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African pangolins under increased pressure from poaching and intercontinental trade
... A live Temminck's pangolin (a decade ago) costs USD 7,000-9,000 whilst killing the animal and selling its derivatives such as meat, bones, scales, or foetus, mainly for traditional medicinal and ritual purposes, fetches more money on the illegal wildlife market (D. W. Challender & Hywood, 2012). The opportunity cost and risk of fetching more money on the illegal pangolin market have attracted a number of local poachers resulting in an increase in poaching incidents of Temminck's pangolin in Zimbabwe (Shepherd et al., 2017). ...
... Deterrent prison sentences of up to 11 years per live Temminck's pangolin recovered have not helped curb the poachers' activities in impoverished Zimbabwe (Shepherd et al., 2017). D. W. Challender and Hywood (2012) and Shepherd et al. (2017) indicated that the population of Temminck's pangolin is dynamic due to anthropic activities mainly poaching and trafficking. However, there is no accurate published evidence of the Temminck's pangolin population trends in Zimbabwe. ...
... What is more crucial is to have a population survey of the pangolins and determine the trends and hotspots of pangolin contraband seizures in Zimbabwe and then thoroughly investigate the full list of drivers behind the pangolin population dynamics (D. W. Challender & Hywood, 2012). D. W. Challender and Hywood (2012) and Shepherd et al. (2017) indicated that trade in Temminck's pangolin and its derivatives has not completely stopped in Zimbabwe even with the existing deterrent fines and prohibitive cultural beliefs. ...
Temminck’s pangolin, Smutsia temminckii (Smuts, 1832) is a threatened but protected species in Zimbabwe whose population is declining, ostensibly, due to poaching and persecution by humans. Inasmuch as the human factor is a critical dimension in Temminck’s pangolin population dynamics, there are few studies documenting local perceptions on conservation threats and options for the species in Zimbabwe. The study aimed to (a) assess the conservation perceptions of local fringe communities and (b) explore existing and potential conservation options for Temminck’s pangolin in Hwange National Park (HNP) in Zimbabwe. Data on local perceptions towards Temminck’s pangolin were collected through a questionnaire survey from May to December 2021, delving across cultural, political, economic, and social aspects in HNP. Poaching and trafficking, spurred by lucrative market prices and frivolous superstitious cultural beliefs and myths associated with the species and its by-products, are the apex drivers for Temminck’s pangolin dynamics in HNP. Climate change and habitat degradation mostly by African savanna elephants also affect Temminck’s pangolin populations in the HNP. A multifaceted conservation approach integrating indigenous knowledge systems, citizen science data, active community involvement, modern conservation methods, and a zero pangolin poaching policy in HNP is imperative for Temminck’s pangolin conservation.
... African pangolin populations are fast declining due to hunting (Challender and Hywood, 2012), habitat degradation and loss WABiCC, 2020), and illegal trade of their scales from Africa to Asia, especially from Central Africa Ingram et al., 2019b). West and central Africa have been reported as the main trafficking hubs of pangolin scales to Asia (Emogor et al., 2021;Ingram et al., 2019b;World Health Organization [WHO], 2020). ...
... West and central Africa have been reported as the main trafficking hubs of pangolin scales to Asia (Emogor et al., 2021;Ingram et al., 2019b;World Health Organization [WHO], 2020). The demand for African pangolins has increased steadily since 2008 as result of trade agreements and greater ties between Africa and Asia (Challender and Hywood, 2012;Challender et al., 2016). The continuous decline in Asian pangolins and the insufficient supply to meet demand has resulted to continuous trafficking of the four African species to supply the Asian market. ...
... The continuous decline in Asian pangolins and the insufficient supply to meet demand has resulted to continuous trafficking of the four African species to supply the Asian market. (Challender and Hywood, 2011;Challender and Hywood, 2012). This is due to weaker law enforcement in Africa (Challender and Hywood, 2012;Ingram et al., 2019b;WHO, 2020). ...
... In 2016, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora [10], added all species of Pangolin to Appendix I at CoP17, prohibiting their commercial trade internationally due to concerns about the effects of international trafficking [11]. Pangolin have received great attention in recent times, not just for their unique morphological features but also because of their prominence in international trade. ...
