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The Pen Is Mightier Than the Keyboard: Advantages of Longhand Over Laptop Note Taking
Abstract
Taking notes on laptops rather than in longhand is increasingly common. Many researchers have suggested that laptop note taking is less effective than longhand note taking for learning. Prior studies have primarily focused on students' capacity for multitasking and distraction when using laptops. The present research suggests that even when laptops are used solely to take notes, they may still be impairing learning because their use results in shallower processing. In three studies, we found that students who took notes on laptops performed worse on conceptual questions than students who took notes longhand. We show that whereas taking more notes can be beneficial, laptop note takers' tendency to transcribe lectures verbatim rather than processing information and reframing it in their own words is detrimental to learning.
... 12 It was hypothesized that this occurs because digital notetakers often transcribe lectures instead of processing and summarizing information in their own words. 13,14 In line with this hypothesis, a study found that graduate healthcare students experienced a 3% increase in their average grades when computer access was prohibited in the classroom. 15 Of course, prohibiting the use of computers changed more than the students' notetaking modality. ...
... 22 Studies have investigated various notetaking modalities (e.g., handwritten, typed) and forms (e.g., summarized, verbatim). 4,9,14,23 In this study, participants' preferred method of notetaking varied and participants reported both typing and handwriting their notes. This could be because prior research has reported that participants' notetaking strategies depend on how material is presented in class. ...
Purpose: Notetaking is a critical skill for higher-level thinking and information integration in graduate students, including occupational therapy students. Though there is a growing body of literature about notetaking modalities, strategies utilized, and self-perceptions of skills in college students, studies about occupational therapy (OT) students’ notetaking preferences have been absent from the literature. This study examines how OT students take notes and their perceptions of their notes. Method: This descriptive study of students in a Master of Occupational Therapy program (n=57) completed the Notetaking Abilities and Strategies of University Students (NASUS) questionnaire which captures the constructs of notetaking methods, reasons for taking notes, students’ opinions of their notes, satisfaction with notetaking and usefulness of notes, students’ desires to change their notetaking methods, and organization and review of notes after class. Results: Study found that students utilized both handwritten and digital forms of notetaking, as expected, and took notes in class primarily as a resource to study for assessments and complete assignments as well as to remember information. Overall, students had a moderate degree of confidence and satisfaction with the usefulness of their notes and expressed a desire to improve their notetaking. Conclusions: Understanding the notetaking preferences of OT students can facilitate OT programs’ ability to support these students’ learning.
... Similarly, in a widely replicated study conducted by Mueller and Oppenheimer at Princeton University in 2014, which involved 67 students watching a TED talk while taking notes, either using a notebook or laptop. After engaging in a 5-minute distractor task, participants took a test containing factual as well as conceptual questions from material covered in the TED talk (Mueller, Oppenheimer, 2014). The mixed ANOVA and content analysis of the students' notes disclosed that those who took notes longhand scored better on concept based questions but had a lower word count, while participants who typed notes took more words verbatim from the lecture rather than processing it into their own interpretation (Mueller, Oppenheimer, 2014). ...
... After engaging in a 5-minute distractor task, participants took a test containing factual as well as conceptual questions from material covered in the TED talk (Mueller, Oppenheimer, 2014). The mixed ANOVA and content analysis of the students' notes disclosed that those who took notes longhand scored better on concept based questions but had a lower word count, while participants who typed notes took more words verbatim from the lecture rather than processing it into their own interpretation (Mueller, Oppenheimer, 2014). The influence of the encoding and external storage effects may be different depending on the note-taking medium. ...
Note-taking has been the key mechanism for information keeping and an integral part of academic success. Given the benefits of note-taking in learning, it is very important to identify the most effective technique. Past research conducted on college students and adults have underlined some of the key methods commonly used to take down notes, such as digital note-taking or hand written note-taking, but the conclusions are insufficient in reference to the wider age group and digital redesign of the learning system. A sample size of 33 students, between the ages 13-18 and enrolled in at least two of the advanced courses at a high school, were selected to watch a video and randomly assigned to use one of the three options of note-taking mediums—typing, handwriting or no-note taking at all. After the video, a distractor task of multiplication problems, an assessment, and a post-experimental survey were administered. A one way ANOVA test was conducted using the students’ assessment scores. The results revealed that typing notes was the most efficient note-taking medium, with the highest memory retention of the material.
... However, the contradictory views pointed out by some researchers show the negative effects of relying on digital devices for writing. Compared to typewriting training, handwriting training has not only been found to improve spelling accuracy (Cunningham & Stanovich, 1990) and better memory (Longcamp et al., 2006;Smoker et al., 2009;Mueller & Oppenheimer, 2014) but also improved letter recognition (Longcamp et al., 2005(Longcamp et al., , 2008. These benefits have been found in traditional handwriting using an ink pen and handwriting using a digital pen (Osugi et al., 2019). ...
... These results suggest that the involvement of intricate hand movements and shaping of each letter may be beneficial in several ways. Even so, a study by Mueller and Oppenheimer (2014) revealed that taking notes in the traditional way is more beneficial than the use of digital devices. They found that taking notes by hand increases the retention of factual content and conceptual understanding. ...
Handwriting is an essential and indispensable skill in learning a language. Its importance lies in its being the product upon which the EFL learners' linguistic performance can be judged and evaluated. Students' poor handwriting negatively affects their overall academic achievement. This study investigates the knock-on effects of students' poor handwriting on their performance in the assessment methods of academic courses. It also aims to know teachers' impressions and perceptions about their students' poor handwriting and its relation to their low academic performance. In this study, (N=64) EFL learners (male and female) from levels 2,3,7, and 8 studying the courses (Grammar 2, Writing 3, Research Methodology, and Preparation for International Tests) at King Khalid University, were selected and dictated a text for writing on specific papers designed for writing the English letters and words. The researchers use Smith JC's (2010) six criteria to evaluate learners' handwriting. The results substantiate that those learners whose handwriting is unsatisfactory scored low marks whereas those with good handwriting scored high marks in exams. Based on the findings, the study concludes with recommendations on how students can improve their handwriting to score satisfactory marks in all courses.
... However, the contradictory views pointed out by some researchers show the negative effects of relying on digital devices for writing. Compared to typewriting training, handwriting training has not only been found to improve spelling accuracy (Cunningham & Stanovich, 1990) and better memory (Longcamp et al., 2006;Smoker et al., 2009;Mueller & Oppenheimer, 2014) but also improved letter recognition (Longcamp et al., 2005(Longcamp et al., , 2008. These benefits have been found in traditional handwriting using an ink pen and handwriting using a digital pen (Osugi et al., 2019). ...
... These results suggest that the involvement of intricate hand movements and shaping of each letter may be beneficial in several ways. Even so, a study by Mueller and Oppenheimer (2014) revealed that taking notes in the traditional way is more beneficial than the use of digital devices. They found that taking notes by hand increases the retention of factual content and conceptual understanding. ...
Handwriting is an essential and indispensable skill in learning a language. Its importance lies in its being the product upon which the EFL learners' linguistic performance can be judged and evaluated. Students' poor handwriting negatively affects their overall academic achievement. This study investigates the knock-on effects of students' poor handwriting on their performance in the assessment methods of academic courses. It also aims to know teachers' impressions and perceptions about their students' poor handwriting and its relation to their low academic performance. In this study, (N=64) EFL learners (male and female) from levels 2,3,7, and 8 studying the courses (Grammar 2, Writing 3, Research Methodology, and Preparation for International Tests) at King Khalid University, were selected and dictated a text for writing on specific papers designed for writing the English letters and words. The researchers use Smith JC's (2010) six criteria to evaluate learners' handwriting. The results substantiate that those learners whose handwriting is unsatisfactory scored low marks whereas those with good handwriting scored high marks in exams. Based on the findings, the study concludes with recommendations on how students can improve their handwriting to score satisfactory marks in all courses.
