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The Pen Is Mightier Than the Keyboard: Advantages of Longhand Over Laptop Note Taking

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Abstract

Taking notes on laptops rather than in longhand is increasingly common. Many researchers have suggested that laptop note taking is less effective than longhand note taking for learning. Prior studies have primarily focused on students' capacity for multitasking and distraction when using laptops. The present research suggests that even when laptops are used solely to take notes, they may still be impairing learning because their use results in shallower processing. In three studies, we found that students who took notes on laptops performed worse on conceptual questions than students who took notes longhand. We show that whereas taking more notes can be beneficial, laptop note takers' tendency to transcribe lectures verbatim rather than processing information and reframing it in their own words is detrimental to learning.

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... On the one hand, EFL students claim that writing by hand helps improve their concentration, especially in the drafting stage of the writing (Lund, 2016). Studies in general also suggest that students achieved better information retention, perform better in answering conceptual questions (Mueller & Oppenheimer, 2014); and able to recall more information (Aragón-Mendizábal et al., 2016;Mangen et al., 2015). On the other hand, govern-| Research Papers ments as well as learning institutions started conducting paperless classrooms, in which all the books are digitalized and students use computers for their academic writing and even in answering exams (Meishar-Tal & Shonfeld, 2018;Siddiqui & Muntjir, 2017). ...
... This contrasts with computer-written essays, where students frequently reused words, likely due to the ease of copy-paste functionality. This finding resonates with previous studies' findings, which found that writing by hand can deepen cognitive engagement, leading to better word choice and paraphrasing (Mueller & Oppenheimer, 2014;Wrigley, 2017). ...
... In contrast to previous studies that argue for the superior benefits of one mode i.e. handwriting (Aberšek et al., 2018;Aragón-Mendizábal et al., 2016;Chen et al., 2011;Lund, 2016;Mueller & Oppenheimer, 2014;Zhu et al., 2016) and computer typing (Kimmons et al., 2017;Lee, 2004;MacArthur, 1988), the present study shows that both modes offer unique advantages and limitations. Computer-based writing improves speed and structure but may encourage word repetition, while handwriting enhances creativity but is more time-consuming. ...
Article
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Background: The incorporation of technology into English writing class has prompted the use of computer typing as an alternative writing mode to handwriting. However, previous studies investigating the effect of writing modes on writing quality have delivered conflicting results. Purpose: Considering the increasing prevalence of computers in English writing classes and the time limitation commonly employed by teachers in writing courses, the present study attempts to identify the interaction effect of writing modes and time constraints on EFL students’ writing quality. Method: This study adopted a counterbalanced quantitative design; data were collected from 30 EFL undergraduate students majoring in English Education, using an adapted version of Jacobs’ ESL Composition Profile. All participants were subjected to four writing conditions, based on the combination of typing using a computer or writing by hand and a 30-minute or 60-minute time allotment. Results: The findings of the present study suggest that there is no interaction effect between writing modes and time constraints on writing quality F(1, 116) = .086, p = .770, and despite the higher scores obtained by the essays typed with computer, writing modes have no significant effect on writing quality F(1, 116) = .820, p = .367. The results also suggest that time constraints significantly affect writing quality F(1, 116) = 14.308, p = <.001. Conclusion: Due to the absence of writing modes effect on writing quality, English teachers are recommended to permit both writing modes in writing essays and to provide more time for students to write, especially in a creative writing environment as opposed to an examination environment.
... Dok su ranija istraživanja bila usmerena na tradicionalni pristup vođenju beležaka uz pomoć olovke i papira (npr. Badger et al., 2001), sve je veći broj istraživanja u kojima se vođenje beležaka dovodi u vezu s upotrebom digitalnih uređaja i aplikacija (Artz et al., 2020;Luo et al., 2018;Morehead et al., 2019;Mueller & Oppenheimer, 2014;Stacy & Cain, 2015;Witherby & Tauber, 2019). ...
... Neka istraživanja usmerila su se na poređenje različitih načina vođenja beležaka i njihov uticaj na ishode učenja, međutim, dobijeni rezultati nisu konzistentni. Jedno od prvih istraživanja (Mueller & Oppenheimer, 2014) pokazalo je da su studenti koji su vodili beleške na laptopu skloniji doslovnom zapisivanju sadržaja predavanja, te da su ostvarili lošije rezultate na testu u odnosu na studente koji su beleške zapisivali olovkom. Sličan nalaz dobijen je i u metaanalizi koja je obuhvatila 14 studija (Allen et al., 2020), pri čemu je ustanovljeno da su ručno pisane beleške pokazale veću prednost za studente prirodnih nauka. ...
... Pozitivan efekat vođenja beležaka na pamćenje zabeležen je i u istraživanjima (Bohay et al., 2011;Jansen et al., 2017) u kojima se ističe da su u toku vođenja beležaka studenti u većoj meri usmereni na sadržaj i njegovu organizaciju, što poboljšava pamćenje u odnosu na uslove kada se beleške ne vode. Istraživanja pokazuju da takva organizacija sadržaja može izostati kada je u pitanju kucanje beležaka na digitalnim uređajima, s obzirom na to da su zbog brzine kucanja studenti skloni tome da doslovno zapisuju sadržaj predavanja (Luo et al., 2018;Mueller & Oppenheimer, 2014). Možda je upravo organizacija sadržaja razlog zbog kog učesnici istraživanja pamćenje dovode u vezu s pisanjem rukom: Vodim beleške i pišem ih, najviše učim tako što pišem (m., PMF,8,9). ...
Article
The development of digital technologies has led to new opportunities in higher education teaching, which, among other things, relate to the way of taking notes. Starting from the premise that note-taking is an important academic activity that enhances the learning process and outcomes, we were interested in what importance students attach to note-taking, as well as in what way the use of technology in the teaching process influences the way notes are taken. Accordingly, the aim of the research was to gain insight into students' perceptions and practices regarding note-taking in analogue and digital environments. In accordance with this, qualitative research was carried out with students, using the technique of in-depth interviews. The research sample consisted of 14 students of various scientific and artistic disciplines at the University of Novi Sad. Based on the set goal and the analyzed transcripts, the participants' answers were grouped into three categories: taking notes during lectures - analogue and digital environments; way of taking notes during lectures - analogue and digital environments; the meanings that students attribute to note-taking. In conclusion, it is emphasized that most of the research participants take notes, giving them different meanings, which speak in favor of their importance in the context of learning. Although the application of technology has a significant impact on note-taking, the majority of research participants still takes notes in the traditional way. An interesting finding is that in some cases the digital environment can lead to reduced motivation to take notes. Nevertheless, based on the obtained results, it is not possible to make generalizations. In order to gain a deeper insight into students' perceptions and practices regarding note-taking and to formulate specific guidelines for educational practice, further research is needed.
... Although some studies have pointed out that the "pen is mightier than the keyboard", advances in electronics are turning the generative processing of notetaking into nongenerative transcription [4]. However, other researchers believe that taking notes on a computer is more conducive to learning [5]. ...
... 2024, 14, 756 2 of 9 higher storage efficiency and consequent lower search costs. However, over-reliance on storage function may come at the cost of deeper encoding benefits, a finding supported by Mueller and Oppenheimer [4]. In their study, all undergraduates were instructed to take notes through a designated medium while watching a TED talk, after which they were immediately tested. ...
... However, the enhanced effects on encoding and external-storage functions are most often evident (or found) when learners all allowed to review their prepared notes [4]. Bui and his team found [9] that when individuals were not allowed to review, verbatimnotetakers scored significantly lower on a delayed test when compared to an immediate test, while notetakers who organizationally paraphrased the learning material revealed similar levels of enhanced retention at both testing intervals. ...
Article
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This study systematically probed the relationship between the medium of taking classroom notes (virtual variable, electronic notetaking = 0 vs. traditional notetaking = 1), the word count in each medium, as well as the review process, and the students’ delayed learning effect for each notetaking approach. Data were collected from 189 college students, with the influence of gender and prior knowledge being controlled. The conclusions were as follows. (1) The notetaking medium was positively correlated with delayed test scores, irrespective of whether reviews were allowed or not. (2) The mediating role of word count between notetaking medium and delayed test scores was moderated by review. That is, when reviews were allowed, a significant correlation was found between the medium of the notes and the delayed test scores; when reviews were not allowed, the mediating effect of word count was not significant.
... The metaanalysis conducted by Voyer et al. (2022), based on the note-taking experiences of secondary and postsecondary students across 39 experimental studies, found that the note-taking medium has little influence on achievement. Moreover, Urry et al., (2021, p. 338) stated that students "may not need to ditch the laptop just yet" after finding that recording longhand notes had a negligible impact on total lecture quiz scores and on quiz items designed to assess factual recall and concept recognition in their review of eight replication studies of Mueller and Oppenheimer's (2014) seminal work. ...
