and
Prevention of Misuse) (PNDT) Act and its relatively
more stringent implementation is a case in point.
Some were hopeful of seeing a turnaround, some
were apprehensive, but everybody eagerly waited
for the 2011 Census.
The provisional figures for 2011 Census do
bring some relief in the sense that the tempo
with which the numbers of baby girls were
declining has now slowed down – in 1991, there
were 945 girls to 1000 boys for India as a whole
- five points short of generally accepted CSR of
950 girls per 1000 boys. The 2001 Census had
witnessed a sharp decline of 18 points with CSR
of 927; the CSR in 2011 is 914 – a decline of 13
points. In addition, some of the worst hit states
in 2001 such as Haryana, Punjab, Himachal
Pradesh and Gujarat have now gained. However,
this ‘gain’ has its underbelly for even with the
improvement, Haryana and Punjab continue to
have the dubious status of CSRs below 850 (short
by 100 points from a CSR of 950) with the 2011
CSR of 830 and 846 respectively (Graph 1).
More importantly, the 2011 Census shows
rapid spread of districts/states with low CSRs –
Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh, Jammu and
Kashmir are new entrants (See maps 1 and 2). It is
known that in general tribal communities are not
discriminatory towards women. 2011 CSR figures
seem to defy this. Some of the districts with high
tribal population (in the neighbourhood of 30
per cent as per the 2001 Census) such as Rajouri
in Jammu and Kashmir, Karauli in Himachal
Pradesh and Surat in Gujarat do have low CSRs in
2011. Jalgaon and Ahmadnagar in Maharashtra
are no exceptions. According to the Lancet study
referred above, between the 2001 and 2011
Censuses more than twice the number of Indian
districts has shown declines in the child sex ratio
as districts with no change or increases (Table 1).
Not letting a life ta ke full form is inhuman and
yet families are deciding to do so – the answer to
‘why’ is complex and multilayered. Ea sily available
technology, awareness and access have often been
held squarely responsible for the declining CSRs.
And yet it has to be admitted that a technology
cannot function is contextual isolation. For
example, the southern parts of India are more
advanced in terms of medical technologies and
yet, with few exceptions, they do not have low
CSRs. Even relatively poorer states in northern
parts, i.e. Jammu and Kashmir, Rajasthan and
Uttar Pradesh offer contrasting scenes. It does
not need much imagination to see the reason.
These states, with a possible exception of Jammu
and Kashmir, are located in a social space known
for undervaluation of women and a strong son
preference. The more recent spread beyond has
to be located in the contemporary discourse of
development whereby more progressive processes
such as educational aspirations for girls, rising
age at marriage, improved medical facilities and
‘small family norm’ juxtapose uncomfortably

ANALYSING SE X RATIO
48  MAY - JU NE 2011  GEOG RA PHY A ND YOU
with near universal norm of marriage and
moving of daughters in patrivirilocal (parents-
in-laws) sites which has meant that investment
in daughters has increasingly been seen as a
avoidable burden by the families. Further, in
the absence of institutional support for old age
security, sons are still looked upon as a support
system. Placing sex selective abortion as a ‘choice’
that educated families are making leaves a gaping
hole in the argument – the possibility that it is
not a choice – it is the age old social conditioning
and socialisation process which sees privileging of
mothers having male offspring that women and
other family members internalise.
The challenges thus do not lie within the
four walls of homes. Any serious attempt at
curbing the further deterioration in the situation
demands a multi-pronged strategy which include
affordable and easily accessible old age care and
survival support, social sanction for daughters
shouldering responsibilities towards their parents,
overall secure environment on one hand to a
much stricter monitoring of and prosecution of
erring medical fraternity and use of sex selective
techniques on the other (see, Report on Planning
Families, Planning Gender by Mary John,
Ravinder Kaur, Rajni Palriwala, Saraswati Raju
and Alpana Sagar published in 2008 which is
downloadable from the Web). Region Abstract
The 2011 provisional figure for the sex ratio
in the age-group 0-6 (CSR) is a mix bag of hope
and despair. On one hand the tempo with which
CSRs were becoming skewed in favour of boys
over the last two decades has slowed down and
the worst areas have shown some improvement.
On the other hand, however, there is rapid spread
of low CSRs to regions well beyond the traditional
strongholds known for discriminatory practices
towards girls. A combination of factors responsible
for such spread demand contextualised short and
long term interventions. Specific processes and
outcomes require contextualised interventions
rather than ‘one glove fits all’ approach.