... This phenomenon is one of the most consistently replicated effects in experimental psychology, and a robust literature exists confirming the effect in many different contexts." 48 Thus, spaced repetition may be thought of as the twin of retrieval practice, in that it provides yet another means to check what one knows and understands and to identify what one does not know or understand well. It should be emphasized, too, that with respect to legal education, spaced repetition does not aim merely at promoting rote memorization. ...
... 51 Yet again, technology could be applied to advance the goals of CST by, for example, prompting learners to organize information and asking them to identify connections between ideas and concepts, and to do so at regular intervals. But it merits observing that this could as easily be done by an individual instructor in a live class -emphasizing the point made 48 repeatedly here, namely that technology is a tool in the service of a pedagogy that recognizes how humans learn best. The primary advantage of technological tools with respect to CST is that they would allow the approach to be applied at a significant scale. ...
The purpose of this article is to assess the extent of technology’s benefits for legal education. The ar- gument makes two main claims. First, it argues that an understanding of the neuroscience of learning may focus and ground legal and other educators on the possible benefits and roles of technology in education. Second, it argues that, once this is done, technology can be applied to democratize access to legal education. The article concludes, however, by pointing out areas of risk and concern regarding this project.
... One study showed that during recall of conceptual information, verbatim notes taken on a laptop were shown to result in lower scores on subsequent recall testing when compared with students' scores who took handwritten notes. 22 In a secondary experiment in which students were able to take notes on the two mediums and then subsequently had the opportunity to study their notes before their performance was tested, handwritten notes and studying were shown to be superior to typewritten notes and studying in overall scores, factual recall, and conceptual recall. 22 Facilitating a deeper depth of processing and learning disfluency will aid in the goal of students to retain learning material. ...
... 22 In a secondary experiment in which students were able to take notes on the two mediums and then subsequently had the opportunity to study their notes before their performance was tested, handwritten notes and studying were shown to be superior to typewritten notes and studying in overall scores, factual recall, and conceptual recall. 22 Facilitating a deeper depth of processing and learning disfluency will aid in the goal of students to retain learning material. ...
Objective:
This review synthesizes information from original research in the field of learning theory and the psychology of learning in order to provide evidence-based study methods to adult learners in the field of medicine.
Methods:
A literature review was conducted and results were synthesized in a narrative fashion.
Results:
Deeper levels of analysis produce longer lasting memory; therefore, the concept of creating a "desirable level of difficulty" when it comes to study material and methods has been shown to promote learning. When the learner uses a higher subjective level of effort in processing information, they can maximize the efficacy of their studying efforts. This review describes how memory encoding can be enhanced by applying several theories of learning psychology including the generation effect and the interleaving effect. The use of mnemonics, the "memory palace," and hand-written notes have also proven useful to enhance information recall. Methods that promote long-term learning including the spacing effect and delayed repetition are reviewed. Learning theory shows that the most effective learners use self-testing and forced recall to retain more information with limited study time.
Conclusions:
The application of these learning methods may help to improve information retention and productiveness among adult learners.
... While reading materials are often presented in typed fonts, mathematics materials are often presented in handwriting. Previous research on learning and note-taking has found that undergraduate students who took notes by hand performed significantly better on conceptual recall tasks than students who typed their notes (Mueller & Oppenheimer, 2014). Further, in that study, students who studied their handwritten notes performed significantly better on assessments than students who studied their typed notes. ...
... This finding suggests that the handwriting we used in the current study may resemble the writing and materials students often encounter in mathematics, and that handwriting may provide unique affordances for connecting with students' experience of viewing and writing mathematics. This connection to the experience of writing and solving mathematics by hand may support mathematical performance, just as studying handwritten notes improves learning compared to studying typed notes (Mueller & Oppenheimer, 2014). Further, the positive effect of handwriting may not be specific to the handwriting that students personally experience but may be more general to any handwritten mathematics. ...
Mathematics is presented in a variety of font types across materials (e.g., textbooks, online problems); however, little is known about the effects of font type on students’ mathematical performance. Undergraduate students (N = 121) completed three mathematical tasks in a one-hour online session in one of three font conditions: Times New Roman (n = 45), Kalam (n = 41), or handwriting (n = 35). We examined whether font type impacted students’ performance, as measured by accuracy and response time, on the Perceptual Math Equivalence Task, error identification task, and equation-solving task. Compared to students in the Kalam and handwriting conditions, students in the Times New Roman condition were less accurate on the Perceptual Math Equivalence Task in which they judged whether two expressions were equivalent or not equivalent. We did not find differences between conditions in performance on error identification and equation-solving tasks. The findings have implications for research and practice. Specifically, researchers and educators may choose font types in which they present mathematics information with consideration, as font types may impact students’ mathematical processing and performance.
... Although the quantity and quality of current research is insufficient to provide a general norm regarding the extent to which educational technologies can meet the expectations of teaching, studies should be mentioned to exist showing the exact opposite of the claims the educational technologies will provide student-centered teaching in education and teachers will change their teaching methods. While educational technologies are a neutral element in the classroom environment according to these studies, the factors that enable education to improve are still very diverse (Herold, 2015;Mueller & Oppenheimer, 2014;Selwyn, 2011;Wang, 2001). For this reason, critics have pointed at the deep gap between the promises of educational technology and the improvements it creates (Cuban, 2004). ...
This open access book reviews the effects of the twenty-first century scientific-technological and social developments on the educational theory. The first part handles the subject, focusing on technology and educational philosophy. In the second part, the implications of new human and social conceptions towards the education paradigms are examined. In the chapters of the last part of the book, more practical dimensions of education are discussed. Transforming school designs, school management, learning-teaching approaches and teacher competencies are discussed in the context of broader social, cultural and technological changes.
... 13,14 Within the classroom, using laptops and taking notes online has been popular amongst college students during in-person classes for some time. 15,16 In addition to the increasing use of computers in the classroom, online or asynchronous learning has become more common in the past several years. One study 17 reported that in 2006 almost 20% of college students in the U.S. were enrolled in at least one online class, and most universities predicted that the demand for online learning would continue to grow. ...
Objective:
Technology use has increased in the past several years, especially among younger generations. The COVID-19 pandemic drastically changed how people work, learn, and interact, with many utilizing technology for daily tasks and socializing.
Methods:
The current study investigated a sample of college students using a cross-sectional design to determine whether there was a change in how much time students spent on screens, phones, and social media.
Results:
Findings indicated that time on screens and phones was significantly higher during the pandemic; however, time spent on social media did not differ significantly.
Conclusion:
These findings suggest that students are spending more time working and socializing on their screens and phones, yet social media may not be the platform in which students are doing this. Future studies should further explore technology usage and whether these trends during the COVID-19 pandemic will be lasting.
... Students who took notes because of the high number of students processed the learned material more in their brains, which caused the two groups to get different results in the same exams." (Mueller, Oppenheimer, 2014). Another example of the studies on the subject is the report published by South Texas College of Law professor Kevin Yamamoto in the Journal of Legal Education on the prohibition of laptop computer use during class in 2007. ...
The world of art, which is becoming increasingly digitalised with the spreading of technological innovation, is experiencing a radical change brought about by the fourth industrial revolution. In
this process, the innovative sustainability of digital artworks in museums depends on the ability of museums to transfer the virtual in to physical norms, to adapt emotional communication to the object of hyper-intelligence (artificial intelligence) with aesthetic concerns, and to adapt art practices to automation paradigms. Today, the transitioning of the algorithms transferred by human intelligence, which is forcing its own capacity, over virtual networks to physical space is made possible with the exponential skill the joint undertaking of Humanity 2.0 and Industry 4.0 provides.
