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African pangolins under increased pressure from poaching and intercontinental trade
... The animal is hunted and traded for its body scales, meat and skin (Atkins 2004). Marketing of the body parts, especially the scales, has dominated the global illegal trade with major destination in Asia (Bräutigam et al. 1994, Challender andHywood 2012). Most importantly, the use of pangolin body parts in local medicines has dominated previous research and public discourse has been on for a long period of time (Bräutigam et al. 1994, Soewu and Ayodele 2009, Soewu and Adekanola 2011, Whiting 2011, Sodeinde and Adedipe 1994, Sodeinde and Soewu 1999, Akpona et al. 2008, Challender and Hywood 2012, Boakye et al. 2014. ...
... Marketing of the body parts, especially the scales, has dominated the global illegal trade with major destination in Asia (Bräutigam et al. 1994, Challender andHywood 2012). Most importantly, the use of pangolin body parts in local medicines has dominated previous research and public discourse has been on for a long period of time (Bräutigam et al. 1994, Soewu and Ayodele 2009, Soewu and Adekanola 2011, Whiting 2011, Sodeinde and Adedipe 1994, Sodeinde and Soewu 1999, Akpona et al. 2008, Challender and Hywood 2012, Boakye et al. 2014. Majority of these authors have reported that scales of pangolin are the most used part in local medicines. ...
Marketing and consumption of bushmeat have been part of rural livelihoods. This study therefore assessed the marketing of bushmeat in Ilorin, the capital of Kwara State, Nigeria. The respondents targeted include hunters, wholesalers, and retailers of bushmeat. The purposeful sampling technique was employed for the selection of 15 wholesalers and 20 retailers of bushmeat, while the snowball method was adopted for the sampling of 20 hunters, making 55 respondents. The majority of the bushmeat hunters were male (90.0%), while 80.0% and 85.0% of the retailers and wholesalers, respectively, were female. The people who engaged in hunting were local farmers and full-time local hunters. About 63.3% of the hunters processed their kills to prevent decay (46.6%) and for value addition (36.7%). From estimation, the increase in the average seasonal selling prices for the bushmeat was as high as 100% between the middlemen in some cases, while some was just about 10% or below. Marketing of bushmeat is mainly driven by the final consumers; hence, there is a need for proper public education and awareness creation on the implications of killing animals in the wild. Training on the domestication of wild animals should be organized among hunters, marketers, and consumers, with incentives provided for their establishment.
... They have been exploited locally mainly for food and traditional medicine throughout history (Wu and Ma 2007;Zhang and Yin 2014;Mohapatra et al. 2015;Nijman 2015;Shairp et al. 2016). Currently, however, the main threat to pangolins, in both Asia and Africa, is large-scale poaching for illegal international commercial trade (Challender and Hywood 2012;Xu et al. 2016). Hunted indiscriminately throughout their range, they are particularly susceptible to the destructive effects of overharvesting due to their low fecundity (Lim and Ng 2008). ...
Pangolins have become one of the most intensely poached and trafficked mammal species, exploited mainly for the food and traditional medicine trade. Intense and continued illegal exploitation for commercial trade has become the leading cause of pangolin declines in parts of Asia and Africa. Recent research has illustrated the growing threat this poses to pangolins in India. India is home to two species of pangolin, the Indian Pangolin Manis crassicaudata and the Chinese Pangolin M. pentadactyla, which have been assessed as endangered and critically endangered respectively. Pangolin seizures in India between 1991 and 2022 were analysed to gain a better understanding of illegal trade dynamics. A total of 426 seizures were collated, involving an estimated 8603 pangolins. The frequency of pangolin seizures increased over time as did the volume of estimated pangolins seized. This could be due to a range of different factors including rising poaching and trade levels, increased law enforcement and reporting, and awareness. Nevertheless, on the ground, investigations by the Wildlife Protection Society of India strongly indicate that the escalating poaching and trade in pangolins is driven by lucrative market demands from beyond India’s borders, with a growing focus on the trade in live pangolins. Enforcement efforts appear to be undermined by low prosecution rates with only 1.4% of recorded seizures resulting in successful convictions. Asian pangolins have rapidly disappeared from their natural range and been locally extirpated in many parts of East and Southeast Asia. India’s pangolin species are at similar risk if poaching and trafficking levels continue unmitigated.