This study evaluates local communities’ knowledge, attitude, and perception towards the critically endangered African Tree Pangolin and its conservation in the 15 identified Other Effect Area Based Conservation Measures (OECM) sites in Osun State, Nigeria. 360 participants aged 20 and older participated in the study, which found that 90.33% supported the presence of African Tree Pangolin. However, 61% affirmed that their population is reducing due to hunting and habitat loss from poor agriculture. 67% of interviewees believed that benefits from wildlife through tourism, insect regulation, bush meat, and medicine influenced their attitudes and perceptions towards conservation. 33% of the local population changed their attitude and perception towards conservation. African Tree Pangolin conservation was deemed a priority by those with higher levels of education, but the majority of respondents claimed that the idea was unsupported because of the high revenue generated by Pangolin sales. Increasing public awareness through media, handbills, billboards, seminars, and films could help mitigate poor attitudes towards African Tree Pangolin conservation.
... These involved at least seven export and transit countries including Kenya. The total importation into Malaysia since 2014 is estimated to be 8000 kg of African pangolin scales (Krishnasamy and Shepherd, 2017 (Challender and Hywood, 2012;Shepherd et al., 2017), with at least 144 individuals seized although the actual number is likely much higher as a high proportion are not intercepted (Challender et al., 2020a;. ...
All eight pangolin species are threatened and are collectively considered the most trafficked mammal group in the world. Temminck's pangolin (Smutsia temminckii; hereafter "pangolin") are an elusive and low-density species that are undergoing population decline due to poaching for traditional medicine uses, spiritual purposes, and bushmeat consumption. They also experience road mortalities caused by vehicular collisions, as well as electrocutions on electric fences. There are significant knowledge gaps in pangolin ecology, including habitat use and how it relates to these anthropogenic threats. The current research utilised field studies, citizen science, and remote sensing in Kenya and South Africa to address these gaps. There has been limited ecological research on this species in East Africa to date. To investigate small-scale habitat use within home ranges, burrow choice of pangolins was monitored through camera trapping and radio-tracking in Masai Mara National Reserve, Kenya. Pangolins utilise burrows created by aardvarks (Orycteropus afer) rather than create their own. This means aardvark burrow presence is likely important for determining pangolin habitat use in Kenya. Five characteristics of aardvark burrows were evaluated for pangolin preference. Pangolins were generalists when it came to utilisation based on these characteristics, although burrows with large entrances were avoided due to presumed predator evasion. These results were the first in East Africa to evaluate pangolin burrow use and additionally provided aardvark distribution and burrow density data. In addition to burrow presence, there are likely other environmental factors that influence pangolin distribution and habitat use. To evaluate wider-scale pangolin habitat use, habitat suitability models were generated using remotely sensed environmental variables and citizen science reports. This was conducted for both Narok County and all of Kenya, and revealed that moderate rainfall, topography above 1500 m, and eight soil types were the main predictors of distribution. This is the first study to generate such models for pangolins outside of South Africa. Further, a risk model (the first created for pangolins) was generated using anthropogenic variables to predict areas of high threats, which indicated areas with close proximity to roads and human populations as the largest potential threats within Kenya. Fences were indicated as a lesser threat, whereas they are known to cause numerous mortalities in South Africa. This difference between Kenya and South Africa is likely due to a lower amount of electric fencing in East Africa. To assess fences as a threat to pangolins in South Africa, an online citizen science questionnaire was used to investigate electrocution frequency and which fence types are most prone to cause these mortalities. Mortalities of fourteen taxa were recorded, with pangolins being the second most frequently killed species, after tortoises. The most mortalities occurred on fences with low-level electric wires, indicating that mitigation to reduce deaths on these fences is needed. Collectively, these findings contribute to our understanding of pangolin ecology, including: habitat use, distribution factors, and anthropogenic threats. This information is vital for conservation planning, and will aid conservation practitioners and stakeholders in developing effective conservation strategies.