Art environments created with the interaction of human intelligence and artificial intelligence point to the cybertectonic spaces where museums will evolve in the hyperreal world.
In this study, a nanorobotics design proposal on how digital artworks can be exhibited in museums, will be presented through the concept of 'singularity', which Ray Kurzweil states as a progressive awakening in his book The Singularity Is Nearer. Thus, while analysing how information can be processed in the future, in the context of art and technology, with the possibilities offered by
nanotechnology, how digital artworks can be exhibited in museums, the integration of digital art into interactive spaces and structures today, and the evaluation of the network of relations between cyberspace and physical space of digital art, with the concepts of virtual and actual through Deleuze's philosophy of pluralism, will also be included in the context of the phenomenon of cybertectonic space.
The data analysed in the study will be evaluated with descriptive, analytical, comparative and scientific research methods, and a 'nanorobotics design proposal for the exhibition of digital
artworks' will be presented.
... Distractions which can be faced in classes usually refer to taking notes on laptops and other smart devices. One study conducted among students revealed that listening to lectures and taking notes on laptops at the same time can be less productive and more difficult than taking longhand notes (Mueller & Oppenheimer, 2014). Similarly, in online learning students' attention can be easily diverted and their focus fragmented as they are exposed to more distractions (from electronic devices to the household members). ...
In the era of digitalization, boosted by COVID-19 pandemic, there is a constant need to measure the success of digital education, compare and reappraise its positive and negative outcomes, which are mainly dependent on the technical conditions available, as well as on the extent to which the previous knowledge of teachers has been adapted to practical and technical challenges. The aim of this paper is to present an analysis of the advantages and disadvantages of digitized education as perceived by students in a qualitative survey, conducted in 2021/22. The starting point were two hypotheses related to positive aspects and two hypotheses related to negative aspects of online learning. An in-depth interview was conducted among 20 high school and 20 university students. By analyzing the results obtained, and juxtaposing them with the data taken from a quantitative survey administered prior to the qualitative one, in 2020/21, it is possible to compare the changes that took place and gain a better insight into the entire process, which has undergone certain improvements, but which also leaves room for further enhancement, particularly in terms of students’ and teachers’ motivation to actively engage and interact. This would help students overcome their distrust of online education.
... Muller et al report that students showed higher recall and conceptual scores when studying handwritten notes as compared to electronic note taking 16 . Mangen et al recorded that students who used hard copy texts had greater frequencies of higher scores for both multiple choice recall and short answers that measured comprehension 17 . ...
Objectives: To assess the preference for print or electronic media among undergraduate students of medical and dental colleges of Karachi and to compare the students of public versus private medical and dental colleges according to the study methods they prioritize Methodology: A cross-sectional survey was conducted over a period of more than a year. At the confidence level of 95% and bound on error of 5%, a minimum sample size of 384 was calculated and sample size of 477 was finalized after allowing for a non-response rate of 24%. The convenience sampling technique was employed to select medical students. Data was collected using a structured, self- administered questionnaire in English language after a written Informed Consent was obtained from each participant. Data was analysed using SPSS version 20. The quantitative variables were represented as mean and standard deviation. The qualitative variables were represented as frequencies and percentages. Chi-square test of significance was applied for finding any significant differences. P-value of less than 0.05 was taken as significant. Result: The mean age of n=477 students was 21+/- 2 years. Majority were MBBS students, with 53% from public institutes. We found that 52% students preferred print medium, whereas 26% students preferred screens. There was an association between public sector colleges and preferring print medium (p= 0.0001). A significant association was found between gender and method of study (p=0.0001). Age was associated with preference for print medium (p=0.02), also higher level of study was associated with preferring print medium (p=0.001). Most students prioritized books (71%) but retained better with videos (63%). Most students (56%) preferred textbooks over reference books. Dr. Najeeb's videos were the most preferred videos (75%), furthermore, the most used site was Wikipedia (48%). Internet was the top source for preparing for PBLs (50%). Conclusion: The study showed that majority students still prefer print medium and prioritize books over other methods. Students claimed that they retain best with videos and books. So, increasing the use of videos for teaching is recommended. The Pandemic has necessitated the increased use of online teaching modalities. Students should be encouraged to use more reliable websites.
Writing a thesis is like offering retirement planning counsel to a 65-year-old: you can't start with a blank sheet and you'll be in trouble from the first. Ahrens does not hold back in How to Take Smart Notes when it comes to making big statements and his critique of academic writing guides is unrestrained. It is important to take notes before beginning to write an academic paper, even if the author does not give precise direction on how to construct a strong research topic, how to arrange a lengthier piece, or how correctly reference sources. As a result, Ahrens' book doesn't fit into either category: broad advice or particular instruction. Rather, it sits somewhere in between. Either a practical how-to guide or a psychological self-help guide that offers suggestions on how to deal with the mental challenges of finishing a piece of writing without incurring emotional breakdowns.
Resumen Se analizan las relaciones entre frecuencia e intensidad en el uso de internet, redes sociales y prácticas de chat con la comprensión de textos impresos. Para tal fin se incluyeron en el estudio 101 estudiantes universitarios que asistían a una universidad pública argentina. No se encontraron correlaciones significativas entre ninguna de las medidas de frecuencia e intensidad y la prueba de comprensión del texto narrativo. En cambio, se encontró una asociación negativa significativa entre la comprensión del texto académico con la intensidad en el uso de redes sociales y las prácticas de chat. Adicionalmente, los alumnos fueron subdivididos según nivel de intensidad en el uso de internet, redes sociales y prácticas de chat. Así, quedaron conformados tres subgrupos: de alto, medio y bajo uso. El análisis mostró que los sujetos con bajo y alto nivel de intensidad en el uso de redes sociales se diferenciaron de forma estadísticamente significativa en el desempeño de la prueba de comprensión del texto académico. Esta información sostiene la hipótesis que la participación y las prácticas de lectura que se ponen en juego en esos entornos digitales dificultan la comprensión. Conocer el perfil de los estudiantes relativo al uso de redes sociales y las prácticas de chat sería un insumo de interés para el diseño de intervenciones eficaces en el dominio de la compresión de textos académicos.
Lifelong learning is a term frequently referred to in the training and continuing professional development of genetic counselors. It implies the ability to continuously engage in self-motivated reflection to identify knowledge gaps and develop a learning plan to address identified needs or interests. In contrast to this definition, the path to continuing professional development for most genetic counselors involves attendance at conferences; yet much data suggest that other forms of learning are more effective at leading to practice change and improved patient or quality outcomes. These conflicting ideas beg the question: what is professional learning? A dialogue between two genetic counselor educators, both with advanced training in health professional education, shares personal beliefs regarding lifelong learning in the genetic counseling profession. This discourse represents an authentic conversation that was audio-recorded and transcribed with minimal editing to improve clarity and readability. The views presented in this dialogue are highly personal, yet grounded in educational theory. References are provided to those that desire further reading on the topics discussed. Several authentic learning strategies are described, including communities of practice, peer supervision, and personal learning projects. The authors consider ways to increase knowledge acquisition from conference attendance and discuss how learning on the job becomes embedded in practice. As a result of this discourse, the authors hope to inspire genetic counselors to reflect over their continuing professional development and consider their job as a learning environment that presents rich, ongoing, and unique opportunities for growth. The authors invite and challenge readers to identify learning needs and set goals for themselves to address those needs. For those with interest in education, it is hoped that the conversation sparks new or invigorated interest that will lead to novel or more effective learning opportunities with improved outcomes for patients, students, and colleagues alike.