... Four Asian species of pangolins have been intensively used in Traditional Chinese Medicine as well as for local consumption for decades in Eastern and South-East Asia (Sexton et al., 2021;Xing et al., 2020); and thus, their populations have been reduced dramatically (Wu et al., 2004). Consequently, a steady increase in demand for African pangolin species has been clearly identified in Asia since 2008 (Challender & Hywood, 2012;Ingram, Cronin, et al., 2019;UNODC, 2020;Zhang et al., 2020). Recent studies have identified that the main trafficking hubs of pangolin scales to Asia are countries in West and Central Africa (EIA, 2020;Emogor et al., 2021;Ingram, Cronin, et al., 2019;UNODC, 2020). ...
Habitat loss and overexploitation are the most severe threats to wild animals in Central Africa. One mammalian group under pressure from hunting is the Pho-lidota (pangolins), with three species of pangolin inhabiting the region. While local uses of pangolins have been investigated in several Central African countries , data originating from the Republic of the Congo are lacking. To address this knowledge gap, we conducted a semistructured questionnaire survey in 65 rural communities around the Odzala-Kokoua National Park. Our research focused on collecting baseline information on local knowledge of species ecology , and perceived economic values and uses of pangolins in local communities. We identified significant differences in our data corresponding to respondents' sociocultural and demographic profiles in the surveyed villages. Recognition of pangolins was high (98.2%), we recorded 22 traditional medicinal or cultural uses of pangolins by respondents, and the taste of pangolin meat was ranked highly (71.3%). Respondents based along the northern boundary of the park were more familiar with pangolins and the market value of their meat and scales, which could be due to better quality roads in the area and proximity to Cameroon. We then provide guidelines for further research to better understand the dynamics of local use, needed for conservation policy and actions.
... 12, 14 Global wildlife trafficking involves hundreds of millions of animals annually and among these specimens pangolins are highly prevalent. 7,8,25 All eight pangolin species are listed on Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora. 12,23 Because of the intense illegal pressure on wild pangolin populations, the development of ex situ conservation programs for pangolins have been implemented. ...
Death due to illegal trade and trafficking serves as the largest threat to pangolins in their geographic range countries. Appropriate veterinary care is essential to the welfare of sick or debilitated pangolins. Given the challenge of comprehensive physical examination of this species due to its unique anatomic features and poorly studied physiology, laboratory diagnostics can provide essential information to guide appropriate medical care. This retrospective study included previously analyzed blood and urine samples collected from adult (n = 17) African white-bellied pangolins (Phataginus tricuspis) under managed care that were sampled over a 4-yr period as part of routine veterinary examinations. Samples from clinically normal animals were used to summarize results for this species. Pangolins had a lymphocyte-predominant leukogram with a mean neutrophil to lymphocyte ratio of 0.83 (min-max: 0.13-4.81). Seasonal, sex, and age differences were present for several hematologic and serum biochemical analytes. Urine samples had a median urine specific gravity (USG) of 1.040 (min-max: 1.006-1.060), a neutral-to-basic urine pH (6.0-8.6), and contained mainly struvite crystals or infrequently calcium oxalate dihydrate crystals. Winter samples had higher USG than summer samples. The clinicopathologic data provided herein offers applicable information useful for the clinical management of pangolins.
... Studies have also increasingly highlighted the potential impact on biodiversity from the rapid development of TCM (Chi et al., 2017;Esmail et al., 2020;Hinsley et al., 2020;Still, 2003). Moreover, biodiversity that could be threatened by unsustainable TCM trade includes not only species native to China but also non-native species (e.g., African pangolins) and non-Chinese populations of target species (e.g., Terminalia chebula and other plants) with known examples to be incorporated into TCM practices within China (Challender & Hywood, 2012;Chapagain et al., 2021;Kailash et al., 2022 protecting the health of the people." TCM has also been used as part of the treatment for COVID-19 within China during the current pandemic, further promoting its reputation and development (Chen & Chen, 2020;Wan et al., 2020). ...
Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) is highlighted by conservation practitioners as an ongoing threat to many overharvested plant and animal species, including several charismatic threatened vertebrates. However, studies that provide evidence‐based and practical recommendations on how to better regulate the TCM trade for sustainability and biodiversity conservation remain limited. China is the biggest promotor of and market for TCM and understanding the TCM trade in China is important for global biodiversity conservation. In particular, conservation researchers need to better understand how the TCM trade and its regulations interact with China’s development needs, and should collaborate with TCM communities to propose locally‐adapted suggestions to decision‐makers. However, progress in these areas has been restricted by language, cultural, and knowledge barriers. In this paper, we provide an overview of the current status of TCM‐related regulations in China, identify weaknesses in regulation frameworks, and highlight issues that currently limit our understanding of the magnitude, dynamics, and impact of the trade. We propose changes in trade regulations, actions to enhance law enforcement, and future research directions to encourage a more sustainable TCM trade that benefits both global biodiversity conservation and TCM development.