... Pangolins have long been hunted across their ranges by local communities as bushmeat (Boakye et al., 2014;Zanvo et al., 2021). However, the large demand from the Chinese traditional medicine (Challender & Waterman, 2017;Cheng et al., 2017) and the apparent decrease in numbers of Asian pangolins (Challender & Waterman, 2017;Heinrich et al., 2017) have recently created a global source-sink trade network where pangolin scales (mostly) are being massively exported from Africa to South-East Asia (Challender & Hywood, 2012;Ingram et al., 2019;Zhang et al., 2020). ...
During the last 40 years, the volumes of African pangolins feeding the illegal wildlife trade have dramatically increased. We conducted a conservation genetics survey of the most traded African species, the white bellied pangolin (WBP; Phataginus tricuspis ), across three West African countries including Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire, and Ghana. Our study combining mitochondrial DNA sequencing and microsatellite genotyping is the first to reveal a wide pattern of admixture between two of the six mitochondrial lineages as previously delimited within WBP. We found a signature of isolation by distance but a lack of population genetic structuring, supporting the idea that WBP may have underestimated dispersal abilities. Levels of genetic diversity were low in West African lineages (WAfr and Gha) compared to Central Africa, reinforcing the picture of genetic pauperization shared by West African WBP. We observed a 85%–98% decline in the effective population size of WBP occurring c. 3200 to 400 ya, with current numbers (520–590) at the lower end of the conservative thresholds for minimum viable population size. The microsatellite markers were powerful enough to differentiate between individuals and identify replicated samples, confirming the utility of this approach in tracing the pangolin trade. Genetic diversity estimates confirmed that Yopougon, the main bushmeat market from Abidjan (Côte d'Ivoire), was fed by a large trade network as confirmed by vendors reporting 10 different sources situated 62–459 km away from the market. We conclude that WBP distributed in the Upper Guinean Block should be considered a single management unit of high conservation concern, as impacted by genetic diversity erosion, drastic decline in effective population size, and wide range sourcing for feeding urban bushmeat markets. Given the genetic admixture pattern detected within WBP from West Africa, we advocate for a multi‐locus strategy to trace the international trade of the species.
... In Zimbabwe, Temminck's pangolin has a ubiquitous distribution, although they are largely restricted to protected areas (Mahakata et al., 2021). Regardless, there are no documented pangolin population estimates even in protected areas such as Hwange National Park (HNP) despite existential severe conservation threats (Challender & Hywood, 2012). We assessed the habitat preference, distribution and visibility, presence, and activity of Temminck's pangolin in HNP in Zimbabwe. ...
Temminck's pangolin, Smutsia temminckii (Smuts, 1832), faces conservation threats of poaching and trafficking in Zimbabwe. Using a mixed‐method approach we assessed the ecology, status, and distribution of Temminck's pangolin in Hwange National Park (HNP) over May–December 2021. Seven pangolins were recorded through direct sightings, although camera traps deployed did not detect pangolins. Biotic and abiotic factors including rainfall, air temperature, waterholes, digital elevation model, anthills, and Miombo vegetation influence pangolin distribution. The low pangolin numbers recorded in the study either indicate its shy nature or simply reflect its low densities in HNP. Short‐term surveys are inconclusive for determining key factors influencing the population, ecology, and distribution of shy species such as Temminck's pangolin. Long‐term future monitoring initiatives integrating ground surveys, citizen science data, and scientific methods like environmental DNA metabarcoding will enhance accurate assessment of pangolin population trends and presence inside and outside of protected areas such as HNP.
... The largest markets for these products are in China (9)(10)(11). As populations of the Asian species of pangolins have declined, smugglers have begun importing African pangolins to meet demand (5,(12)(13)(14). Consequently, the white-bellied pangolin (Phataginus tricuspis), which occurs throughout Western and Central Africa, from Guinea to Zambia, is now the most trafficked mammal in the 10 world (11,(15)(16)(17)(18)(19). ...
The white-bellied pangolin ( Phataginus tricuspis ) is the world’s most trafficked mammal and is at risk of extinction. Reducing the illegal wildlife trade requires an understanding of its origins. Using a genomic approach for tracing confiscations and analyzing 111 samples collected from known geographic localities in Africa and 643 seized scales from Asia between 2012 and 2018, we found that poaching pressures shifted over time from West to Central Africa. Recently, Cameroon’s southern border has emerged as a site of intense poaching. Using data from seizures representing nearly 1 million African pangolins, we identified Nigeria as one important hub for trafficking, where scales are amassed and transshipped to markets in Asia. This origin-to-destination approach offers new opportunities to disrupt the illegal wildlife trade and to guide anti-trafficking measures.