Our study seeks to address the long-debated problem of the topographical reconstruc-tion of Memphis, the ancient capital of Egypt, through a new approach that combinesarchaeology, philology and geomorphology in a single framework. The result of thiswork is a text-augmented map of the city capable to take into account all those philo-logical clues (ancient descriptions of the city and toponyms) that would not fit in anexclusively archaeological map. We present our work-in-progress Virtual Reality expe-rience that combines 3D maps and models, satellite imagery, and excerpts from theoriginal source texts.
The present study (n = 357) investigates the effects of collaborative note-taking behaviors on learning performance and note quality. To conceptualize collaborative note-taking, the present study introduces the collaborative encoding-storage paradigm, where collaborative writing behaviors are viewed as types of collaborative encoding and the completeness or comprehensiveness of the notes is viewed as a measure of storage. The following collaborative behaviors were analyzed: volume of words written, edits of others’ writing, frequency of writing sessions, and turn-taking. Storage was evaluated by measuring the completeness of the notes the groups produced. Given the complex nature of the data, with individuals nested within groups, we used a two-level correlation analysis to identify correlations among variables. Between-person analysis suggested that volume of words, edits of others, and turn-taking behaviors were all positively associated with learning performance. Between-groups analysis suggested that volume of words and frequency of writing sessions were associated with the completeness of group notes. Overall, the results demonstrate meaningful relationships between the frequency of collaborative encoding behaviors and learning outcomes, showing differences in the impact that encoding and storage behaviors have on learner performance and suggesting the effectiveness of collaboration varies depending on variables investigated as well as the level of analysis.
RESUMEN La creciente integración de las Tablets en los centros educativos requiere de una evaluación que incluya a las familias, en cuanto que constituyen un agente crítico para los procesos de transformación tecnológica. Este artículo analiza las percepciones de las familias del alumnado español de Educación Primaria y Secundaria sobre el uso de las Tablets en los centros educativos. Se contó con una muestra de 396 padres y madres de 31 centros, 6 comunidades autónomas y 13 provincias. Los resultados muestran que los centros realizan acciones formativas dirigidas a las familias sobre el uso de las Tablets, pero son breves y no reducen las reticencias tecnológicas. Además, su percepción sobre los cambios en la metodología docente, la evaluación o el rendimiento académico presenta gran dispersión, no pudiendo afirmarse que la introducción de esta tecnología haya supuesto un cambio sustancial en los centros educativos, de acuerdo con las valoraciones de las familias. Palabras clave: metodología escolar, Tecnologías de la Información y la Comunicación, familia, nuevos entornos de aprendizaje. ABSTRACT The growing integration of Tablets in schools demands an evaluation that includes families, who are critical agents in technological transformation processes. This article analyses perceptions of Spanish Primary and Secondary student families, on the use of Tablets in schools. The study counts with a sample of 396 parents from 31 schools, 6 autonomous communities and 13 provinces. Results show that the schools have developed formative actions aimed to families related with the use of Tablets, but they have been brief and have not reduced reluctances in the use of such technology. Moreover, perception about changes produced in teaching methodologies, evaluation or academic achievement present great dispersion, so we cannot affirm that the introduction of this technology has implied a fundamental change in schools, according to the families' valuations. Este estudio ha sido realizado en el marco del III Plan Propio de Investigación de la Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR) dentro del proyecto desarrollado por el Grupo de Investigación "Educación" (código REC022-EDUC-03). Agradecemos a la universidad su apoyo, así como la colaboración de todos los centros educativos y familias que han participado desinteresadamente en esta investigación.
The halls of academic institutions host millions of students who take notes. After all, note taking facilitates the memori-zation required for high performance on examinations. Most radiologists took notes throughout undergraduate training and medical school. However, in the transition from medical school to residency, many fledgling radiologists stop taking notes. Perhaps previous note-taking habits become disrupted during internship, a time when most "notes" are meant to route into patients' charts. Confounding is the dramatic change from information centered in written text to that within medical images. We suggest that generating a personal catalog of radiology-centered information can be critical for training and beyond. Note Taking and Learning Why is note taking important for training and practicing ra-diologists? Because radiology requires extensive knowledge. Note taking facilitates knowledge acquisition via its role in the three elemental components of memory-encoding, storage , and recall (1). Encoding is converting information into a storable construct with the potential for recall from long-term memory. Storing is placing informational constructs into our brain's memory, and recall is retrieving stored information. Revisiting notes assists with storage and recall, but the actual note generation centers around encoding. Effective encoding is multifactorial but is highly dependent on engagement with information. A radiology trainee is inundated with information during conferences, readouts, and learning during free time. Additionally, distractions compete for one's attention. Lunch competes with our engagement during noon-hour conferences. And electronic devices such as smart phones battle for our attention endlessly. Note taking helps preserve attention and, thus, serves to encode. But optimal note taking requires thought and restraint (2). It is a challenging endeavor and best done with a note-taking strategy. Radiology Note-taking Strategy How can one best encode information using notes while completing the daily tasks required of a radiologist? We cannot specifically answer this question because people have different learning styles and work environments, and these change over time. But there are factors to consider when selecting the best note-taking strategy for you. We feel that optimal note taking in radiology is sustainable, is generative, has the potential to capture and store images, and uses an accessible platform. Sustainable Note Taking Above all, a note-taking strategy must be sustainable. In other words, it must be performed consistently despite the challenges of radiology training and practice. If your system is too cumbersome to perform regularly, you will not take notes. In medical school, teaching follows a very regimented curriculum , and lecture slide handouts are frequently provided at the beginning of the semester. Jotting factoids in the margins of lecture handouts is easy and sustainable. Radiology training conferences rarely have lecture slide handouts, and radiology curricula are typically less formulaic. Material encountered during clinical service is even more scattered, and readouts can be a venerable showcase of random but valuable teaching. A discussion of a cystic renal mass differential could be immediately followed by a case of pancreatic cancer and a short lecture on surgical candidacy. There also was more time to take notes as a medical student. Extensive note taking during a radiology clinical day competes with engagement during readouts and patient care. However, radiology training is an apprenticeship, and not taking notes is a missed opportunity to stockpile wisdom from your preceptors. One method is to take short notes on paper in real time, which will not detract from patient care. These notes can be organized and digitized after clinical service concludes. We cannot ignore that there is often too much information to take down in notes in didactics and readouts, so sometimes you will do better to collect a few distilled key items. RadioGraphics parallels this approach by providing "Teaching Points," often the most important messages in a given article. Regarding the importance of sustainability, if one consistently documented three factoids during residency every day, the aggregate at the end of training would be in the thousands! Generative Note Taking Ideally, note taking is generative to facilitate effective encoding. There are two basic types of note taking: nongener-ative and generative. Nongenerative note taking is verbatim copying. Generative note taking requires deeper thought and results in material rewording and summarization. We recommend notes that are brief reworded summaries rather
With the fetishisation of computer technologies in education, the older sense of technology as pertaining to skill, what the Greeks termed ‘technē’, seems to have slipped from view. Technology is generally equated with the object itself rather than the facility to use it. A skill such as writing, for example, is rarely considered a technology and yet it is a vital tool for communication that aids understanding. Writing is also a technology that is framed in particular ways in relation to boys and young men. With constant concerns over ‘boys’ literacy’, it is generally viewed as a ‘feminine’ activity. Drawing on interviews with a group of young men – all proficient writers reflecting on their schooling – this article examines their perspectives on writing and broader engagement with different technologies. In particular, it considers how writing by hand can promote forms of embodied cognition and the affordances this provides.
This chapter discusses the relevance of formal education, the “ins and outs” of higher tertiary education. It focuses on their various categories and the necessity of creating and maintaining excellent higher education institutions. Africa’s empowerment through what good education offers is explored via this discussion on formal education and its connections to nation-building and citizenship for society’s overall benefit. It also highlights two crucial issues in African education today: technology’s impact and the need to expand opportunities for women. It closes with an overall reflection on the future of Africa’s higher education.