... However, severe fragmentation of forested habitats by intense agriculture activities, growing urbanization and forest exploitation for wood energy(FAO 2010, Alohou et al. 2017) are likely to significantly reduce the coverage of suitable habitats for the white-bellied 38 pangolin in Benin. The species is subject to intense exploitation across its range for bushmeat and traditional medicine, and is the most represented pangolin species in bushmeat markets(Djagoun & Gaubert 2009; Djagoun et al. 2013).The important quantity of direct occurrence evidence (96 samples of scales) collected during our survey showed that hunters stored pangolin scales in their houses either as trophies or for uses in traditional medicine(Akpona et al. 2008; Djagoun et al. 2013), and possibly for supplying traditional medicine markets.The expanding scale of the illegal international trade towards Asia(Challender & Hywood 2012;Xu et al. 2016) is likely contributing to the depletion of white-bellied pangolin populations. In Benin, international trafficking has been confirmed by a recent seizure of 513 kg of pangolin scales at the airport of Cotonou. ...
Pangolins are on the top of conservation priority due mainly to their unprecedented level of harvesting. The four African species are under great gap of baseline data that hampers the set up of a well-designed, evidence-based strategy for tackling their alarming conservation status. My PhD dissertation focused on the biogeographically delineated Dahomey Gap region (West Africa) using the white-bellied pangolin as a case study to: (i) assess the geographic distribution and population trends of pangolin species across Benin, (ii) Model pangolin population extirpation rates using validated local ecological knowledge, (iii) assess the ethnozoological and commercial values of pangolins in Benin, (iv) investigate the population genetics of the white-bellied pangolin and set up the molecular tracing of their fine scale trade across the Dahomey Gap, and (v) assess the precise dietary composition of the white-bellied pangolin in Benin through eDNA metabarcoding. Local Ecological Knowledge revealed a 31 and 93 % contraction of the occurrence areas of the white-bellied and giant pangolins respectively, and highlighted habitat degradation and overexploitation as the main drivers of population decline for both species. Generalized linear model revealed that, abundance in 1998, distances from main roads and protected areas to villages, land use changes and deforestation over time were factors that significantly explained the current persistence of pangolins in Benin. Prediction models suggested decreasing trends for the white-bellied pangolin over the next two decades and a total extirpation of the giant pangolin whatever the scenario considered (deforestation versus no deforestation). Pangolins are valuable animals for local people and it occurs a regional trade network that involved Chinese diasporas. Pangolins in rural areas and traditional medicine markets are relatively cheaper in Benin compared to other countries in West and central Africa, but their price is 3-8 times higher when clients are from the Chinese diaspora. Microsatellites and mitochondrial DNA-based analyses suggested low genetic diversity, inbred populations, absence of clear geographic subdivision. Phylogenetic analysis suggested an endemic trade within the Dahomey Gap affecting the Dahomey Gap lineage of white-bellied pangolins and microsatellite markers pinpointed a long-distance trade within and between countries in the Dahomey Gap. The white-bellied pangolin preys mainly on ants and termites but also other insect taxa. The diversity of detected prey items was significantly higher (p<0.001) for the gut content (versus scat) samples. In conclusion, this dissertation revealed a high concern status of pangolins in the Dahomey Gap and provided substantial data that could be used as decision tools for the effective conservation of pangolins in the Dahomey Gap.
... The behavioral data from various captive studies suggest reproductive seasonality; however, supporting endocrinological findings is lacking [4][5][6]. Pangolins, in general, are known for a low fecundity rate (i.e., one young per birth and a moderate rate of maternal care) [7,8] and such a comparatively low reproduction rate coupled with overharvesting due to intense illegal international trade [9][10][11][12][13] make pangolins susceptible to extinction. This situation is further driven by more than 70% of all pangolins kept under human care failing to survive their first year in captivity [8,[14][15][16], making rehabilitation and breeding an arduous task [4,8,17]. ...