The aut hor is Pro fessor, Centre for the Stu dy of Regional
Development, School of Social Science s, Jawahar lal Nehr u
University, New Delhi. saras@mail.jnu.ac.in
Placing sex selective abortion as a ‘choice’ that educated
families are making, leaves a gaping hole in the argument – the
possibility that it is not a choice. A stricter monitoring of and
prosecution of erring medical fraternity and use of sex selective
techniques is the need of the hour.
Fig 2. Compa rison of Child Sex Ratio (major states) between 1991, 2001 and 2011*
*Provisional Population Data
Sex ratio 850 as base
1991
800
850
900
Sex Ratio
950
1000
2001 2011
Andhra Pradesh
Assam
Bihar
Chhattisgarh
Delhi
Goa
Gujarat
Haryana
Himachal Pradesh
Jammu & Kashmir
Jharkhand
Karnataka
Kerala
Madhya Pradesh
Maharashtra
Orissa
Punjab
Rajasthan
Tamil Nadu
Uttar Pradesh
Uttarakhand
Wes t Benga l

GEOGR APH Y AN D YOU MAY  J UNE 2011  49
CONCEPT COUNTER
Our census
Our future...
The new Census has brought in
astounding results. To appreciate
the nuances of the results, here is a
list of terms often used and seldom
understood.
CENSUS 2011
Census Fact File
First Census conducted in India:
1872 .
Census 2011: 15th Nat ional Census
of India.
Conducted by: The Office of the
Registrar General and Census
Commissioner of India, under
the Ministr y of Home Af fairs,
Government of India.
Unique featu re: Only source of
primary data at village, town and
ward level.
The census results:
Till the 1991 Census entire data
processing took more than 5 years
In the 2001 Census time taken was
reduced to around 3 years
For the 2011 Census efforts
are being made to reduce the
processing time to about
1.5 yea rs.
Census 2011 provisional
population totals: Announced on
31 March 2011.
Census data used for:
 Formulation of policies by
central and state governments;
 Delimitation/reservation of
constituencies;
 Reviewing country’s progress in
the past decade;
 Monitoring the ongoing
governmental schemes; etc.
Census Concepts and Definitions
Urban area
(a) All statutory places with
a municipality, corporation,
cantonment board or notified town
area committee, etc.
(b) A place satisfying the following
three criteria simultaneously:
i) a minimum population of 5,000;
ii) at least 75 per cent of male
working population engaged in non
agricultural pursuits; and
iii) a density of population of at least
400 per sq km.
Institutional Household
A group of unrelated persons who live
in an institution and take their meals
from a common kitchen e.g. boarding
houses, messes, hostels, hotels, rescue
homes, jails, ashrams, orphanages, etc.
Houseless Households
Households who do not live in buildings
or census houses but live in the open
on roadside, pavements, in huge pipes,
under fly overs and staircases, or in the
open in places of worship, mandaps,
railway platforms, etc.
Main Workers
Those workers who had worked for
the major part of the reference period
(before the census enumeration) i.e. 6
months or more.
Marginal Workers
Those workers who had not worked
for the major part of the reference
period, i.e. less than 6 months.
Work Participation Rate
The percentage of total workers (main
and marginal) to total population.
Other Workers
All workers, i.e., those who have
been engaged in some economic
activity during the last one year,
but are not cultivators or agricultural
labourers or in household industry.
Household Industry
An industry conducted by one or
more members of the household at
home or within the village in rural
areas and only within the precincts of
the house where the household lives
in urban areas.
Child Sex Ratio (0-6 years)
The number of females in age group
0 to 6 years per 1000 males in the
same age group in the population.
It is expressed as ‘number of female
children age (0-6) years per 1000
male children age (0-6) years’.
Literacy Rate
The percentage of literates to the
total population age 7 years and
above.
Migration Rate
The ratio of total migrants
counted in the census to its total
population multiplied by 1000.
While discussing the migration
result, the term population
mobility is taken as a synonym to
migration rate.

50  MAY - JU NE 2011  GEO GRA PHY A ND YOU
In absolute terms, the population of India has increased by
more than 181 million from 2001. India today sustains 17.5 per
cent of the world population in 2.4 of its geographical area. In
contrast, the US accounts for 7.2 per cent of earth’s surface area
with only 4.5 per cent of its population.
Provisional Population Figures
World population was transformed in
the 20th century as technological and
social changes brought steep declines
in birth and death rates. The century began with
1.6 billion and ended with 6.1 billion mainly
because of unprecedented growth after 1960. The
momentum created by this may carry the world
well past 7 million by 2015. It is certain that
nearly all future population growth will occur in
the developing regions, especially urban areas.