... Both published (n = 18) and unpublished (n = 6) studies were included in the analysis to reduce the potential for publication bias to influence our findings. Among these 24 studies, 20 were conducted as original studies, and four were replications of Mueller and Oppenheimer's (2014) work. Ultimately, our meta-analysis of the note-taking medium's achievement effect included a total sample of k = 49 effect sizes across all 24 different studies. ...
... Longhand notes tend to capture lecture ideas in a paraphrased and personalized style meaningful to the note-taker, whereas typed notes tend to capture lecture ideas in a verbatim, almost thoughtless way. Scholars have used the depth of processing framework (Craik & Lockhart, 1972) to explain how paraphrasing notes is indicative of deeper, more meaningful processing of lecture information (Luo et al., 2018), whereas typing notes that are verbatim is indicative of a shallower, less meaningful processing of lecture information (Mueller & Oppenheimer, 2014). Although typing leads to a greater quantity of recorded ideas than writing does, the shallow, verbatim nature of typing notes seems to hinder their external storage value, thereby rendering typed notes less useful during review than handwritten notes. ...
Article
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Many college students prefer to type their lecture notes rather than write them by hand. As a result, the number of experimental and quasi-experimental studies comparing these two note-taking mediums has flourished over the past decade. The present meta-analytic research sought to uncover trends in the existing studies comparing achievement and note-taking outcomes among college students. Results from 24 separate studies across 21 articles revealed that taking and reviewing handwritten notes leads to higher achievement (Hedges’ g = 0.248; p < 0.001), even though typing notes benefits note-taking volume (Hedges’ g = 0.919; p < 0.001), among college students. Furthermore, our binomial effect size display shows that taking handwritten lecture notes is expected to produce higher course grades than typing notes among college students. We conclude that handwritten notes are more useful for studying and committing to memory than typed notes, ultimately contributing to higher achievement for college students.
... In Study 1 conducted by Mueller andOppenheimer (1159-1168), the researchers explored the impact of note-taking methods on memory retention. The study compared the effects of taking notes by hand versus typing on a keyboard. ...
... Study 1 by Mueller andOppenheimer (1159-1168) and Study 2 by Craik and Tulving (268) elucidate the essence of the technique of information intake and the level of engagement with the material for memory retention. In comparison, study 3 by expounds on the relationship between writing and long-term memory. ...
... In comparison, study 3 by expounds on the relationship between writing and long-term memory. On the one hand, Mueller andOppenheimer (1159-1168) compared the impacts of taking notes by hand versus typing on a laptop on memory retention and suggested that writing enhances memory retention more than typing or reading alone. On the other hand, Craik and Tulving (268) studied the depth of processing theory and suggested that deeper levels of processing result in more efficient memory retention. ...
... In addition to overall literacy development, handwriting improves visual recognition of graphs for perceptual learning (Araújo et al., 2022). In a study by Mueller and Oppenheimer (2014), university students who handwrote notes outperformed those who did so on their laptops in conceptual questions when tested immediately after lectures, though Morehead and colleagues (2019) qualified these results by showing that it was not the taking of notes in a particular medium that improved student performance on tests, but rather studying them afterward. Haring and Kelner (2021) moved such earlier lab-based research into the classroom with a study of seventh-grade English and social studies students who took research notes either by hand or on computer. ...
... Haring and Kelner (2021) moved such earlier lab-based research into the classroom with a study of seventh-grade English and social studies students who took research notes either by hand or on computer. In direct contrast to Mueller & Oppenheimer (2014), they found students who compiled their research notes on computer earned higher scores from their teachers and anonymous raters than those who compiled handwritten notes. Still, other practitioners advocate note-taking by hand in order to improve organizational skills and develop focus, especially among students in secondary education who are less adept at multitasking than more mature learners (Barbour, 2021). ...
Article
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Is paper or computer better for assessing L2 students’ writing? The ineluctable transition to technology might suggest this question has already been answered. However, the technology divide in L2 assessments may have indeed widened since the pandemic: whereas some teachers have fully embraced technology in assessments as in instruction, others are reluctant to eliminate paper, owing to concerns about the reliability, integrity and authenticity of L2 production on computer. This article shares observations from several French classes at an American high school in which assessments that were otherwise identical were offered to students on both paper and computer. These observations revealed several overlapping areas of L2 research that merit further consideration, including instructor bias between media, academic integrity of student work, and the need to align the technological literacies between instructors and students. The reflection that follows points to specific directions for further empirical research on the effects of input medium on L2 learners in K-12 and higher education.
... Overall, what seems the most important is not the note-taking method (i.e., longhand or laptop), but rather strategies of note-taking. Transcription of verbatim is associated with poorer learning, while reformulations seem to be the best way to take relevant notes (Mueller & Oppenheimer, 2014;Urry et al., 2021;Wilson et al., 2023). ...
... For example, the online procedure can be used to simulate multimedia learning in an ecological context, in the same way as learners in an online context (e.g., MOOC). In previous works, instructional videos were presented with a computer-controlled by an experimenter, and learners used separate computers for note-taking (e.g., Colliot et al., 2022;Bui et al., 2013;Luo et al., 2018;Mueller & Oppenheimer, 2014). Such non-ecological procedure can affect performance because learners must alternate between note-taking and the video's control (see Colliot et al., 2022). ...
Conference Paper
This study aimed to test the benefit of note-taking on pauses and learning in online educational videos. Participants (N = 72) were randomly assigned to one of two note-taking conditions (allowed or not) with the possibility to take pauses during a 10-minute online instructional video on the autonomic nervous system. The results did not reveal a significant correlation between note-taking and the number of pauses. Moreover, we observed no significant effect of note-taking on learning performance. However, prior knowledge and age affected significantly the relationship between pauses, note-taking and learning performance. We discuss the importance of prior knowledge and age for future research.
... Besides, in collaborative learning settings, illegible handwriting can pose challenges for peers in understanding and providing constructive feedback on each other's work, limiting the effectiveness of these collaborative interactions. Accordingly, lack of proficiency in developing a rapid and legible handwriting style puts students at a disadvantage, thereby increasing the likelihood of academic underachievement in university (Mueller & Oppenheimer, 2014). ...
... Recently, the integration of digital devices within educational settings has been identified as a significant factor contributing to the decline in handwriting skills among EFL learners (Jaashan et al., 2023;Sulzby, 1985). Many recent studies have focused on the negative effects technology have on the development of handwriting skills including decreased practice opportunities, reliance on typing, reduced fine motor skill development, and decreased attention to handwriting instruction Mueller & Oppenheimer, 2014). This, in turn, contributes to the overall decline in handwriting proficiency among EFL learners. ...
Article
This study seeks to examine the salient manifestations of handwriting difficulties experienced by learners of English as a Foreign Language (EFL), throwing light on the cognitive, neural, and educational aspects of handwriting. Qualitative and quantitative research designs were adopted to provide a comprehensive understanding of the manifestations of handwriting difficulties among EFL learners. In total, 80 college-level EFL students aged between18 to 22 years were included in this study. To investigate the specific manifestations of handwriting difficulties faced by the EFL learner population, data were gathered using a handwriting task given to all participants. The results of this investigation showed that the participants performed less than optimally in key handwriting features, including letter size consistency, legibility, word spacing, letter spacing, letter shape, left margin, and writing speed. Based on the findings, the study concluded with proposed interventions and instructional strategies to enhance the legibility and fluency of EFL learners' handwriting.
... Meskipun penerapan alat pedagogi digital dan mengintegrasikan materi pelajaran teknologi disruptif yang sedang berkembang mungkin memungkinkan lebih banyak interaktivitas dibandingkan model pendidikan tradisional, terdapat pandangan yang berlawanan mengenai dampak pembelajarannya (Mueller et al, 2014). Dua argumen yang menentang lingkungan pembelajaran digital mencakup manfaat relatif dari pencatatan dengan tangan dan gangguan yang sering dikaitkan dengan perangkat elektronik di kelas. ...
... 7. Robot: Robot dipandang sebagai sesuatu yang dikontrol secara otomatis dan dapat diprogram ulang. Dalam industri pemasaran, robot berpotensi mengambil alih pembuatan situs web, penulisan salinan, layanan pusat panggilan, layanan pelanggan, optimalisasi saluran, dan sebagai penghibur pameran dagang (Mueller et al, 2014). Misalnya, robot telah digunakan sebagai bagian dari tampilan interaktif untuk menarik perhatian konsumen. ...