Im Rahmen der Digitalisierung verliert das Schreiben mit dem Stift immer mehr an Bedeutung. In der Schule schreiben die Kinder allerdings noch immer mit der Hand und tun sich dabei zunehmend schwerer. Trotzdem sollte der Stift nicht von der Tastatur abgelöst werden. Warum das so ist und welche Chancen die technische Entwicklung bietet, erklärt Birgitta Schmeißer.
This article replicates a prior study of student perceptions of captions in a specialized learning context to understand the extent to which captions are useful for students learning specialized vocabulary. It describes the results of a conceptual replication (Christensen et al., Technology, Knowledge and Learning, 2021) of a nationwide study by Linder (2016) that surveyed undergraduate students regarding their use and perceptions of closed captions and transcripts. In Linder (2016). Student Uses and Perceptions of Closed Captions and Transcripts: Results from a national study. Oregon State University Ecampus Research Unit.) study, a broad range of undergraduate student populations reported that they used closed captions and transcripts as a learning aid to help with accuracy, comprehension, retention, and engagement. This study surveys a smaller group of graduate students in legal education whose academic challenges include mastering a highly specific terminology. Experimental studies have provided evidence that closed captions can help students learn challenging new vocabulary in areas such as foreign language Winke et al. Language Learning & Technology, 14(1), 65–86 (2010) and science (Marino et al., Journal of Computers in Mathematics and Science Teaching 29:31–49, 2010). This article reports on student perceptions of the helpfulness of captions and transcripts, why they found them helpful or not, and how they used them to support their learning. Results indicate that provided captions and transcripts were accurate, students found them helpful with understanding instructors, concentrating, comprehending lectures, learning new vocabulary, and note-taking.
This paper reports on a study that examined the use of wireless laptops for promoting active learning in lecture halls. The study examined students’ behavior in class and their perceptions of the new learning environment throughout three consecutive semesters. An online survey revealed that students have highly positive perceptions about the use of wireless laptops, but less positive perceptions about being active in class. Class observations showed that the use of wireless laptops enhances student-centered, hands-on, and exploratory learning as well as meaningful student-to-student and student-to-instructor interactions. However, findings also show that wireless laptops can become a source of distraction, if used for non-learning purposes.
Through this study the authors investigated undergraduate students’ memory recall in three media environments with three note-taking options, following an A x B design with nine experiments. The three environments included no-distraction, auditory-distraction, and auditory–visual-distraction; while the three note-taking options included no-note-taking, taking-notes-on-paper, and taking-notes-on-computer. The results of word recalls from 21 participants showed significant interactions between media environments and note-taking options. In the no-distraction environment, the participants had better word recall taking notes on paper than taking notes on computer or not taking notes. However, in the auditory–visual-distraction environment, the participants had better word recall with no note taking than taking notes on computer or taking notes on paper. The participants’ comments provided insights for implications for learning in different media environments.
Abstract Performance during a learning ,event is frequently used as a measure of learning; however, basic cognitive research suggests that this may ,be an ,unreliable predictor of long-term learning and transfer. Rather, in some training paradigms, higher error rates during ,training may ,predict greater retention and generalization of learning. One such paradigm ,is training in which learners generate, rather than read, during study opportunities. A second,is training in which,study for two sets ofinformation,is interleaved rather than grouped into separate blocks. Educationally relevant learning requires retention and the capacity to generalize information across contexts, leading tothe,hypothesis that these paradigms ,may ,have important implications,for ,educational ,practice. An experiment ,is described in which the effects of generation and interleaving are examined using complex, educationally-relevant materials.
Because of decreased prices, increased convenience, and wireless access, an increasing number
of college and university students are using laptop computers in their classrooms. This recent
trend has forced instructors to address the educational consequences of using these mobile
devices. The purpose of the current study was to analyze and assess beneficial and challenging
laptop behaviours in higher education classrooms. Both quantitative and qualitative data were
collected from 177 undergraduate university students (89 males, 88 females). Key benefits
observed include note-taking activities, in-class laptop-based academic tasks, collaboration,
increased focus, improved organization and efficiency, and addressing special needs. Key
challenges noted include other student’s distracting laptop behaviours, instant messaging, surfing
the web, playing games, watching movies, and decreased focus. Nearly three-quarters of the
students claimed that laptops were useful in supporting their academic experience. Twice as
many benefits were reported compared to challenges. It is speculated that the integration of
meaningful laptop activities is a critical determinant of benefits and challenges experienced in
higher education classrooms.
This paper examines undergraduate student use of laptop computers during a lecture-style class that includes substantial problem-solving activities and graphic-based content. The study includes both a self-reported use component collected from student surveys as well as a monitored use component collected via activity monitoring "spyware" installed on student laptops. We categorize multitasking activities into "productive" (course-related) versus "distractive" (non course-related) tasks. Quantifiable measures of software multitasking behavior are introduced to measure the "frequency" of student multitasking, the "duration" of student multitasking, and the "extent" to which students engage in distractive versus productive tasks. We find that students engage in substantial multitasking behavior with their laptops and have non course-related software applications open and active about 42% of the time. There is a statistically significant inverse relationship between the ratio of distractive versus productive multitasking behavior during lectures and academic performance. We also observe that students understate the frequency of email and instant messaging (IM) use in the classroom when self-reporting on their laptop usage. (Contains 9 tables and 5 endnotes.)
Developed and validated the Need for Cognition Scale (NCS). In Study 1, a pool of items was administered to 96 faculty members (high-need-for-cognition group) and assembly line workers (low-need-for-cognition group). Ambiguity, irrelevance, and internal consistency were used to select items for subsequent studies. Factor analysis yielded one major factor. In Study 2, the NCS and the Group Embedded Figures Test were administered to 419 undergraduates to validate the factor structure and to determine whether the NCS tapped a construct distinct from test anxiety and cognitive style. The factor structure was replicated, and responses to the NCS were weakly related to cognitive style and unrelated to test anxiety. In Study 3, 104 undergraduates completed the NCS, the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale, and a dogmatism scale. Results indicate that need for cognition was related weakly and negatively to being closeminded, unrelated to social desirability, and positively correlated with general intelligence. Study 4 (97 undergraduates) furnished evidence of the predictive validity of the NCS. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This article reports on how law students use laptops, based on observations of 1072 laptop users (though there was considerable overlap among those users from one class to another) during 60 sessions of six law school courses. Some findings: More than half the upper-year students seen using laptops employed them for non-class purposes more than half the time, raising serious questions about how much they learned from class. By contrast, first-semester Civil Procedure students used laptops for non-class purposes far less: only 4% used laptops for non-class purposes more than half the time while 44% were never distracted by laptops. Students in exam courses were more likely to tune out when classmates asked and professors responded to questions and less likely to tune out when a rule was discussed or textual material read in class. For first-semester students, policy discussions generated the highest level of distraction while displaying a PowerPoint slide which was not later posted on the web elicited the lowest level. With some exceptions, what was happening in the class did not affect whether upper-year students tuned out or paid attention. The format used to convey information - lecture, calling on students, or class discussion - seemed to make little difference to the level of attention. Student attentiveness to the facts of cases is comparable to their overall attention levels.The article speculates that student decisions on whether to pay attention are responses to the tension between incentives and temptation. While the temptation to tune out probably remains constant, ebbs and flows in incentives may cause students to resist or yield to that temptation. Because first-semester grades have more of an impact on job prospects, first-semester students have a greater incentive than upper-year students to attend to classes. Similarly, because students probably anticipate that rules are more likely to be tested on exams, students perceive that they have more of an incentive to pay attention when rules are discussed. Conversely, students may suspect that matters asked about by classmates are less likely to be tested on and so their grades are unlikely to be affected if they miss the question and answer, reducing the incentive to pay attention. Because of methodological limits to the study, the article notes that its conclusions cannot be considered definitive, and so it urges others to conduct similar studies.