The percentage decadal growth during 2001-
2011 has registered the sharpest decline since
Independence. For 2001-2011 this decadal
growth has become 17.64 per cent, a decrease
of 3.9 percentage points from the 21.54 per
cent for the period 1991-2001. Uttar Pradesh
continues to be the most populous state of the
nation with almost 200 million followed by
Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal and Andhra
Pradesh.
DATA YOU CAN USE

GEOGR APH Y AN D YOU  MAY - J UNE 2011  51
India/State/UT# Population 2011 Percentage
decadal growth
rate of population
Sex ratio
(number of
females per 1000
males)
Populat ion
density per
sq km
Persons M ale s Females 1991-01 20 01-11 2001 2011 2001 2011
India 1210193422 623724248 586469174 21.54 17.64 933 940 325 382
Jammu &
Kashmir
12548926 6665561 5883365 29.43 23.71 892 883 100 124
Hima chal Prade sh 68565 09 347389 2 3382617 17.5 4 12 .81 968 974 109 123
Punjab 27704236 14634819 13069417 20.10 13.73 876 893 484 550
Chandigarh 1054686 580282 474404 40.28 17.10 777 818 7900 9252
Utt arakha nd 10116752 5154178 4962574 20.41 19.17 962 963 159 189
Haryana 25353081 13505130 11847951 28.43 19.90 861 877 478 573
NCT of Delhi 16753235 8976410 7776825 47.02 20.96 821 866 9340 11297
Raja sthan 68621012 35620086 330 00926 28.41 21.4 4 921 926 165 201
Uttar Pradesh 199581477 104596415 94985062 25.85 20.09 898 908 690 828
Bihar 103804637 54185347 49619290 28.62 25.07 919 916 881 1102
Sikkim 607688 321661 286027 33.06 12.36 875 889 76 86
Arunachal Pradesh 1382611 720232 662379 27.00 25.92 893 920 13 17
Nagaland 1980602 1025707 954895 64.53 -0.47 900 931 120 119
Manipur 2721756 1369764 1351992 24.86 18.65 974 987 103 122
Mizoram 1091014 552339 538675 28.82 22.78 935 975 42 52
Tripura 3671032 1871867 1799165 16.03 14.75 948 961 305 350
Meghalaya 2964007 1492668 1471339 30.65 27.82 972 986 103 132
Assam 31169272 15954927 15214345 18.92 16.93 935 954 340 397
West Bengal 91347736 46927389 44420347 17.77 13.93 934 947 903 1029
Jharkhand 32966238 16931688 16034550 23.36 22.34 941 947 338 414
Orissa 41947358 21201678 20745680 16.25 13.97 972 978 236 269
Chhattisgarh 25540196 12827915 12712281 18.27 22.59 989 991 154 189
Madhya Pradesh 72597565 37612920 34984645 24.26 20.30 919 930 196 236
Gujarat 60383628 31482282 28901346 22.66 19.17 920 918 258 308
Daman & Diu 242911 150100 92811 55.73 53.54 710 618 1413 2169
Dadra & Nagar
Haveli
342853 193178 149675 59.22 55.50 812 775 449 698
Maharashtra 112372972 58361397 54011575 22.73 15.99 922 925 315 365
Andhra Pradesh 84665533 42509881 42155652 14.59 11.10 978 992 27 7 308
Karnataka 61130704 31057742 30072962 17.51 15.67 965 968 276 319
Goa 1457723 740711 717012 15.21 8.17 961 968 364 394
La k s had we ep 64 4 29 33106 31323 17.3 0 6.23 948 946 1895 2013
Kerala 33387677 16021290 17366387 9.43 4.86 1058 1084 819 859
Tamilnadu 72138958 36158871 35980087 11.72 15.60 987 995 480 555
Puducher y 1244464 610485 633979 20.62 27.72 1001 1038 2030 2598
Andaman &
Nicobar Islands
379944 202330 177614 26.90 6.68 846 878 43 46
Ext ract from www.censusindia.gov.in/

52  MAY - J UNE 2 011  GEOGR APH Y AND YOU
The Data Users’ Seminar
was organised by
LIGHTS (Learning
in Geography, Humanities,
Technology and Science) at
Ajmer, Rajasthan, from 17th to
19th April, 2011 to orient senior
secondary school teachers and
college students to the potential
uses to which data can be put
as also various analytical tools
such as GIS, remote sensing
and GPS. The Seminar was
supported by Ministry of
Science and Technology,
National University of
Educational Planning and
Administration, Ministry of
New and Renewable Energy,
Ministry of Women and Child
Development, and Ministry
of Statistics and Programme
Implementation.