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Perubahan digital bagaikan tsunami yang bergerak cepat, dengan digitalisasi pada banyak praktik bisnis yang menciptakan hubungan baru antara bisnis dan pelanggan serta mengubah lanskap pemasaran. Penulis memberikan gambaran umum tentang beberapa inovasi digital yang muncul dan dampaknya yang terus berkembang terhadap aktivitas pemasaran. Mahasiswa harus mendapatkan paparan terhadap teknologi mutakhir dan menanamkan keterampilan konseptual, penyelidikan, pemikiran kritis, kreativitas, dan pembelajaran integratif yang diperlukan untuk menambah nilai di dunia di mana mesin akan bekerja berdampingan dengan manusia profesional. Penulis menyarankan bahwa dengan merangkul alih-alih melarang teknologi, Pendidikan memberikan hak kepada mahasiswa melalui peningkatan pengalaman sensorik dan peningkatan aktivitas digital, yang akan mengarah pada pembelajaran yang lebih baik. Penulis berpendapat bahwa pemangku kepentingan lembaga pendidikan tinggi, asosiasi profesi, perusahaan penerbitan, dan perusahaan teknologi perlu mendukung dan memperkuat upaya Pendidikan dalam memanfaatkan teknologi untuk terus meningkatkan pembelajaran.
... Using laptops and tables are becoming more popular with college students as tools for taking notes. As students are more susceptible to interruptions (e.g., web surfing, texting), studies have identified more task switching and divided attention in digital notetaking than those in written note-taking (Mueller & Oppenheimer, 2014). College students stated that the critical benefits of handwriting notes were the flexibility and control over the spatial layout of the notes and the ability to combine various forms and special notations (Reimer et al., 2009). ...
... Students also indicated that taking notes by hand helps them recall more knowledge. Because written notetaking is said to increase cognitive load, some researchers claim that longhand note takers outperform written note takers on overall recall tasks (Mueller & Oppenheimer, 2014). A study conducted by Voyer and his colleagues found that that the manner of note-taking had no effect on performance. ...
Article
Note-taking is a significant part of students’ academics because it improves their learning and helps them with their memory. Writing effective notes that are concise helps students to understand the information easier and allows them to retrieve information efficiently. Note-taking allows students to organize information and to enhance their cognitive processing. There are many different ways to structure notes such as intentional free notes, outline notes, and matrix notes. Therefore, it is important that students find their own structured way to write effective notes during lecture. The purpose of this research study is to investigate whether effective-note-taking improves the quality of learning and memory retrieval for students. A survey was administered and collected from 200 students of the City College of New York during fall of 2022. The survey questionnaire included Likert-type and open-ended questions, which was used to examine the students’ thoughts, perceptions and their views about the benefits of effective note-taking. The data suggest that student’s ability to note-taking and their method of note-taking is positively correlated with their GPA and performance. Furthermore, most students believe note-taking is vital to have a higher academic performance. Furthermore, the data suggests that the students’ perceptions is that effective note-taking helps them with their memory and information retrieval.
... According to Mueller and Oppenheimer (2014), students who wrote by hand were more likely to describe the content in a better way but they produced least number of words while the students who wrote digitally, came up with a large reservoir of words but the subject matter or the content was not as good as that of the students who wrote by hand. However, the results of this famous research by Mueller and Oppenheimer (2014) were in favour of traditional paper-based writing because according to their study, digital writing negatively affects students' performance. ...
... According to Mueller and Oppenheimer (2014), students who wrote by hand were more likely to describe the content in a better way but they produced least number of words while the students who wrote digitally, came up with a large reservoir of words but the subject matter or the content was not as good as that of the students who wrote by hand. However, the results of this famous research by Mueller and Oppenheimer (2014) were in favour of traditional paper-based writing because according to their study, digital writing negatively affects students' performance. Students who prefer digital writing compose longer texts but with meaningless content. ...
Article
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This study aims to design an EAP analytical writing course for ESL learners studying at graduate level. In the age of digitalisation, ESL learners tend to rely blindly on internet material for the accomplishment of their academic writing tasks. This malpractice has posed serious threat to their critical thinking skills, analytical writing proficiency, and argumentative discourse. The design of the study is explanatory sequential mixed method involving theory triangulation at its various stages. In order to design the course, needs analysis was conducted, in the first phase, by using a closed-ended questionnaire consisting of 15 items. Convenience sample of 100 ESL learners studying at the Islamia University of Bahawalpur was selected. The statistical data of the study led to second phase of the study i.e. the qualitative phase. This research is situated within the footsteps of multifarious theoretical frameworks. Framework proposed by Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998) guided the questionnaire items. The principles of EAP course design proposed by Klimova (2015) and Brown (1995) were followed. However, the overall foundations of the study were informed by main tenets of “A Test of the Shallowing Hypothesis” by Annisette and Lafreniere (2017). The study recommends the implementation of the proposed EAP course, including its syllabus design, objectives, assessment, and evaluation criteria, for the improvement of analytical writing proficiency of ESL learners in digital age.
... Again, this was not something we measured as we were interested in the students' perceptions of what worked for them and therefore how they made their choices. There are many studies that have looked into whether the modality of notetaking has an impact on student success; notably, Mueller and Oppenheimer (2014) found that students using laptops took more notes but engaged in shallower learning than those using pen and paper. However, a replication study found only non-significant differences between laptop and pen and paper notes (Morehead et al., 2019). ...
Article
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University of Bristol students have indicated that 65% of them take notes digitally. As learning developers, how do we support students to take fit-for-purpose digital notes against a background of changing technology? In this study we posed two questions: What are the ways in which students currently take digital notes in lectures? What difficulties do students encounter in taking digital notes in lectures? Following formal ethical approval, we collected data using a questionnaire (n=123) and four focus groups (n=17), between January and May 2022. Participants in both included undergraduate and postgraduate students representing arts, humanities and STEMM subjects. Participation was voluntary and results were anonymised. We found that students choose a wide variety of digital tools for notetaking, in response to three interrelated aspects of the university learning environment: (1) perceived social pressure, for example the sound of typing, (2) lecture content, delivery and future assessment, and (3) affordances of digital technologies such as the comparative speed of typed notes. These themes have helped us understand the mechanisms of student notetaking choices and therefore allow us to offer relevant support. In this session we further illustrated the three main themes and presented examples of resources developed in response to them, modelling how learning developers can use these insights to support student notetaking practice: Firstly, through an open-access, online self-study resource that shares illustrative data from the research to inform student practice; secondly, a student-led workshop on OneNote, the most cited app in our student survey; and thirdly, a series of student blog posts on approaches to taking digital notes in different subject areas, as the research indicated lecture content affects digital notetaking choices. We also discussed how student notetaking practices may evolve considering emerging technologies such as generative AI tools.
... For example, in a recent article, Urry et al. (2021;henceforth "Urry") attempted to replicate Mueller and Oppenheimer's (2014; henceforth "Mueller") longhand advantage-the finding that students who take notes on laptops learn less than students who take notes using pen and paper. While participants in the original article were run under distraction-free, tightly controlled laboratory conditions, the replication was run as part of a classroom project, by undergraduates who had not been fully trained in the original experimental This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. ...
Article
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When Mueller and Oppenheimer (2014) documented the longhand advantage—the finding that students learn better when they take notes using pen and paper rather than a laptop—the study went viral, influencing classroom laptop policies around the world. However, more recently Urry et al. (2021) followed up on the original finding but found no evidence for a longhand advantage. Similarly, the literature on whether interventions to improve executive functions lead to improved classroom performance is full of mixed and contradictory findings. Instructors who hope to use evidence-based interventions in the classroom are confronted with a dilemma when they encounter discrepant studies regarding whether or not an intervention is effective. One helpful approach to navigating this challenge is to consider the differences between direct replications and generalization studies. While direct replications recreate the conditions of the original study as closely as possible to determine whether the results are reliable and trustworthy, generalization studies investigate whether the results of the original study are robust to novel conditions, populations, or environments. Because no study can perfectly replicate the conditions of another study, it is not always clear whether a study should be considered a replication or generalization. To resolve this, we describe a framework based in the intervention literature that proposes five principles for evaluating the match between original studies and their follow-ups. We illustrate the utility of this framework using the discrepant findings from Urry et al. (2021) and Mueller and Oppenheimer (2014), and the mixed evidence from the executive control interventions literature as case studies. Broader implications and practicalities for interpreting findings from replication attempts are discussed.
... This combined both learning preferences. Furthermore, research suggests that longhand note-taking is generally more effective for overall learning compared to other forms of notetaking [22]. ...