THE EFFECTS OF MULTITASKING IN THE CLASSROOM were investigated in students in an upper level Communications course. Two groups
of students heard the same exact lecture and tested immediately following the lecture. One group of students was allowed to
use their laptops to engage in browsing, search, and/or social computing behaviors during the lecture. Students in the second
condition were asked to keep their laptops closed for the duration of the lecture. Students in the open laptop condition suffered
decrements on traditional measures of memory for lecture content. A second experiment replicated the results of the first.
Data were further analyzed by “browsing style.” Results are discussed from Lang’s Limited Process Capacity model in an attempt
to better understand the mechanisms involved in the decrement.
Previous meta-analyses indicate that the overall encoding effect of note-taking is positive but modest. This meta-analysis of 57 note-taking versus no note-taking comparison studies explored what limits the encoding effect by examining the moderating influence of seven variables: intervention, schooling level, presentation mode and length, test mode, and publication year and source. It was found that (a) either positive interventions or rise in schooling level did not enhance the benefits of note-taking; (b) visual presentation of learning material interfered with the note-taking process, whereas longer presentation did not; (c) recall test detected the encoding effect more than recognition and higher-order performance tests; and (d) publication year and source contributed to the variation in effect sizes. These results suggest that the modest encoding effect is not due to the incompleteness of students’ spontaneous note-taking procedures, but mechanical demands of note-taking, type of learning outcome measure, and publication characteristics.
We report on a field study of the multitasking beha vior of computer users focused on the suspension and resumption of tasks. Data was collected with a tool that logge d users' interactions with software applications and their a ssociated windows, as well as incoming instant messaging and email alerts. We describe methods, summarize results, and discuss design guidelines suggested by the findings. Author Keywords
Students in two different courses at a major research university (one a Communication course, the other a Computer Science course) were given laptop computers with wireless network access during the course of a semester. Students' Web browsing on these laptops (including: URLs, dates, and times) was recorded 24 hours/day, 7 days/week in a log file by a proxy server during most of a semester (about 15 weeks). For each student, browsing behavior was quantified and then correlated with academic performance. The emergence of statistically significant results suggests that quantitative characteristics of browsing behavior—even prior to examining browsing content—can be useful predictors of meaningful behavioral outcomes. Variables such as Number of browsing sessions and Length of browsing sessions were found to correlate with students' final grades; the valence and magnitude of these correlations were found to interact with Course (i.e., whether student was enrolled in the Communication or Computer Science course), Browsing Context (i.e., setting in which browsing took place: during class, on the wireless network between classes, or at home) and Gender. The implications of these findings in relation to previous studies of laptop use in education settings are discussed.
This paper briefly reviews the evidence for multistore theories of memory and points out some difficulties with the approach. An alternative framework for human memory research is then outlined in terms of depth or levels of processing. Some current data and arguments are reexamined in the light of this alternative framework and implications for further research considered.
In previous work assessing memory at various levels of representation, namely the surface form, textbase, and situation model levels, participants read texts but were otherwise not actively engaged with the texts. The current study tested the influence of active engagement with the material via note taking, along with the opportunity to review such notes, and the modality of presentation (text vs. spoken). The influence of these manipulations was assessed both immediately and 1 week later. In Experiment 1 participants read a text, whereas in Experiment 2 participants watched a video recording of the material being read as a lecture. For each experiment the opportunity to take notes was manipulated within participants, and the opportunity to review these notes before the test was manipulated between participants. Note taking improved performance at the situation model level in both experiments, although there was also some suggestion of benefit for the surface form. Thus, active engagement with material, such as note taking, appears to have the greatest benefit at the deeper levels of understanding.
The present research investigated whether test-enhanced learning can be used to promote transfer. More specifically, 4 experiments examined how repeated testing and repeated studying affected retention and transfer of facts and concepts. Subjects studied prose passages and then either repeatedly restudied or took tests on the material. One week later, they took a final test that had either the same questions (Experiment 1a), new inferential questions within the same knowledge domain (Experiments 1b and 2), or new inferential questions from different knowledge domains (Experiment 3). Repeated testing produced superior retention and transfer on the final test relative to repeated studying. This finding indicates that the mnemonic benefits of test-enhanced learning are not limited to the retention of the specific response tested during initial learning but rather extend to the transfer of knowledge in a variety of contexts.
We present an easy-to-administer and automated version of a popular working memory (WM) capacity task (operation span; Ospan) that is mouse driven, scores itself, and requires little intervention on the part of the experimenter. It is shown that this version of Ospan correlates well with other measures of WM capacity and has both good internal consistency (alpha = .78) and test-retest reliability (.83). In addition, the automated version of Ospan (Aospan) was shown to load on the same factor as two other WM measures. This WM capacity factor correlated with a factor composed of fluid abilities measures. The utility of the Aospan was further demonstrated by analyzing response times (RTs) that indicated that RT measures obtained in the task accounted for additional variance in predicting fluid abilities. Our results suggest that Aospan is a reliable and valid indicator of WM capacity that can be applied to a wide array of research domains.
Despite a century's worth of research, arguments surrounding the question of whether far transfer occurs have made little progress toward resolution. The authors argue the reason for this confusion is a failure to specify various dimensions along which transfer can occur, resulting in comparisons of "apples and oranges." They provide a framework that describes 9 relevant dimensions and show that the literature can productively be classified along these dimensions, with each study situated at the intersection of Various dimensions. Estimation of a single effect size for far transfer is misguided in view of this complexity. The past 100 years of research shows that evidence for transfer under some conditions is substantial, but critical conditions for many key questions are untested.
Three experiments examined note-taking strategies and their relation to recall. In Experiment 1, participants were instructed either to take organized lecture notes or to try and transcribe the lecture, and they either took their notes by hand or typed them into a computer. Those instructed to transcribe the lecture using a computer showed the best recall on immediate tests, and the subsequent experiments focused on note-taking using computers. Experiment 2 showed that taking organized notes produced the best recall on delayed tests. In Experiment 3, however, when participants were given the opportunity to study their notes, those who had tried to transcribe the lecture showed better recall on delayed tests than those who had taken organized notes. Correlational analyses of data from all 3 experiments revealed that for those who took organized notes, working memory predicted note-quantity, which predicted recall on both immediate and delayed tests. For those who tried to transcribe the lecture, in contrast, only note-quantity was a consistent predictor of recall. These results suggest that individuals who have poor working memory (an ability traditionally thought to be important for note-taking) can still take effective notes if they use a note-taking strategy (transcribing using a computer) that can help level the playing field for students of diverse cognitive abilities. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2013 APA, all rights reserved)
The smallest words in our vocabulary often reveal the most about us, says James W. Pennebaker, including our levels of honesty and thinking style
Much of the research on notetaking has distinguished and compared its process and product functions. Conclusions are that the act of notetaking is beneficial independent of review (the process function), and that the review of notes is additionally beneficial (the product function). Although such research informs us that these activities are effective, it fails to explain how learners should take notes and how notes should be reviewed. A depth of processing framework that can lead to more functional implications is proposed for reassessing and for redirecting the investigation of notetaking and review. Essentially, the framework specifies that levels of notetaking and/or review should be manipulated and examined with regard to levels of learning outcomes. Presently, few studies conform to these guidelines, but those that do provide more specific instructional implications. This article concludes with an account of these implications and with guidelines for investigating depth of processing during notetaking and review.