The Data Users’ Seminar
was inaugurated on 17th by Dr
M Sudhakar, Senior Advisor,
MoES - the Chief Guest of the
event. In his inaugural speech
Dr Sudhakar laid emphasis
on the need for upgraded
technical education for the
guru so that many generations
of students can adequately
benefit. Dr Prithvish Nag,
Director, NATMO, the Guest
of Honour, spoke passionately
about the need for quality
Data User’s Seminar
Ajmer
education and the building up
of scientific temperament. The
dignitaries and participants
were welcomed by Ms Sulagna
Chattopadhyay, President
LIGHTS, Editor G’nY and
Convenor of the event, with
a brief introduction about the
achievements of the eminent
group of resource persons. The
participants were overwhelmed
to find themselves in the
midst of such senior persons.
Distinguished Guests, Dr
Saraswati Raju, Professor,
CSRD, Jawaharlal Nehru
University, New Delhi; Dr
Suresh Kumar, Deputy
Director, Ministry of
Statistics and Programme
Implementation; Dr S
Srinivasan, practising doctor,
Apollo, New Delhi were also
present for the inaugural
function. Dr Smita Sengupta,
Project Scientist at Computer
Science Department, Indian
Institute of Technology,
Mumbai and Dr S Palria,
Head, Department of Remote
Sensing, Maharshi Dayanand
Saraswati (MDS) University,
Ajmer attended the Seminar
as GIS and remote sensing
experts. Dr Sreya Dalwadi and
Mrs Alice Garg as seminar
resource persons and several
senior professors of Regional
Participants at the inaugural session.
REPORT

GEOGR APH Y AN D YOU  MAY - J UNE 2011  53
Group 1 at the Pushkar Lake for GPS field work
Institute of Education (RIE)
and MDS University were also
present for inauguration. Dr. K
B Rath, Principal, RIE, Ajmer,
Rajasthan in his inaugural
speech as the hosting partner,
highlighted role of teachers
and remarked that he had on
very few occasions seen such
remarkable participation in a
seminar in Ajmer.
More than 100 teachers
from Rajasthan, Haryana,
Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh
and Punjab including trainee
teachers of RIE, Ajmer and
students from MDS University,
Ajmer participated in the
Seminar for all three days apart
from people from the media.
The participation strength in
the GIS training was limited
to 55 teachers. Most schools
wanted to send at least three
teachers, but as we wanted
benefits accrued to a larger
number of schools, we selected
only one teacher per school
and could not accommodate
beyond 55. There was no
registration fee and the
teachers were also provided free
boarding and lodging. Special
course material was prepared
for the event and three
handbooks for three specific
days covering various topics
and a DVD was distributed
during the Seminar.

54  MAY - JU NE 2011  GEOG RA PHY A ND YOU
Situated 22 kms from Nainital, Vinayak is set amidst deodar, fir
and oak. Apart from a solar powered forest rest house, the getaway
boasts of a few tenements for forest department trainees and a
small tea shop. This quiet abode in the forest, featuring as a must
visit in the itinerary of the avid birdwatcher, gets dark and cold as
soon as the sun goes down.
Story and Photo S Srinivasan
AN ODE TO VINAYAK
Unlike most of the treks in the
Himalayas this particular one is to
be undertaken between November
and March. The area abounds in
birds and the climate this year allowed for an
extension of the birding season into April. We
were fortunate to have for company, our friend
Vasuda Pandey, who hails from Nainital and has
authored a tome on the history of the region.
We set out one Sunday morning in April and
negotiated the NH24 will little difficulty up to
Hotel Rahi in Garmukteshwar. We downed the
sandwiches in our lunch box and the hot pakoris
served by the pleasant manager with cups of
INDIA OUTDOORS

GEOGR APH Y AN D YOU  MAY - J UNE 2011  55
masala tea. All along Vasuda regaled interesting
anecdotes detailing the life and times of Mughal
and British occupation.