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Challenge As biomedical engineers revolutionize medicine, biomedical engineering programs must adapt to the diverse learning styles of the current student population. Students are learning in new ways and instructional strategies need to be adopted. Novel Initiative Understanding generational attributes is crucial for developing effective teaching pedagogy. Generation Z, also known as “zoomers” and “digital natives,” will dominate higher education for the next decade. In response to the shift of how students are learning, a new teaching method called Prediction Problem-Based Learning (PPBL) was implemented in an undergraduate Biomechanics course. PPBL combines the retrieval of information with problem-based learning to enhance student engagement and active learning. Reflection Comparing this method to traditional teaching approaches demonstrated significant improvements in a course learning outcome and exam performances among students exposed to PPBL. These results suggest that PPBL fosters a deeper understanding of the material and promotes a more effective learning strategy. Further analysis and testing of this method are recommended to confirm its efficacy and explore its potential for broader application in biomedical engineering educational courses. This innovative approach aligns with the needs of Generation Z learners, who thrive in interactive and technology-enhanced educational environments, thereby providing greater opportunities for academic success and professional preparedness.
... Additionally, electronic notes can be easily shared with others, making them a useful tool for collaborative learning. However, some research suggests that handwriting notes may lead to better retention of information compared to typing (Mueller & Oppenheimer, 2014). However, there is a lack of research on the effectiveness of collaborative versus individual electronic note-taking on academic writing skills among graduate students (Crooks et al., 2007;Yılmaz & Keser, 2017). ...
Article
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This investigation sought to discern the impacts of different electronic note-taking strategies—collaborative, individual, and a hybrid of both—on the academic writing skills of Chinese EFL graduate students. The study engaged 185 participants, systematically assigned to one of four groups: those practicing collaborative electronic note-taking, those employing individual strategies, a group combining both approaches, and a control group receiving no specific electronic note-taking intervention. The evaluation of academic writing skills was conducted through pre- and post-test assessments. In addition, participants’ perceptions regarding the efficacy of electronic note-taking were collected through questionnaires and interviews. Analysis of the academic writing post-test scores unveiled a statistically significant influence of the note-taking strategy on the enhancement of academic writing skills, with the metrics revealing (F(3, 81) = 15.055, p < 0.001, η^2 = 0.358). This indicates a pronounced improvement in the writing capabilities of students engaged in electronic note-taking activities compared to those in the control group. Noteworthy is the performance of the individual note-taking group, which outstripped the control group’s outcomes. However, comparisons within the electronic note-taking strategies—between collaborative and individual approaches or against the combined strategy—did not yield significant disparities. Feedback from the questionnaire and interviews painted a positive picture of electronic note-taking’s role in academic writing skill development. Participants acknowledged several advantages, including but not limited to, the facilitation of idea diversity, the promotion of interactive learning environments, and the enhancement of writing strategies. Such qualitative insights corroborate the quantitative findings, underscoring the efficacy of electronic note-taking, in its various forms, as a potent tool for advancing the academic writing skills of Chinese EFL graduate students. This body of evidence advocates for the integration of electronic note-taking methodologies into educational curricula aimed at improving note-taking and academic writing proficiencies. It also signals the necessity for further explorations into the longitudinal impacts of these strategies on academic achievements and their adaptability across diverse educational settings. The collective data from this study enrich our understanding of electronic note-taking’s potential to transform learning outcomes in higher education.
... A large body of empirical work compares digital note taking with handwritten notes, mainly in the context of students writing lecture notes (Allen et al. 2020;Watkins et al. 2015;Morehead et al. 2019). One finding of this work is that verbatim note taking is associated with poorer academic performance than rephrasing material (Mueller & Oppenheimer 2014), so using copy-and-paste when making notes from digital sources may lead to text being only shallowly processed. ...
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The popularity of MOOCs and MOOC platforms prompted some universities to develop their first online courses, while others experimented with the format of existing online offerings. Despite the body of research identifying cognitive, metacognitive, and practical benefits of printed materials, there has been a shift towards an approach that privileges online resources, reducing opportunities to access resources offline or in printed form. Online courses can be produced more quickly and cheaply than those providing both printed and digital options. They can also benefit learners in a society that values digital skills and literacies. This paper, informed by the principles of universal design for learning (CAST 2018), asks ‘What are the benefits to students of offering downloadable/printable versions of online study materials and supporting offline study?’. It takes a phenomenological approach, exploring the experience of 100 postgraduate learners on an online course delivered on the FutureLearn platform. Data was extracted from a large dataset that included all the students’ course discussion postings (N = 17,158). Data analysis identified the importance of the online/offline divide and showed that, as students’ contexts change, the benefits and accessibility of online, offline and print versions shifts. Printed and digital materials support different ways of learning and can have an affective impact. These findings point to ways in which learning design, skills training, and technical changes might be used to increase the affordances of digital materials for learners.
... O primeiro (Tuco et al., 2023) sobre a nomofobia (ou medo de permanecer distante de seu próprio smartphone), o que tem sido um problema cada vez mais comum no ensino superior, conforme indicado por essa revisão sistemática com meta-análise. E o segundo, sobre as vantagens de conduzir anotações de forma manual e não via digitação em editor de texto (Mueller, Oppenheimer, 2014). ...
... The literature is replete with investigations that suggest three-dimensional, abstract concepts should be initially taught in the same dimension as the concept with hands-on manipulatives to lessen cognitive load, create adequate mental models, and bolster conceptual understanding (Kontra et al., 2015;Ness et al., 2017;Preece, et al., 2013;Sweller & Chandler, 1994). Additionally, there have been studies conducted measuring the differences between the use of technology and more traditional pedagogical techniques (Mueller & Oppenheimer, 2014). However, there have been limited studies that specifically examined the difference between touchscreen tablets and physical models which includes a pilot of the current study which demonstrated a greater conceptual understanding of science concepts with physical models compared with digital models on tablets (Garofalo & Farenga, 2021). ...
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The initial learning experience is a critical opportunity to support conceptual understanding of abstract STEM concepts. Although hands-on activities and physical three-dimensional models are beneficial, they are seldom utilized and are replaced increasingly by digital simulations and laboratory exercises presented on touchscreen tablet computers. The purpose of this study is to measure the effectiveness of different pedagogical strategies (physical model building, digital model building, or traditional paper worksheets) on short-term and long-term conceptual understanding of an abstract STEM concept. A sample of 161 9th-grade students in six in-tact science classes participated in the study. Conceptual understanding was measured using an objective quiz, a drawing, and a hand-written constructed response explanation. Conceptual understanding was measured immediately after intervention and again two months later. To account for potential covariates, spatial ability and attitudes to scientific inquiry were measured and a conceptual understanding pre-test was administered. For both immediate and delayed post-tests, there were no differences among the groups for the objective quiz measure. However, the physical model group outperformed the digital model and control groups in both the drawing and constructed response measures at both timepoints (p < 0.01). Spatial ability was a significant covariate for objective quiz and drawing measures. Attitudes were not significant throughout. These results suggest that, at the initial learning experience, hands-on manipulation of three-dimensional physical models better aids conceptual understanding in the short term and the long term when compared to two-dimensional touchscreen devices and that assessments should move beyond objective-based exams to accurately measure conceptual understanding.
... Multitasking with laptops can also distract students in close proximity to laptop users (Sana et al., 2013). For this reason, many instructors have banned laptops in their classrooms (Young, 2006), often citing Mueller and Oppenheimer's (2014) finding that participants assigned to take class notes on a laptop were outperformed by participants assigned to take notes longhand, even though the laptop was not connected to the internet and could not be used to multitask (but see Morehead et al., 2019). ...
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The Oxford Handbook of Human Memory covers the science of human memory, its application to clinical disorders, and its broader implications for learning and memory in real-world contexts. Written by field leaders, the handbook integrates behavioral, neural, and computational evidence with current theories of how humans learn and remember. Following a section of foundational chapters, subsequent sections include chapters that cover forms and attributes of memory, encoding and retrieval processes and their interactions, individual differences, memory disorders and therapies, learning and memory in educational settings, and the role of memory in society. The handbook’s authoritative chapters document the current state of knowledge and provide a roadmap for the next generation of memory scientists, established peers, and practitioners.
... Moreover, it is difficult to evidence the effectiveness of notetaking for learning since it is hard to isolate the effect of notes on attainment. In their much-cited study, Mueller & Oppenheimer (2014) found that students using laptops took more notes but engaged in shallower learning than those using pen and paper. However, a replication study found only non-significant differences between laptop and pen and paper notes . ...
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University students are increasingly taking a digital approach to notetaking in lectures, influenced by technological developments, environmental sustainability, and the Covid-19 pandemic. This research aims to understand the ways in which students currently make digital notes and identify barriers to digital notetaking from a student perspective. Data were collected between January and May 2022 through a questionnaire (n = 123) and four focus groups (n = 17), including both undergraduate and postgraduate students representing a wide range of degree subjects. We find that students’ decisions about when and how to take digital notes are multi-faceted and change over time, responding to three interrelated aspects of the university learning environment: (1) perceived social pressure, (2) lecture content, delivery, and future assessment, and (3) affordances of digital technologies. We argue that this has implications for supporting students’ notetaking skills development, especially at the transition to university, as well as for lecturers’ pedagogical decisions around uses of technology in both live and recorded lectures. A nuanced approach to the ‘digital divide’ must consider equality of access to digital technologies that meet students’ multiple academic needs, as well as supporting students’ agency in finding their own solutions.