Twelve subjects who are not touch typists, but have a median of ten years experience using computer keyboards performed two writing tasks: writing a short memorized passage and copying a four paragraph passage. Subjects performed each task once using a pen and paper and once using a display oriented text-editor. Typing speed was over five words per minute (wpm) faster than handwriting for both memorized and copied passages. Typing and writing were each about ten words per minute faster from memory than from copy. The number of errors was greater when typing from copy than in any other condition. These results suggest that for experienced two-finger typists, typing from a display-oriented document processor can be faster than handwriting.
The pedagogic usefulness of the computer is examined by focusing on student attitudes and use of computers in a “computer-enriched” environment. Our analysis uses data from three years of a five-year longitudinal study at Wake Forest University. The results indicate that a computer-enriched environment is positively correlated with student attitudes toward computers in general, their role in teaching and learning, and their ability to facilitate communication. In addition, there were few changes in attitudes for students who did not have seamless access to the network. This study concludes that a networked institution where students have easy access can foster positive attitudes toward the use of computers in teaching and learning.
This study examined the roles which note-taking method (either pencil and paper or an online computer notepad) and style (verbatim, paraphrasing, etc.) play in retention and depth of processing during computer-delivered instruction. Participants were 112 junior and senior undergraduates from a southern Minnesota university whose major was computer and information science. They were asked to view modules from a tutorial and take notes using either paper and pencil or an online computer notepad. Thirty-two idea units (single complete ideas or blocks of information) were selected from the four modules and used as a basis for assessing notes. A posttest and an exit questionnaire were administered. The study found that: (1) there was a difference in total posttest scores between the control group which took no notes and the treatment group which took notes online. The difference, which supports online notetaking, appeared to be due to the way the control and online notetakers answered the factual-type questions on the posttest; (2) the type of notes taken did not affect the overall retention of information; (3) the method used to take notes and the type of notes taken did not affect the number of idea units recorded by the subjects; (4) a difference in recall scores was found between the verbatim and both the "own-style" and paraphrase notetakers, supporting the verbatim notetakers; and (5) there was a positive correlation between the recall scores and total posttest scores of the subjects. (Contains 31 references.) (Author/AEF)
Twenty adults were asked to read a three-paragraph expository text on differences among insects. Information in the text had been rated for importance and interestingness. Half of the adults read the text with "seductive details" (propositions presenting interesting, but unimportant, information), half without. After reading, the adults recalled the important information (a macroprocessing task), rated the text for overall interestingness, reported the single most interesting piece of information read, and matched pictures of animals on the basis of differences mentioned in text (a microprocessing task). The adults presented with seductive details in text were significantly less adept than their peers at including three main ideas in their recall protocols. Microprocessing performance and interestingness ratings were unaffected by text condition. In a second study, with 36 seventh graders, macroprocessing performance in general was weak. Students presented with seductive details in text were significantly less adept at macroprocessing than students given no such irrelevant information and given redundant signaling of the main ideas. Microprocessing success of seventh graders was also affected by the presence of seductive details. Results are examined in the context of current theories of expository text processing.
Conducted 2 experiments in which 230 undergraduates listened to a passage divided into 6 segments of 5 min each; manipulations were made of thematic relatedness of content, listen-study intervals, and note taking. More ideas were recalled when note taking was not permitted and when the material was on different topics or unconnected than when the material was on the same topic and/or connected. These effects were noted especially on a delayed-recall test administered 1 wk following the listening period. No significant effects due to variations in listen-study intervals were found. The hypothesis that note taking is beneficial for Ss with high memory span but not for Ss with low memory span was provided some support. Results are interpreted in terms of less interference in discontinuous themes than in continuous themes. (16 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
High-formality and low-formality versions of a passage were read by 120 undergraduate education students who either took notes for a presentation to professionals or to students, or simply read the text. A free-recall test showed superiority for notetakers and for those reading low-formality text. Despite passage style and type of instruction, Ss took essentially verbatim notes, but in recall, informal material was paraphrased significantly more than formal prose. A conditional probability analysis showed that an idea unit was more likely to be recalled if it had been written in notes than if it had only been read. Results support the encoding function of note-taking and its relation to informal prose. (13 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In this ethnographic interview study, college students' theory of note-taking emerged after 4 phases. The theory was confirmed in a 5th interview phase. The students' theory includes conclusions consistent with ones already in the note-taking literature, but also many insights into note-taking dynamics that have not been identified in previous research. The amalgamation of previous note-taking theory and empirical outcomes with the students' theory provides a more complete theory of self-regulated note-taking than existed previously. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Examined retention of a lecture by 180 undergraduates. Note-taking procedure, information density, and speech rate were varied. Retention was measured after 48 hrs and found to be superior when note taking was separated from listening and the lecture delivered at a normal speech rate or a twice-through speeded presentation. Variables tending to interfere with S's information handling resulted in a terse note-taking style. Recall content was highly contingent on note content, although variables favorably influencing overall recall benefited recall of both noted and non-noted material. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Investigated the encoding function of note taking and processing differences between successful and less successful students in lecture situations in 2 experiments. In Exp I, 48 undergraduates either took notes or listened during a lecture. Different memory patterns were found for these 2 groups, with note-takers recalling many more high- than low-importance propositions and listeners recalling an equal number of high- and low-importance propositions. Results suggest that note taking enhanced organizational processing of lecture information. In Exp II, the notes and recall of 80 successful and less successful students were compared. Successful Ss recalled more of the most important propositions, but these 2 groups of Ss did not differ in their recall of less important propositions. For both groups of Ss, recall content was closely related to the content of the notes, with successful Ss recording more high-importance propositions in their notes. Also, successful and less successful Ss were similar in their note-taking styles and the degree to which they benefited from reviewing their notes. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This mixed-methods study examined cognitive correlates and learning outcomes related to the use of copy and paste (CP). Quantitative results indicated that college students whose CP capability was restricted to a small amount of text as they entered information into a matrix-like tool recalled more facts, recognized more concepts, and inferred more relationships among information from text than students for whom copying and pasting into the matrix was unrestricted. Then, 24 interviews revealed depth of processing and decision-making differences that may account for the discrepancies in learning between the restricted and unrestricted groups. This study suggests that both individuals' differing habits and experimentally induced variations in CP note-taking approaches may have significant differential consequences for cognitive processes and for learning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Over the last several years law school classrooms have seen an explosion of student laptop use. Law professors have allowed this by default, generally under the pretense that laptops make note-taking easier. However, many professors complain that students use their laptops to play games, watch movies, or if they have an Internet connection, to do web surfing and e-mailing during class. This paper presents my experience in banning laptops from my classroom in the Fall of 2006, the first time it was done at my institution. The article covers the reasons for and against allowing laptops in the classroom, my reasoning and procedure for banning them, perceived differences in the classroom experience and relevant student comments from my course evaluations, which were overwhelmingly positive to the laptop ban. Also covered are the cognitive psychological reasons in support of banning laptops. Studies show that lower grades were correlated with increased student web browsing during class (Grace-Martin & Gay, 2001; Hembrooke & Gay, 2003), and the amount of time which students used their laptops for tasks other than taking lecture notes (Fried, 2007). MRI studies of the brain indicate that the brain stores information differently when distracted, which occurs when students attempt to multi-task in class (Foerde, Knowlton, & Poldrack, 2006). The science of note-taking is also covered, which indicates verbatim typing may interfere with learning (e.g., Kiewra, 1991). The paper concludes by urging law school professors to review why laptops are allowed in their classrooms and, unless they feel that laptops increase student learning, to ban or heavily restrict their classroom use.