... They have been exploited locally mainly for food and traditional medicine throughout history (Wu and Ma 2007;Zhang and Yin 2014;Mohapatra et al. 2015;Nijman 2015;Shairp et al. 2016). Currently, however, the main threat to pangolins, in both Asia and Africa, is large-scale poaching for illegal international commercial trade (Challender and Hywood 2012;Xu et al. 2016). Hunted indiscriminately throughout their range, they are particularly susceptible to the destructive effects of overharvesting due to their low fecundity (Lim and Ng 2008). ...
Pangolins have become one of the most intensely poached and trafficked mammal species, exploited mainly for the food and traditional medicine trade. Intense and continued illegal exploitation for commercial trade has become the leading cause of pangolin declines in parts of Asia and Africa. Recent research has illustrated the growing threat this poses to pangolins in India. India is home to two species of pangolin, the Indian Pangolin Manis crassicaudata and the Chinese Pangolin M. pentadactyla, which have been assessed as endangered and critically endangered respectively. Pangolin seizures in India between 1991 and 2022 were analysed to gain a better understanding of illegal trade dynamics. A total of 426 seizures were collated, involving an estimated 8603 pangolins. The frequency of pangolin seizures increased over time as did the volume of estimated pangolins seized. This could be due to a range of different factors including rising poaching and trade levels, increased law enforcement and reporting, and awareness. Nevertheless, on the ground, investigations by the Wildlife Protection Society of India strongly indicate that the escalating poaching and trade in pangolins is driven by lucrative market demands from beyond India’s borders, with a growing focus on the trade in live pangolins. Enforcement efforts appear to be undermined by low prosecution rates with only 1.4% of recorded seizures resulting in successful convictions. Asian pangolins have rapidly disappeared from their natural range and been locally extirpated in many parts of East and Southeast Asia. India’s pangolin species are at similar risk if poaching and trafficking levels continue unmitigated.
The white‐bellied pangolin Phataginus tricuspis (Rafinesque 1821) is a semiarboreal species occurring in tropical sub‐Saharan Africa. It is the world's most trafficked African pangolin species based on volumes recorded in seizures. Reintroduction of confiscated live pangolins and ex‐situ rearing are being explored worldwide as a conservation action. However, the husbandry of seized animals is challenging as the diet of the white‐bellied pangolin is poorly known and little studied. We analyzed the stomach contents of dead white‐bellied pangolins from two forest‐savanna protected areas. Stomach content samples from 13 white‐bellied pangolin specimens contained ~165,000 Arthropoda, mostly Hymenoptera (60.34%) and Blattodea (39.66%). Overall, we identified 39 termite and 105 ant species consumed as prey by pangolins. Individual pangolins examined had fed on a maximum of 31 ant species and 13 termite species. The termite and ant species richness varied significantly across the pangolins' last consumed meal. We recorded 24 ant genera dominated by Crematogaster (relative importance [RI] = 17.28). Out of 18 termite genera recorded, the genus Pseudacanthotermes (RI = 17.21) was the most important prey. Ten ant species were preferentially eaten by white‐bellied pangolin, with Crematogaster acis being the most common prey species. Four species of termite were most frequently eaten with Pseudacanthotermes militaris being the most abundant. The mean abundance of ants and termites varied among pangolin individuals. The season did not influence the mean abundance of termites eaten by pangolin individuals. However, ant abundance in stomach contents was significantly higher in the dry season. An improved understanding of pangolin feeding behavior and prey selection may help inform conservation husbandry efforts. For example, nutritional analysis of the food eaten by wild pangolins can guide the development of nutritional diets for captive pangolins.