... Επίσης, η αλληλεπίδραση με το κείμενο, για παράδειγμα όταν ο αναγνώστης κρατά σημειώσεις, είναι απλό έργο στο χαρτί, αλλά, φαίνεται ότι οι ψηφιακές σημειώσεις ίσως δεν είναι τόσο αποτελεσματικές για την ανάκληση πληροφοριών στη μνήμη, όσο οι σημειώσεις με το χέρι, όπου παρατηρούνται καλύτερες επιδόσεις σε φοιτητές, αν και γενικώς αναφέρεται ότι οι σημειώσεις σε ψηφιακή μορφή επιτρέπουν μεγαλύτερη φορητότητα και ανάκτηση αργότερα (Mueller et al., 2014). Αυτό μπορεί να οφείλεται στο ότι εφαρμόζονται περισσότερες γνωστικές στρατηγικές στο χαρτί, αφού, λόγω του περιορισμού της ταχύτητας του χεριού πρέπει να γίνεται σύνοψη και επιλογή των σημαντικότερων σημείων του κειμένου, και όχι πλήρης ή κατά λέξη καταγραφή, άρα ανάλυση του κειμένου κατά την ώρα των σημειώσεων. ...
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In this paper I attempt to summarize some of the key reflections in the literature regarding whether and how reading on printed material differs from reading on digital screens in the framework of media literacy and in relation to cognitive components of learning
... Taking notes by hand helps students enhance their vocabulary and become more successful over time. In their study, The Pen is Mightier than the Keyboard: Advantages of Longhand Over Laptop Note-Taking, (Muller et al.), conclude that "whereas taking more notes can be beneficial, laptop note-takers' tendency to transcribe lectures verbatim rather than processing information and reframing it in their own words is detrimental to learning […] On multiple college campuses, using both immediate and delayed testing across several content areas, we found that participants using laptops were more inclined to take verbatim notes than participants who wrote longhand, thus hurting learning" [9]. Elementary and high school students experience reading difficulties while reading the assigned texts, mainly because of unknown words. ...
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Modern technology has gained enormous reach over more traditional analogic practices in all fields due to the desire of individuals to ease their work. However, teachers and researchers have overlooked the consequences of such a transition. For instance, in some academic institutions, laptop usage has decreased the need to submit handwritten assignments. Moreover, most class assignments must now be turned in online and hard copy texts have been replaced with digital copies which are easier to access on library databases. Transitioning to technology as a critical tool and medium for academia has created some issues for instructors who must integrate the use of this technology into their curriculum. There are many more harmful effects that a technology driven academia can cause when individuals cannot distinguish between the use of technology for pleasure and studying. Although modern technology offers various ways to learn and motivate, traditional practices that have proven effective for centuries should not be excluded outright.
... Among the limitations of this study, one notable aspect concerns the modality of task completion. Some research has suggested that computer and handwritten tasks may engage cognitive processes differently, with possible implications for memory and comprehension (e.g., Mueller & Oppenheimer, 2014) though follow up studies have largely failed to replicate these findings (Morehead et al., 2019;Urry et al., 2021). Our reliance on computer-based submissions precludes a direct comparison across these modalities, potentially affecting creative output in ways not accounted for in our analysis. ...
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Objectives How does creative expression change across the lifespan? While creativity is generally preserved well into adulthood, certain cognitive functions, such as episodic detail and ideational fluency, have been shown to decline with age. The present study employs computational linguistic analyses to investigate the salient features of creative writing in older adults. Methods We collected short stories from a sample of 50 older adults (age 65≤) which were subsequently rated for creativity by an independent set of participants. Mixed-effects linear regression models were used to describe semantic diversity and perceptual details as predictors of creativity. Semantic diversity reflects the extent to which a narrative connects divergent ideas and is closely associated with creativity. Perceptual details, characterized by sensorial descriptions, have been previously associated with creative writing and may serve to transport readers to alternative times and places. Additionally, we compare these measures to a previously collected sample of stories from younger adults. Results Results indicate that the presence of perceptual details and semantic diversity were significant positive predictors of creativity (p<.05). Moreover, we find that stories written by older adults contain fewer perceptual details compared with stories written by younger adults. Discussion These results advance our understanding of age-related changes in creativity and highlight the potential role of episodic simulation in the writing of creative short stories.
... Nonetheless, empirical findings also report that technology use has at times been detrimental to learning. For example, Ravizza et al., (2017) found that mobile technologies were negatively associated with self-regulatory issues in classrooms, and Mueller and Oppenheimer, (2014) reported in one study that students using technologies for notetaking had lower recall and performance than peers using traditional methods. ...
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Technology has become commonplace in K-12 classrooms with students actively using digital technology to support learning. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether there is empirical support that implementing the ISTE Standards for Students can result in learning gains. A scoping review methodology was used to map extant literature to evidence of learning gains. To ensure transparency in the selection of the articles and the evidence gathering procedure, an a priori method was used. This study is unique in that it provides the first examination of a set of student standards for technology use to learning gains within empirical articles. The findings reveal that there is evidence that all seven of the standards can lead to learning gains. This study is helpful in providing direction and guidance for all, such as educational leaders, teachers, administrators, researchers and policy makers who are looking for a roadmap for effective technology integration that leads to student success.
... Taking photos of text seems to be a shallower processing strategy than copying text verbatim, and copying text verbatim is recognised to be less effective than taking notes longhand (cf. Mueller & Oppenheimer 2014). dictionary use requires a bit more effort; it invites learners to make choices about which word or phrase to use, and to take usage notes and register restrictions into account alongside definitions and examples. ...
... These vary both in the experience people have with the strategy and in task demands, so that note-taking can represent either a useful strategy or additional cognitive load. In this sense, Mueller and Oppenheimer (2014) suggested that a specific form of note-taking, handwritten over note-taking on a laptop, provided the greatest benefit. They found note-taking with pen and paper was superior when learning from a videoconference. ...
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This study analyzed the contribution of spontaneous note-taking when undergraduates studied expository texts and videos. The study examined whether spontaneous note-taking had any effect on comprehension and if it was different for digital texts, presentation videos, or videos with decorative, irrelevant images. In addition, it explored whether the effects of note-taking on comprehension varied as a function of students working memory capacity. One hundred and twenty college students read expository texts or watched videos with different cognitive loads, answered comprehension questions, and reported solution strategies in an experimental elearning environment. Taking notes significantly improved their performance, and this note-taking efficacy did not vary as a function of presentation format, type of video, or working memory capacity. Overall, in an elearning setting, note-taking for digital text and video online expository comprehension was adopted spontaneously by around 40% of college students, and is equally effective for all formats of instruction. This is relevant for theories of multimedia comprehension, as well as for applied educational settings.
... Challenges to the efficacy of implementing strategic pedagogical change through technology have created binary positions and oppositional politics, where technology has been labelled as the enemy of good teaching and the antidote to bad (see e.g. Aagaard, 2015;Bugeja, 2007;Gupta & Irwin, 2016;Mueller & Oppenheimer, 2014;Roberts & Rees, 2014;Rosen, Carrier, & Cheever, 2013;Taneja, Fiore, & Fischer, 2015). Successfully integrating technology and the practices arising from social media into teaching and learning can offer transformative possibilities for programmes, disciplines and institutions (Manca & Ranieri, 2016). ...
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Social media and higher education pedagogy have enjoyed a chequered relationship with significant debates about the efficacy of social media as a site of student centred learning, the manager/host of an individual’s learning trajectory and as a tool of facilitating collaborative learning at scale. This paper presents the findings from the evaluation of Constitution UK, an innovative civic engagement and open learning project run by the London School of Economics and Political Science (UK). This was the lead initiative in an institution-wide shift in pedagogical approach, designed to transform the learning experience through supporting students to be co-producers of knowledge. We argue that some of the behaviours inherent in social media learning (centred on fleeting connections, digital identity and discontinuous engagement) can create the conditions for effective learning through experience and practice, both at scale in open, online modes as well in the face-to-face delivery environment. Challenging the dominant pedagogical approaches of other massive online programmes, Constitution UK brought together a civil community of people engaging in the process of digital citizenship that produced a crowdsourced constitution for the United Kingdom. The learning design of the project successfully engineered both learning and problem solving at scale. The key aspects of the project arising from how social media can facilitate critical thinking, engagement, peer and crowd learning have informed pedagogical change within the mainstream provision of the School for initiatives such as Students as Producers, civic engagement over Brexit and games-based learning.