This review article investigates the encoding and storage functions of note-taking. The encoding function suggests that the process of taking notes, which are not reviewed, is facilitative. Research specifying optimal note-taking behaviors is discussed as are several means for facilitating note-taking, such as viewing a lecture multiple times, note-taking on a provided framework, or generative note-taking activities. The storage function suggests that the review of notes also is facilitative. Research addressing particular review behaviors, such as organization and elaboration, is discussed as are the advantages of reviewing provided notes, borrowed notes, or notes organized in a matrix form. In addition, cognitive factors related to note-taking and review are discussed. The article concludes with an alternative means for defining and investigating the functions of note-taking, and with implications for education and for research.
Three years of graduating business honors cohorts in a large urban university were sampled to determine whether the introduction of ubiquitous laptop computers into the honors program contributed to student achievement, student satisfaction and constructivist teaching activities. The first year cohort consisted of honors students who did not have laptops; the second and third year cohorts were given laptops by the University. The honors students found that their honors classrooms were statistically significantly more constructivist than their traditional (non-honors) classroom. The introduction of laptop computing to honors students and their faculty did not increase the level of constructivist activities in the honors classrooms. Laptop computing did not statistically improve student achievement as measured by GPA. Honors students with laptops reported statistically significantly less satisfaction with their education compared to honors students with no laptops.
Recently, a debate has begun over whether in-class laptops aid or hinder learning. While some research demonstrates that laptops can be an important learning tool, anecdotal evidence suggests more and more faculty are banning laptops from their classrooms because of perceptions that they distract students and detract from learning. The current research examines the nature of in-class laptop use in a large lecture course and how that use is related to student learning. Students completed weekly surveys of attendance, laptop use, and aspects of the classroom environment. Results showed that students who used laptops in class spent considerable time multitasking and that the laptop use posed a significant distraction to both users and fellow students. Most importantly, the level of laptop use was negatively related to several measures of student learning, including self-reported understanding of course material and overall course performance. The practical implications of these findings are discussed.
Four levels of notetaking (summary, paraphrase, verbatim, and letter search) were used to control depth of processing of a prose passage with 180 high school students, who then either reviewed their notes or read an interpolated text. A separate control group took no notes. On immediate and delayed post-tests, post hoc analyses with the depth (notetaking) condition showed the following ranking: summary = paraphrase > control = verbatim > letter search. A paraphrase notes × review × test-position interaction was significant, indicating that less forgetting occurred on a delayed post-test when students reviewed their paraphrase notes than when they read an interpolated text. Analysis of reading times showed that the additional time required for notetaking was only worthwhile when meaningful notes were taken.
Previous research has shown that disfluency--the subjective experience of difficulty associated with cognitive operations - leads to deeper processing. Two studies explore the extent to which this deeper processing engendered by disfluency interventions can lead to improved memory performance. Study 1 found that information in hard-to-read fonts was better remembered than easier to read information in a controlled laboratory setting. Study 2 extended this finding to high school classrooms. The results suggest that superficial changes to learning materials could yield significant improvements in educational outcomes.
Pretested 120 students on a battery of personality tests, including the Rokeach Dogmatism Scale and Internal-External Control Scale. Ss listened to a set of 3 5-min passages with 4 orthogonally crossed variables: position of the criterion passage on an imaginery scientific system in the set, note taking while listening, rehearsal immediately after listening, and testing. A free-recall test scored for number of words and ideas, and a multiple-choice test were then administered. It was found that there were more words generated and higher multiple-choice test scores when the study interval was used for review than for other activities. The number of ideas recalled was favorably influenced by note taking, rehearsal, and testing. There were no significant effects due to position of the passage in the set. Significant correlations were obtained between performance and the individual difference variables of anxiety and tolerance of ambiguity. A significant interaction between social desirability and performance was obtained for certain treatments. Implications for a minitheory of listening and note taking are discussed. (20 ref.)
This study examines how quantitative and qualitative differences in spontaneously taken notes are related to text comprehension in combination with reviewing or not reviewing previously made notes. High school graduates (N = 226) were allowed to take notes in any way they desired while reading a philosophical text. Approximately half the participants were told that they could review their notes during writing tasks designed to measure the ability to define, compare, and evaluate text content. The other half of the participants answered the subsequent questions without their notes. The process of taking notes was rated on the basis of note quality and quantity. The results revealed significant review and process effects in spontaneous note-taking. Reviewing the notes during essay-writing generally resulted in good performance in an exam calling for deep-level text comprehension. However, this review effect was mainly limited to detailed learning instead of making one's own inferences. Results pertaining to note quality indicated that the participants who summarized the content of the text resulted in better performance in all tasks in comparison with those who produced notes following the text order or verbatim notes. The amount of note-taking was also positively related to text comprehension. The discussion focuses upon the situational appropriateness of note-taking effects that pose challenges to educators. Copyright 1999 Academic Press.
In 4 experiments, participants alternated between different tasks or performed the same task repeatedly. The tasks for 2 of the experiments required responding to geometric objects in terms of alternative classification rules, and the tasks for the other 2 experiments required solving arithmetic problems in terms of alternative numerical operations. Performance was measured as a function of whether the tasks were familiar or unfamiliar, the rules were simple or complex, and visual cues were present or absent about which tasks should be performed. Task alternation yielded switching-time costs that increased with rule complexity but decreased with task cuing. These factor effects were additive, supporting a model of executive control that has goal-shifting and rule-activation stages for task switching. It appears that rule activation takes more time for switching from familiar to unfamiliar tasks than for switching in the opposite direction.
Despite a century's worth of research, arguments surrounding the question of whether far transfer occurs have made little progress toward resolution. The authors argue the reason for this confusion is a failure to specify various dimensions along which transfer can occur, resulting in comparisons of "apples and oranges." They provide a framework that describes 9 relevant dimensions and show that the literature can productively be classified along these dimensions, with each study situated at the intersection of various dimensions. Estimation of a single effect size for far transfer is misguided in view of this complexity. The past 100 years of research shows that evidence for transfer under some conditions is substantial, but critical conditions for many key questions are untested.
Researchers often conduct mediation analysis in order to indirectly assess the effect of a proposed cause on some outcome through a proposed mediator. The utility of mediation analysis stems from its ability to go beyond the merely descriptive to a more functional understanding of the relationships among variables. A necessary component of mediation is a statistically and practically significant indirect effect. Although mediation hypotheses are frequently explored in psychological research, formal significance tests of indirect effects are rarely conducted. After a brief overview of mediation, we argue the importance of directly testing the significance of indirect effects and provide SPSS and SAS macros that facilitate estimation of the indirect effect with a normal theory approach and a bootstrap approach to obtaining confidence intervals, as well as the traditional approach advocated by Baron and Kenny (1986). We hope that this discussion and the macros will enhance the frequency of formal mediation tests in the psychology literature. Electronic copies of these macros may be downloaded from the Psychonomic Society's Web archive at www.psychonomic.org/archive/.
Ubiquitous laptop usage in higher education: Effects on student
- C Wurst
- C Smarkola
- M A Gaffney
Wurst, C., Smarkola, C., & Gaffney, M. A. (2008). Ubiquitous laptop usage in higher education: Effects on student
Utilization of laptop com-puters in the school of business classroom
- R Skolnick
- M Puzo
Skolnick, R., & Puzo, M. (2008). Utilization of laptop com-puters in the school of business classroom. Academy of Educational Leadership Journal, 12, 1–10.
Disruption and recov Exploring the benefits and chal-lenges of using laptop computers in higher education class-rooms: A formative analysis
- S T Iqbal
- E Horvitz
- Oppenheimer Mueller
- R Kay
- S Lauricella
Iqbal, S. T., & Horvitz, E. (2007). Disruption and recov-Mueller, Oppenheimer Kay, R., & Lauricella, S. (2011). Exploring the benefits and chal-lenges of using laptop computers in higher education class-rooms: A formative analysis. Canadian Journal of Learning and Technology, 37(1). Retrieved from http://www.cjlt.ca/ index.php/cjlt/article/view/565/299