Ba ck on to t he road we were s everely stalle d by
heavy traffic just before the bridge over Ganga,
with flocks of devotees descending for a holy dip
on amavasya (new moon). The five kilometer
stretch pulsated with a sea of automobiles of
numerous descriptions - cycle rickshaws, bullock
carts, tempos, snazzy cars and more. Two and
a half hours later, inching through, we drove
onto the bridge. We then took the toll road
towards Bareilly and detoured to Moradabad
bye pass and further on to Bazpur and Tanda.
The road had turned into an uneven, pot hole
ridden dirt track littered with broken down huge
trucks, but beyond the border check post into
Uttarakhand, the road became smooth, and we
steadily ascended through a sal and thesu forests.
Entering the tiny village of Kaladhungi, home to
the legendary Jim Corbett, we stopped at the chai
stall opposite Corbett’s house and consequently
toured the house. The photographs and the
panels accentuated by the antique furniture
brings the life and times of Corbett sahib alive.
Soon we resumed ascent through this newly
constructed road which follows the bridle path
taken to Nainital by the horse riding British
- we also learnt that Corbett’s mother was one
of the early property dealers in Nainital! We
drove through densely forested track populated
by mango, neem, dhak, amaltas, chestnut and
finally chir pine trees painting the hill sides in
a variety of hues ranging from yellow to orange,
red, auburn and green.
It was six in the evening by the time we took
the road on the left driving along the ridge and
witnessing the banana shaped Naini Lake unfold
to our right. At the next fork we took a diversion
to Kilbury trundling down the forested path by
the hillside. We crossed the path leading up to the
Kilbury Forest Rest House (FRH) and passed the
Mountain Quail Resort - named after the now
ext inct bird that was l ast se en i n this locale in 186 8.
We proceeded further to Pangot where a
young man assured us that we would reach
Vinayak before sunset and that we need not waste
time looking for accommodation in Pangot. The
road started climbing uphill and we reached
Guggukhan followed by Sigiri which boasts of a
couple of resorts, one private and the other run
by UP Tourism. We could now see the glistening
ribbon of the Kosi far down in the valley and
hurried along to make it to the FRH in Vinayak
before sunset. As we manoeuvred the car up the
slope leading to the FRH the golden sun lay to rest.
Situated at a distance of 22 km from Nainital
at an altitude of 2216 m t he FRH at Vinayak is set
amidst deodar, fir and oak. The Bungalow has
two suites and kitchenette, booking for which
is done at the office of the DFO, Nainital. The
original building which came up in 1925 was
made of stone. The current structure came up in
2006-7. It is supplied with solar lanterns and the
guard provides simple meals to visitors on prior
order. Besides the FRH, Vinayak boasts of a few
tenements for forest department trainees and
staff as well as a small tea shop. This quiet abode
in the forest gets dark and cold as soon as the sun
goes down.
Early next morning we made a recce of the
surrounding forest and spotted several birds.
After breakfast we set out further down the road
towards Kunjhakharak. Enroute we stopped to
view the majestic snow clad named and unnamed
peaks and the meandering Kosi. We also spotted
the common buzzard and the Mountain Hawk
Eagle circling overhead high up in the sky.
About 2 km before the FRH we spied a large deer
languidly basking in the sun. As it was close to
lunch time we drove ahead to Sigiri where the
sarpanch runs a small hotel. After an elaborate
lunch, his grandchildren took us to his home.
On our return he plied us with specially prepared
Rhododendron petal pakoris - an exquisite treat.
We checked into the Snow View Hotel at Nainital run by
the UP Tourism and as an incentive bagged free round
trip passes for the ropeway.

TRAVELLER’S DIARY
56  MAY - JU NE 2011  GEO GRA PHY A ND YOU
The next morning we left for Pangot. It is
believed that the real trek is the distance between
Kunjhak harak and A kashka nda. Walk ing through
the dense forest on mossy paths is a treat we look
forward to on a later date. Several resorts have
opened shop in Pangot as they are popularising
it as a birding destination. The lone street boasts
of a small post office. We had instant noodles
for breakfast at local tea shop and went along to
Kilbury FRH. Surrounded by oak, rhododendron
and pine it is a favourite spot for birders.
We drove to Nainital and took the road
to Snow View, where the Hanuman Temple
is situated, ropeway to the Mall starts and
an amusement park for children has been
constructed. We checked into the Snow View
Hotel run by the UP Tourism and as an incentive
bagged free round trip passes for the ropeway. The
Hotel is in the premises of the British Governor’s
residence and is a colonial building. Going down
to the Mall the panoramic view of the Lake and
the town emerged. The Naina Peak, Sukha Tal,
Mall, Zoo, St Joseph’s College and the University
were prominent landmarks pointed out to us
by Vasuda. Walking round the Mall we passed
St Francis Church, Boat Club, the Library.