Pangolins are under severe threat of surging poaching rates globally; therefore, there is a demand to ascertain reproductive measures to ensure captive breeding and management strategies. Due to the absence of substantial information on the pangolin, endocrinology and reproductive physiology studies around the globe are merely based on captive observations that have failed to report the chronographs and hormonal cyclicity of the reproductive events. This study attempts to evaluate the annual pattern of reproductive steroids (estradiol-17β and progesterone) and prolactin in 16 wild female Taiwanese pangolins rehabilitated by Pingtung Rescue Center of Endangered Wild Animals, Taiwan. Novel immunoassays, i.e., chemiluminometric assays, have been used to quantify the serum reproductive steroids and contribute to a better understanding of the endocrine correlates of function in the Taiwanese pangolin. The hematological findings were characterized by monthly median concentration. The circulating reproductive hormones demonstrated seasonal reproductive activity by confirming a peak in serum estradiol concentrations in December and considerably higher progesterone concentrations in November/December, and March/April. The rise in prolactin in December and peak values in April suggest participation in the ovulatory process and mating. Collectively, these findings can help maximize the reproductive efficiency of pangolin species in captivity, i.e., by timely pairing and prioritizing the care of the breeding pairs to optimize breeding efforts and, therefore, effectively support conservation breeding programs and restore the natural population in the ecosystems.
Two species of pangolins occur in Nepal: the Chinese pangolin Manis pentadactyla and the Indian pangolin Manis crassicaudata . They are categorized as Critically Endangered and Endangered, respectively, on the IUCN Red List, and are protected under the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1973 in Nepal. Although both this national law and CITES prohibit pangolin hunting and trade, such trade still occurs. To better understand the patterns of pangolin hunting and trade in Nepal, we analysed data on pangolin seizures gathered from official records, grey literature and verified public media reports dating from 1 January 2010 to 31 December 2020. A total of 122 pangolin seizures were reported in 27 districts, mostly in the central mid-hills. Seizure cases included 23 live pangolins, 18 whole-body skins with scales and 1,046.7 kg of scales. We estimate a minimum of 1,500 individuals were hunted locally over the 11-year study period. Analysis of the trade network identified the capital city, Kathmandu, as the main pangolin trade hub, with scales being the most commonly seized item. The illegal trade occurred mostly in two regions: central and eastern Nepal, and areas bordering China. The pangolins were hunted mainly from core habitats within rural areas, then transported to the city for trade. These data support the future development of effective law enforcement and policy interventions for this region, to stop the illegal pangolin trade. Greater understanding of the patterns of the local pangolin trade and the identification of hotspot areas and peak hunting seasons will allow us to prioritize areas for future conservation interventions.
Pangolins have become one of the most intensely poached and trafficked mammal species, exploited mainly for the food and traditional medicine trade. Intense and continued illegal exploitation for commercial trade has become the leading cause of pangolin declines in parts of Asia and Africa. Recent research has illustrated the growing threat this poses to pangolins in India. India is home to two species of pangolin, the Indian Pangolin Manis crassicaudata and the Chinese Pangolin M. pentadactyla , which have been assessed as Endangered and Critically Endangered respectively. Pngolin seizures in India between 1991 and 2022 were analysed to gain a better understanding of illegal trade dynamics. A total of 426 seizures were collated, involving an estimated 8,603 pangolins. The frequency of pangolin seizures increased over time as did the volume of estimated pangolins seized. This could be due to a range of different factors including rising poaching and trade levels, increased law enforcement and reporting, as well as awareness. Nevertheless, Wildlife Protection Society of India's investigations strongly indicate that the escalating poaching and trade in pangolins is driven by lucrative market demands from beyond India’s borders, with a growing focus on the trade in live pangolins. Enforcement efforts appear to be undermined by low prosecution rates with only 1.4% of recorded seizures resulting in successful convictions. Asian pangolins have rapidly disappeared from their natural range and been locally extirpated in many parts of East and Southeast Asia. India’s pangolin species are at similar risk if poaching and trafficking levels continue unmitigated.
Habitat loss and degradation are currently the main anthropogenic causes of species extinctions. The root cause is human overpopulation. This unique volume provides, for the very first time, a comprehensive overview of all threatened and recently extinct mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fishes within the context of their locations and habitats. The approach takes a systematic examination of each biogeographic realm and region of the world, both terrestrial and marine, but with a particular emphasis on geographic features such as mountains, islands, and coral reefs. It reveals patterns useful in biodiversity conservation, helps to put it all into perspective, and ultimately serves as both a baseline from which to compare subsequent developments as well as a standardization of the way threatened species are studied.