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A number of challenges have arisen in educational policies for higher education (HE) contexts in the last decades, leading to a shift from teacher- to learner-oriented methodologies. However, there is a dearth of studies revising effective teacher-led strategies aimed at maximizing learning outcomes in HE, since learners may still need teachers’ support in organizing their acquisition process. Consequently, adopting this instructional perspective, this paper has examined how teachers’ methodology can be (re)designed to promote successful learning in HE by means of strategies aimed at scaffolding content, language, design of tasks and output. A systematic list of effective instructional strategies is developed in this paper, overlooking those techniques that, despite their frequent use, have not proved to be highly beneficial for promoting learning outcomes. When students become expert learners, a shift from instructional to discovery or learner-based methodologies may occur.
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This study aimed to scrutinize the impact of drawing medium on learning. Results from three experiments demonstrated that, when acquiring actual concepts, participants in the finger drawing condition exhibited better definition retention compared to those in the pencil drawing and stylus drawing conditions. When engaging with fictitious concepts, the superiority of the finger drawing condition in definition retention persisted over the other conditions. However, the advantage of finger drawing in definition retention was attenuated due to lower prior knowledge for fictitious materials. Experiment 1 found that term source memory and learning motivation were higher for finger drawing compared to pencil drawing, but these findings were not replicated in Experiments 2 and 3. Furthermore, Experiment 3 revealed that stylus drawing resulted in superior term source memory and learning motivation compared to finger drawing. This study underscores the presence of a drawing medium effect and suggests the significance of prior knowledge.
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This study explores the impact of an innovative approach that combines artificial intelligence (AI) chatbot support with collaborative note-taking (CNT) in the comprehension of semantic terms among English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners. Given the significance of semantics in English language learning, traditional didactic methods often present challenges for EFL learners. The proposed AI chatbot-supported approach aims to foster learner interaction, while the CNT strategy focuses on enhancing knowledge retention and engagement with learning materials. Conducted as a quasi-experimental pre-test-post-test design, the study involved 60 English language and literature majors from a non-English-speaking area enrolled at a private university. Participants were divided into the AI chatbot-supported and CNT (AI-CNT) group and the conventional CNT (cCNT) group. Results indicated that the AI-CNT group outperformed the cCNT group across various dimensions of semantic learning outcomes, including performance, achievement, self-efficacy, metacognition, and anxiety reduction. This study highlights the potential of integrating AI chatbot support and the CNT strategy to significantly enhance the EFL semantic learning experience. The personalized and interaction-based linguistic practices, enriched with feedback and emotional support, offer a promising avenue for advancing language learning outcomes in the digital age. Language(s) Learned in This Study: English APA Citation: Chen, M. R. A. (2024). The AI chatbot interaction for semantic learning: A collaborative note-taking approach with EFL students. Language Learning & Technology, 28(1), 1-25. https://hdl.handle.net/10125/73586
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Como parte essencial do processo de aprendizagem, a prática de fazer anotações beneficia os estudantes na compreensão e revisão do material. O avanço tecnológico e a ubiquidade dos dispositivos eletrônicos têm revolucionado as práticas educacionais tradicionais, especialmente no que se refere à realização de anotações. Este trabalho realiza uma análise abrangente do estado da arte dos softwares de anotações digitais, reconhecendo suas funcionalidades, o contexto no qual estão inseridos e seus impactos no processo educacional. O estudo revela que os softwares de anotações digitais não apenas facilitam a interação com o material de estudo, mas também transformam a educação em uma experiência mais flexível, apoiando diversas modalidades de ensino e aprendizagem.
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Distance video learning, especially with how-to videos, has become extremely popular. Whereas previous studies revealed note-taking as a prominent and promising support measure for video learning in the lab, we focus on note-taking while learning from a how-to video in a distance learning setting. Meanwhile, learners’ digital distraction and smartphone usage have become widespread and excessive, potentially harming learning. We thus also aimed to analyze potential risk and protective factors associated with learning with how-to videos, such as smartphone usage time and intellectual values. We conducted an online field experiment involving 59 psychology students, who learned with a short how-to video on plumbing. We found that note-takers outperformed non-note-takers in a posttest about the video content. Furthermore, this note-taking effect on learning outcomes was mediated by learning engagement. Besides note-taking and intellectual values as contributing positively to learning outcomes, we also identified the mean daily smartphone usage time as a risk factor to learning. Overall, our results show how beneficial it is for students to take notes while learning with how-to videos in a distance learning setting. Conversely, learners should avoid digital distractions, in particular through smartphones.
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The paper describes a teaching technique alternative to online-based student response systems. We explore the potential of quick response (QR) code sheets as a tool for formative assessment, feedback, as well as a way to increase class engagement, student participation, information retention, and as a method to develop communication skills. The technique is neither institution nor course bound and can be implemented in classes of numerous sizes and levels. While it resembles more traditional teaching methods than computerized student response systems, it is student centered and accommodates digital natives’ approach to information gathering.
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The paper reveals with the objectives of teaching the language of specialty, as well as the role and functions of control in implementing these objectives. The study provides some conditions for quality control of educational achievements in mastering “Foreign language for professional purpose” by undergraduates in “Social Science”. The research proves the necessity to modernize control methods, which would be able both to check the level of students’ competences according to Federal State Educational Standards of Higher Education, and to develop students’ critical thinking and creative skills. The author offers recommendations for interaction with experts from the relevant departments and guest lecturers from the real sectors of the economy, as well as for organizing additional professional training for academics teaching foreign languages with prospective specialists in social studies.
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Drawing from family investment models, this study examined parental monetary investment in essential math materials and math tutoring as mediators of the association between family income and math achievement during third grade. Data were collected from third graders (N=1150, Mage= 8.01 at baseline, 52.00% boys) and mothers in Bangladesh during third-grade entry through final exam. Results from SEM suggested that there were significantly positive and direct relations (r= .36, p< .05) between low-income, fewer monetary investments, and poor math outcomes during third grade, after accounting for child and maternal characteristics. When mediators were included in the model, the estimated significant pathways from low-income to poor math outcomes were decreased by 24%, but the associations were still significant. The results suggested that parental monetary investment in math tutoring and number word was more important than other materials in children's early primary math achievement. Future directions for research and policy implications are discussed.
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Objective Since the emergence of COVID-19, university education has drastically transformed into digital-based learning (DBL). Online education has been well recognised as a promising mode of teaching; however, only a limited number of studies have reported the students’ preferred format for academic learning. Design Cross-sectional. Setting The study was conducted in a university setting in Japan. A Google Forms online questionnaire was distributed to the participants between April and May 2022. Participants A total of 939 undergraduate medical, nursing and pharmaceutical students in the pre-clinical grade were recruited, and 344 were included in the final analysis. Primary and secondary outcome The questionnaire assessed students’ format preferences between paper-based learning (PBL) and DBL as it pertained to academic performance and eyestrain. In terms of academic performance, comprehension, memory retention and absorption (concentration) were assessed. We also explored the association between students’ daily time spent using DBL and their digital preference by the Cochran-Armitage trend test and logistic regression analysis. Results A total of 344 (191 medical, 73 nursing and 80 pharmaceutical) university students completed the questionnaire (response rate 36.6%). An even distribution was observed in the preferred learning format for comprehension: PBL (32.0%), both formats equivalent (32.8%) and DBL (35.2%; digital preference). Only few students preferred DBL for memory retention (6.1%), absorption (6.7%) and eyestrain (1.2%). Although a positive association was observed between daily time spent using DBL and digital preference for comprehension, there was no association for memory retention, absorption and eyestrain. Conclusion Among university students, DBL was just as preferred as PBL for comprehension; however, only a few students reported that DBL was better in terms of memory retention, absorption and eyestrain. A learning environment where students can study using PBL should be continued.
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This paper reports on a study that examined the use of wireless laptops for promoting active learning in lecture halls. The study examined students’ behavior in class and their perceptions of the new learning environment throughout three consecutive semesters. An online survey revealed that students have highly positive perceptions about the use of wireless laptops, but less positive perceptions about being active in class. Class observations showed that the use of wireless laptops enhances student-centered, hands-on, and exploratory learning as well as meaningful student-to-student and student-to-instructor interactions. However, findings also show that wireless laptops can become a source of distraction, if used for non-learning purposes.