Munching delicious strawberries and mulberries
picked up from the roadside vendor, we reached
the Talli Bazaar for lunch. Vasuda pointed out
the spot where Indian Freedom Fighters were
hung from a tree, the building where she stayed
as a child, lake aeration plant and the temples on
the southern bank.
We hurried through the bazaar near the
Maidan, not wanting to miss the last trip of the
ropeway. I quickly picked up chocolate eclairs
from Stacley’s as Vasuda pointed out the Hospital
named after her grandfather. After the ropeway
ride we took a walk along the ridge and spent
time at Vasuda’s house overlooking the Lake and
its illuminated surroundings. Back at the Hotel,
we were treated to a completely traditional meal
- aam panna, bhange ki sabzi, pahari dal, saag,
missi roti, and ram daney ki kheer stood out
among several other delicious items. The last day
of our trip took us to Nowkuchiatal via Bhimtal
and on to Kathgodam and then Haldwani,
Ramgarh, Garmukteshwar to home. We could
not have imagined that an unspoilt forest exists so
close to the urbanised, tourist spot of Nainital.
The aut hor is a practicing paediatrician in Delhi and a n avid
photographer.
The forest
rest house
at Vinayak is
situated at
an altitude of
2216 m. The
Bungalow has
two suites and
kitchenette,
booking
for which is
done at the
office of the
DFO, Nainital.
The original
building built
in 1925 was
made of stone.
The current
structure came
up in 2006-7.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF OCEAN TECHNOLOGY, CHENNAI
(An Autonomous Institute under the Ministry of Earth Sciences, Govt. of India)
(Velachery-Tambaram Main Road, Pallikaranai, Chennai – 600 100)
Ph: 91-44-66783300, Fax: 91-44-22460275,
E-mail:postmaster@niot.res.in, Web: www.niot.res.in
National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT) is the technical arm of the
Ministry of Earth Sciences, Government of India, carrying out technological
development activities for harnessing the ocean resources. The main areas of
focus are: Energy and Fresh Water from the Sea, Deep Sea Technology, Gas
Hydrates, Coastal and Environmental Engineering, Ocean Acoustics, Marine
Biotechnology and Ocean Observation Systems. Apart from these the Vessel
Management Cell of NIOT maintains two coastal research vessels, a buoy
tender cum research vessel and a state of the art technology demonstration
vessel Sagar Nidhi.
Energy and Fresh Water group is focused
on the development of technology,
for a reliable and commercially
viable multifunctional system, for the
extraction of energy and drinking water
from the Sea.
Deep Sea Technology group is involved
in the development of under- water
mining systems for Polymetalic nodule
mining from the Central Indian Ocean
Basin.
The goal of the Coastal and
Environmental Engineering group is to
promote programs consistent with the
overall development perspective of the
country in the coastal infrastructure
sector, through plan projects called
technical criteria atlas and sustainable
shoreline management.
The focus of this group is on the
research and development of acoustic
based marine systems, underwater
noise data acquisition, processing,
analysis and modeling for ocean
applications.
Marine Biotechnology group carries out
programmes related to socio economic
benefi t of island and coastal communities,
through the development of viable
technologies for harvesting marine bio-
resources in a sustainable manner.
This group is engaged in
establishment, development and
maintenance of moored buoy network,
Tsunami early warning systems for
measurement of met-ocean parameters
in Indian Seas. The system monitors
the marine environment to improve
weather and ocean state forecast.
Vessel Management Cell maintains
NIOT research vessels and provides
services to the universities and research
institutions for survey and data collection,
besides supporting the implementation of
programmes of MoES.
This group provides electronics support
facilities to various activities and projects
of the NIOT and develops marine sensors
and underwater electronic components
based on user needs.
This group has a mandate to
develop technology for under
water resources such as Gas
Hydrates exploration through the
development and operation of deep
ocean underwater vehicle and
coring systems.
ENERGY AND FRESH
WATER FROM THE SEA
DEEP SEA TECHNOLOGY
AND OCEAN MINING
COASTAL AND
ENVIRONMENTAL
ENGINEERING
OCEAN
ACOUSTICS
MARINE
BIOTECHNOLOGY
OCEAN OBSERVATION
SYSTEMS
VESSEL
MANAGEMENT CELL
MARINE SENSORS AND
ELECTRONICS
SUBMERSIBLES & GAS
HYDRATES