We use discrete morphological characters in a statistical framework to reassess the taxonomic status of the Palawan pangolin Manis culionensis relative to the Sunda pangolin M. javanica. We recommend that the 15 species-level traits previously proposed in the literature to distinguish the 2 pangolins be replaced by 5 newly defined diagnostic characters related to skull and external scales. Our study supports species-level partition between the Palawan and Sunda pangolins at a frequency of expected polymorphism threshold fixed to 0.10. Isolation through sea level rising (approximately 800,000-500,000 years ago) of proto-Palawan pangolins coming from Borneo through Early Pleistocene land bridges might have promoted the speciation of M. culionensis, a Palawan endemic species to be considered of high conservation concern.
Here we present the first field report on the ecology of a single female Sunda pangolin
and her young in their natural habitat on an offshore island of Singapore. Observations of this event were made possible by the use of radio-telemetry and infrared-triggered camera traps. Only one offspring was recorded from this birth event and the period of maternal care was approximately 3 to 4 mo. A total of 3 natal dens were used throughout the monitoring period, and hollows of large trees (>50 cm diameter at breast height, DBH) were associated with all dens. The 100 and 95% home range estimated by minimum convex polygons is 6.97 and 5.63 ha, respectively. The daily active period of the pangolin was 127 ± 13.1 min, and peak activity levels were between 03:00 and 06:00 h. The findings of this report are discussed in relation to the conservation challenges confronting this species.
ABSTRACT: medicines is taken from the wild; hence demand by traditional medicine is a cause of over-exploitation of wild animals. Indiscriminate use of endangered species portends grievous implications for biodiversity conservation. This study investigated the dynamics of the use of pangolin in trado-medicinal preparations amongst the Awori people.
Forty traditional Yorubic-medical practitioners (tymps) selected through stratified random-sampling technique were interviewed using open-ended questionnaires. Various aspects of the utilisation of pangolin in traditional medicinal practices were investigated. Data collected were analysed using simple frequencies and percentages.
An average of 1.6 pangolins were utilised per tymp per month. About 43% of respondents contracted hunters for deliberate searches for the animals. More than 92% believed that pangolins' abundance is steadily decreasing. Above 97% reported a continuous decline in the size of pangolin. Pangolin was used in treating 47 conditions. Situations accommodated included those that can be treated by orthodox medicine like rheumatism and venereal diseases as well as some that are out of range for orthodox medicine including kleptomania and good luck charms. Some substitute animals like gorilla are under a greater conservation threat than pangolin.
Utilisation of pangolin in traditional medicine has no consideration for sustainability. Awareness should be created on people as regards the implications of unsustainable depletion of medicinal resources. Efforts should be intensified on ex-situ breeding of pangolin while subjecting the scales and other parts to laboratory studies to determine the bioactive constituents.
The four writings compiled for this project involve explorations into the complex relationship between Zimbabweans and their land. The current struggles in Zimbabwe over land seizure and resettlement make this a particularly timely and noteworthy theme. The first piece, "Tshaya, Indoda," is a screenplay looking at the dynamic relationship between a white safari operator and black subsistence farmers who live in nearby communal farming lands. The disputes and issues discussed in this piece are very realistic and awareness is raised as to the historical nature and racial dimensions of the current land disputes in Zimbabwe. "Dubious," the second piece, is in the style of magic realism and explores the impact that safari operators and tourists can have on the natural environment and indigenous populations. This piece provides a rather satirical and fantastical approach to several philosophical and ethical issues concerning land, natural resources, resource consumption, sense of place, and sense of personal fulfillment. In the third piece, "Ants, Spirits, and Magic: Three Encounters with the Pangolin," a more anthropological and technical tone is utilized to address the issue of Zimbabwean property and resource-rights, as well as the significance of the pangolin as the ultimate symbol of human attachment to land. The last piece, entitled "The Bush," is an account of my personal adventures and discussions with four non-fictional characters who all perceive the same environment through decidedly different lenses. The characters consist of a poacher, a safari operator, an independent wildlife researcher, and a Shona rock sculptor. The purpose of this compilation of writings is isolate some of the dilemmas and issues occurring in the Zimbabwe land crisis and try to explain the historical and cultural dinamics of these tensions concerning the land.