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Three experiments examined note-taking strategies and their relation to recall. In Experiment 1, participants were instructed either to take organized lecture notes or to try and transcribe the lecture, and they either took their notes by hand or typed them into a computer. Those instructed to transcribe the lecture using a computer showed the best recall on immediate tests, and the subsequent experiments focused on note-taking using computers. Experiment 2 showed that taking organized notes produced the best recall on delayed tests. In Experiment 3, however, when participants were given the opportunity to study their notes, those who had tried to transcribe the lecture showed better recall on delayed tests than those who had taken organized notes. Correlational analyses of data from all 3 experiments revealed that for those who took organized notes, working memory predicted note-quantity, which predicted recall on both immediate and delayed tests. For those who tried to transcribe the lecture, in contrast, only note-quantity was a consistent predictor of recall. These results suggest that individuals who have poor working memory (an ability traditionally thought to be important for note-taking) can still take effective notes if they use a note-taking strategy (transcribing using a computer) that can help level the playing field for students of diverse cognitive abilities. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2013 APA, all rights reserved)
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Through this study the authors investigated undergraduate students’ memory recall in three media environments with three note-taking options, following an A x B design with nine experiments. The three environments included no-distraction, auditory-distraction, and auditory–visual-distraction; while the three note-taking options included no-note-taking, taking-notes-on-paper, and taking-notes-on-computer. The results of word recalls from 21 participants showed significant interactions between media environments and note-taking options. In the no-distraction environment, the participants had better word recall taking notes on paper than taking notes on computer or not taking notes. However, in the auditory–visual-distraction environment, the participants had better word recall with no note taking than taking notes on computer or taking notes on paper. The participants’ comments provided insights for implications for learning in different media environments.
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Abstract Performance during a learning ,event is frequently used as a measure of learning; however, basic cognitive research suggests that this may ,be an ,unreliable predictor of long-term learning and transfer. Rather, in some training paradigms, higher error rates during ,training may ,predict greater retention and generalization of learning. One such paradigm ,is training in which learners generate, rather than read, during study opportunities. A second,is training in which,study for two sets ofinformation,is interleaved rather than grouped into separate blocks. Educationally relevant learning requires retention and the capacity to generalize information across contexts, leading tothe,hypothesis that these paradigms ,may ,have important implications,for ,educational ,practice. An experiment ,is described in which the effects of generation and interleaving are examined using complex, educationally-relevant materials.
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Because of decreased prices, increased convenience, and wireless access, an increasing number of college and university students are using laptop computers in their classrooms. This recent trend has forced instructors to address the educational consequences of using these mobile devices. The purpose of the current study was to analyze and assess beneficial and challenging laptop behaviours in higher education classrooms. Both quantitative and qualitative data were collected from 177 undergraduate university students (89 males, 88 females). Key benefits observed include note-taking activities, in-class laptop-based academic tasks, collaboration, increased focus, improved organization and efficiency, and addressing special needs. Key challenges noted include other student’s distracting laptop behaviours, instant messaging, surfing the web, playing games, watching movies, and decreased focus. Nearly three-quarters of the students claimed that laptops were useful in supporting their academic experience. Twice as many benefits were reported compared to challenges. It is speculated that the integration of meaningful laptop activities is a critical determinant of benefits and challenges experienced in higher education classrooms.
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This paper examines undergraduate student use of laptop computers during a lecture-style class that includes substantial problem-solving activities and graphic-based content. The study includes both a self-reported use component collected from student surveys as well as a monitored use component collected via activity monitoring "spyware" installed on student laptops. We categorize multitasking activities into "productive" (course-related) versus "distractive" (non course-related) tasks. Quantifiable measures of software multitasking behavior are introduced to measure the "frequency" of student multitasking, the "duration" of student multitasking, and the "extent" to which students engage in distractive versus productive tasks. We find that students engage in substantial multitasking behavior with their laptops and have non course-related software applications open and active about 42% of the time. There is a statistically significant inverse relationship between the ratio of distractive versus productive multitasking behavior during lectures and academic performance. We also observe that students understate the frequency of email and instant messaging (IM) use in the classroom when self-reporting on their laptop usage. (Contains 9 tables and 5 endnotes.)
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Conducted 2 experiments in which 230 undergraduates listened to a passage divided into 6 segments of 5 min each; manipulations were made of thematic relatedness of content, listen-study intervals, and note taking. More ideas were recalled when note taking was not permitted and when the material was on different topics or unconnected than when the material was on the same topic and/or connected. These effects were noted especially on a delayed-recall test administered 1 wk following the listening period. No significant effects due to variations in listen-study intervals were found. The hypothesis that note taking is beneficial for Ss with high memory span but not for Ss with low memory span was provided some support. Results are interpreted in terms of less interference in discontinuous themes than in continuous themes. (16 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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High-formality and low-formality versions of a passage were read by 120 undergraduate education students who either took notes for a presentation to professionals or to students, or simply read the text. A free-recall test showed superiority for notetakers and for those reading low-formality text. Despite passage style and type of instruction, Ss took essentially verbatim notes, but in recall, informal material was paraphrased significantly more than formal prose. A conditional probability analysis showed that an idea unit was more likely to be recalled if it had been written in notes than if it had only been read. Results support the encoding function of note-taking and its relation to informal prose. (13 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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In this ethnographic interview study, college students' theory of note-taking emerged after 4 phases. The theory was confirmed in a 5th interview phase. The students' theory includes conclusions consistent with ones already in the note-taking literature, but also many insights into note-taking dynamics that have not been identified in previous research. The amalgamation of previous note-taking theory and empirical outcomes with the students' theory provides a more complete theory of self-regulated note-taking than existed previously. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Examined retention of a lecture by 180 undergraduates. Note-taking procedure, information density, and speech rate were varied. Retention was measured after 48 hrs and found to be superior when note taking was separated from listening and the lecture delivered at a normal speech rate or a twice-through speeded presentation. Variables tending to interfere with S's information handling resulted in a terse note-taking style. Recall content was highly contingent on note content, although variables favorably influencing overall recall benefited recall of both noted and non-noted material. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Investigated the encoding function of note taking and processing differences between successful and less successful students in lecture situations in 2 experiments. In Exp I, 48 undergraduates either took notes or listened during a lecture. Different memory patterns were found for these 2 groups, with note-takers recalling many more high- than low-importance propositions and listeners recalling an equal number of high- and low-importance propositions. Results suggest that note taking enhanced organizational processing of lecture information. In Exp II, the notes and recall of 80 successful and less successful students were compared. Successful Ss recalled more of the most important propositions, but these 2 groups of Ss did not differ in their recall of less important propositions. For both groups of Ss, recall content was closely related to the content of the notes, with successful Ss recording more high-importance propositions in their notes. Also, successful and less successful Ss were similar in their note-taking styles and the degree to which they benefited from reviewing their notes. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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This mixed-methods study examined cognitive correlates and learning outcomes related to the use of copy and paste (CP). Quantitative results indicated that college students whose CP capability was restricted to a small amount of text as they entered information into a matrix-like tool recalled more facts, recognized more concepts, and inferred more relationships among information from text than students for whom copying and pasting into the matrix was unrestricted. Then, 24 interviews revealed depth of processing and decision-making differences that may account for the discrepancies in learning between the restricted and unrestricted groups. This study suggests that both individuals' differing habits and experimentally induced variations in CP note-taking approaches may have significant differential consequences for cognitive processes and for learning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Twenty adults were asked to read a three-paragraph expository text on differences among insects. Information in the text had been rated for importance and interestingness. Half of the adults read the text with "seductive details" (propositions presenting interesting, but unimportant, information), half without. After reading, the adults recalled the important information (a macroprocessing task), rated the text for overall interestingness, reported the single most interesting piece of information read, and matched pictures of animals on the basis of differences mentioned in text (a microprocessing task). The adults presented with seductive details in text were significantly less adept than their peers at including three main ideas in their recall protocols. Microprocessing performance and interestingness ratings were unaffected by text condition. In a second study, with 36 seventh graders, macroprocessing performance in general was weak. Students presented with seductive details in text were significantly less adept at macroprocessing than students given no such irrelevant information and given redundant signaling of the main ideas. Microprocessing success of seventh graders was also affected by the presence of seductive details. Results are examined in the context of current theories of expository text processing.
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Over the last several years law school classrooms have seen an explosion of student laptop use. Law professors have allowed this by default, generally under the pretense that laptops make note-taking easier. However, many professors complain that students use their laptops to play games, watch movies, or if they have an Internet connection, to do web surfing and e-mailing during class. This paper presents my experience in banning laptops from my classroom in the Fall of 2006, the first time it was done at my institution. The article covers the reasons for and against allowing laptops in the classroom, my reasoning and procedure for banning them, perceived differences in the classroom experience and relevant student comments from my course evaluations, which were overwhelmingly positive to the laptop ban. Also covered are the cognitive psychological reasons in support of banning laptops. Studies show that lower grades were correlated with increased student web browsing during class (Grace-Martin & Gay, 2001; Hembrooke & Gay, 2003), and the amount of time which students used their laptops for tasks other than taking lecture notes (Fried, 2007). MRI studies of the brain indicate that the brain stores information differently when distracted, which occurs when students attempt to multi-task in class (Foerde, Knowlton, & Poldrack, 2006). The science of note-taking is also covered, which indicates verbatim typing may interfere with learning (e.g., Kiewra, 1991). The paper concludes by urging law school professors to review why laptops are allowed in their classrooms and, unless they feel that laptops increase student learning, to ban or heavily restrict their classroom use.
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This review article investigates the encoding and storage functions of note-taking. The encoding function suggests that the process of taking notes, which are not reviewed, is facilitative. Research specifying optimal note-taking behaviors is discussed as are several means for facilitating note-taking, such as viewing a lecture multiple times, note-taking on a provided framework, or generative note-taking activities. The storage function suggests that the review of notes also is facilitative. Research addressing particular review behaviors, such as organization and elaboration, is discussed as are the advantages of reviewing provided notes, borrowed notes, or notes organized in a matrix form. In addition, cognitive factors related to note-taking and review are discussed. The article concludes with an alternative means for defining and investigating the functions of note-taking, and with implications for education and for research.
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THE EFFECTS OF MULTITASKING IN THE CLASSROOM were investigated in students in an upper level Communications course. Two groups of students heard the same exact lecture and tested immediately following the lecture. One group of students was allowed to use their laptops to engage in browsing, search, and/or social computing behaviors during the lecture. Students in the second condition were asked to keep their laptops closed for the duration of the lecture. Students in the open laptop condition suffered decrements on traditional measures of memory for lecture content. A second experiment replicated the results of the first. Data were further analyzed by “browsing style.” Results are discussed from Lang’s Limited Process Capacity model in an attempt to better understand the mechanisms involved in the decrement.
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Three years of graduating business honors cohorts in a large urban university were sampled to determine whether the introduction of ubiquitous laptop computers into the honors program contributed to student achievement, student satisfaction and constructivist teaching activities. The first year cohort consisted of honors students who did not have laptops; the second and third year cohorts were given laptops by the University. The honors students found that their honors classrooms were statistically significantly more constructivist than their traditional (non-honors) classroom. The introduction of laptop computing to honors students and their faculty did not increase the level of constructivist activities in the honors classrooms. Laptop computing did not statistically improve student achievement as measured by GPA. Honors students with laptops reported statistically significantly less satisfaction with their education compared to honors students with no laptops.
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Recently, a debate has begun over whether in-class laptops aid or hinder learning. While some research demonstrates that laptops can be an important learning tool, anecdotal evidence suggests more and more faculty are banning laptops from their classrooms because of perceptions that they distract students and detract from learning. The current research examines the nature of in-class laptop use in a large lecture course and how that use is related to student learning. Students completed weekly surveys of attendance, laptop use, and aspects of the classroom environment. Results showed that students who used laptops in class spent considerable time multitasking and that the laptop use posed a significant distraction to both users and fellow students. Most importantly, the level of laptop use was negatively related to several measures of student learning, including self-reported understanding of course material and overall course performance. The practical implications of these findings are discussed.
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Four levels of notetaking (summary, paraphrase, verbatim, and letter search) were used to control depth of processing of a prose passage with 180 high school students, who then either reviewed their notes or read an interpolated text. A separate control group took no notes. On immediate and delayed post-tests, post hoc analyses with the depth (notetaking) condition showed the following ranking: summary = paraphrase > control = verbatim > letter search. A paraphrase notes × review × test-position interaction was significant, indicating that less forgetting occurred on a delayed post-test when students reviewed their paraphrase notes than when they read an interpolated text. Analysis of reading times showed that the additional time required for notetaking was only worthwhile when meaningful notes were taken.
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Students in two different courses at a major research university (one a Communication course, the other a Computer Science course) were given laptop computers with wireless network access during the course of a semester. Students' Web browsing on these laptops (including: URLs, dates, and times) was recorded 24 hours/day, 7 days/week in a log file by a proxy server during most of a semester (about 15 weeks). For each student, browsing behavior was quantified and then correlated with academic performance. The emergence of statistically significant results suggests that quantitative characteristics of browsing behavior—even prior to examining browsing content—can be useful predictors of meaningful behavioral outcomes. Variables such as Number of browsing sessions and Length of browsing sessions were found to correlate with students' final grades; the valence and magnitude of these correlations were found to interact with Course (i.e., whether student was enrolled in the Communication or Computer Science course), Browsing Context (i.e., setting in which browsing took place: during class, on the wireless network between classes, or at home) and Gender. The implications of these findings in relation to previous studies of laptop use in education settings are discussed.
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In previous work assessing memory at various levels of representation, namely the surface form, textbase, and situation model levels, participants read texts but were otherwise not actively engaged with the texts. The current study tested the influence of active engagement with the material via note taking, along with the opportunity to review such notes, and the modality of presentation (text vs. spoken). The influence of these manipulations was assessed both immediately and 1 week later. In Experiment 1 participants read a text, whereas in Experiment 2 participants watched a video recording of the material being read as a lecture. For each experiment the opportunity to take notes was manipulated within participants, and the opportunity to review these notes before the test was manipulated between participants. Note taking improved performance at the situation model level in both experiments, although there was also some suggestion of benefit for the surface form. Thus, active engagement with material, such as note taking, appears to have the greatest benefit at the deeper levels of understanding.
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Previous research has shown that disfluency--the subjective experience of difficulty associated with cognitive operations - leads to deeper processing. Two studies explore the extent to which this deeper processing engendered by disfluency interventions can lead to improved memory performance. Study 1 found that information in hard-to-read fonts was better remembered than easier to read information in a controlled laboratory setting. Study 2 extended this finding to high school classrooms. The results suggest that superficial changes to learning materials could yield significant improvements in educational outcomes.
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This study examines how quantitative and qualitative differences in spontaneously taken notes are related to text comprehension in combination with reviewing or not reviewing previously made notes. High school graduates (N = 226) were allowed to take notes in any way they desired while reading a philosophical text. Approximately half the participants were told that they could review their notes during writing tasks designed to measure the ability to define, compare, and evaluate text content. The other half of the participants answered the subsequent questions without their notes. The process of taking notes was rated on the basis of note quality and quantity. The results revealed significant review and process effects in spontaneous note-taking. Reviewing the notes during essay-writing generally resulted in good performance in an exam calling for deep-level text comprehension. However, this review effect was mainly limited to detailed learning instead of making one's own inferences. Results pertaining to note quality indicated that the participants who summarized the content of the text resulted in better performance in all tasks in comparison with those who produced notes following the text order or verbatim notes. The amount of note-taking was also positively related to text comprehension. The discussion focuses upon the situational appropriateness of note-taking effects that pose challenges to educators. Copyright 1999 Academic Press.
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Researchers often conduct mediation analysis in order to indirectly assess the effect of a proposed cause on some outcome through a proposed mediator. The utility of mediation analysis stems from its ability to go beyond the merely descriptive to a more functional understanding of the relationships among variables. A necessary component of mediation is a statistically and practically significant indirect effect. Although mediation hypotheses are frequently explored in psychological research, formal significance tests of indirect effects are rarely conducted. After a brief overview of mediation, we argue the importance of directly testing the significance of indirect effects and provide SPSS and SAS macros that facilitate estimation of the indirect effect with a normal theory approach and a bootstrap approach to obtaining confidence intervals, as well as the traditional approach advocated by Baron and Kenny (1986). We hope that this discussion and the macros will enhance the frequency of formal mediation tests in the psychology literature. Electronic copies of these macros may be downloaded from the Psychonomic Society's Web archive at www.psychonomic.org/archive/.
Ubiquitous laptop usage in higher education: Effects on student
  • C Wurst
  • C Smarkola
  • M A Gaffney
Wurst, C., Smarkola, C., & Gaffney, M. A. (2008). Ubiquitous laptop usage in higher education: Effects on student
Utilization of laptop com-puters in the school of business classroom
  • R Skolnick
  • M Puzo
Skolnick, R., & Puzo, M. (2008). Utilization of laptop com-puters in the school of business classroom. Academy of Educational Leadership Journal, 12, 1–10.
Disruption and recov Exploring the benefits and chal-lenges of using laptop computers in higher education class-rooms: A formative analysis
  • S T Iqbal
  • E Horvitz
  • Oppenheimer Mueller
  • R Kay
  • S Lauricella
Iqbal, S. T., & Horvitz, E. (2007). Disruption and recov-Mueller, Oppenheimer Kay, R., & Lauricella, S. (2011). Exploring the benefits and chal-lenges of using laptop computers in higher education class-rooms: A formative analysis. Canadian Journal of Learning and Technology, 37(1). Retrieved from http://www.cjlt.ca/ index.php/cjlt/article/view/565/299