This study evaluates local communities' knowledge, attitude, and perception towards the critically endangered African Tree Pangolin and its conservation in the 15 identified Other Effect Area Based Conservation Measures (OECM) sites in Osun State, Nigeria. 360 participants aged 20 and older participated in the study, which found that 90.33% supported the presence of African Tree Pangolin. However, 61% affirmed that their population is reducing due to hunting and habitat loss from poor agriculture. 67% of interviewees believed that benefits from wildlife through tourism, insect regulation, bush meat, and medicine influenced their attitudes and perceptions towards conservation. 33% of the local population changed their attitude and perception towards conservation. African Tree Pangolin conservation was deemed a priority by those with higher levels of education, but the majority of respondents claimed that the idea was unsupported because of the high revenue generated by Pangolin sales. Increasing public awareness through media, handbills, billboards, seminars, and films could help mitigate poor attitudes towards African Tree Pangolin conservation.
We use discrete morphological characters in a statistical framework to reassess the taxonomic status of the Palawan pangolin Manis culionensis relative to the Sunda pangolin M. javanica. We recommend that the 15 species-level traits previously proposed in the literature to distinguish the 2 pangolins be replaced by 5 newly defined diagnostic characters related to skull and external scales. Our study supports species-level partition between the Palawan and Sunda pangolins at a frequency of expected polymorphism threshold fixed to 0.10. Isolation through sea level rising (approximately 800,000-500,000 years ago) of proto-Palawan pangolins coming from Borneo through Early Pleistocene land bridges might have promoted the speciation of M. culionensis, a Palawan endemic species to be considered of high conservation concern.
Here we present the first field report on the ecology of a single female Sunda pangolin
and her young in their natural habitat on an offshore island of Singapore. Observations of this event were made possible by the use of radio-telemetry and infrared-triggered camera traps. Only one offspring was recorded from this birth event and the period of maternal care was approximately 3 to 4 mo. A total of 3 natal dens were used throughout the monitoring period, and hollows of large trees (>50 cm diameter at breast height, DBH) were associated with all dens. The 100 and 95% home range estimated by minimum convex polygons is 6.97 and 5.63 ha, respectively. The daily active period of the pangolin was 127 ± 13.1 min, and peak activity levels were between 03:00 and 06:00 h. The findings of this report are discussed in relation to the conservation challenges confronting this species.
ABSTRACT: medicines is taken from the wild; hence demand by traditional medicine is a cause of over-exploitation of wild animals. Indiscriminate use of endangered species portends grievous implications for biodiversity conservation. This study investigated the dynamics of the use of pangolin in trado-medicinal preparations amongst the Awori people.
Forty traditional Yorubic-medical practitioners (tymps) selected through stratified random-sampling technique were interviewed using open-ended questionnaires. Various aspects of the utilisation of pangolin in traditional medicinal practices were investigated. Data collected were analysed using simple frequencies and percentages.
An average of 1.6 pangolins were utilised per tymp per month. About 43% of respondents contracted hunters for deliberate searches for the animals. More than 92% believed that pangolins' abundance is steadily decreasing. Above 97% reported a continuous decline in the size of pangolin. Pangolin was used in treating 47 conditions. Situations accommodated included those that can be treated by orthodox medicine like rheumatism and venereal diseases as well as some that are out of range for orthodox medicine including kleptomania and good luck charms. Some substitute animals like gorilla are under a greater conservation threat than pangolin.
Utilisation of pangolin in traditional medicine has no consideration for sustainability. Awareness should be created on people as regards the implications of unsustainable depletion of medicinal resources. Efforts should be intensified on ex-situ breeding of pangolin while subjecting the scales and other parts to laboratory studies to determine the bioactive constituents.
The four writings compiled for this project involve explorations into the complex relationship between Zimbabweans and their land. The current struggles in Zimbabwe over land seizure and resettlement make this a particularly timely and noteworthy theme. The first piece, "Tshaya, Indoda," is a screenplay looking at the dynamic relationship between a white safari operator and black subsistence farmers who live in nearby communal farming lands. The disputes and issues discussed in this piece are very realistic and awareness is raised as to the historical nature and racial dimensions of the current land disputes in Zimbabwe. "Dubious," the second piece, is in the style of magic realism and explores the impact that safari operators and tourists can have on the natural environment and indigenous populations. This piece provides a rather satirical and fantastical approach to several philosophical and ethical issues concerning land, natural resources, resource consumption, sense of place, and sense of personal fulfillment. In the third piece, "Ants, Spirits, and Magic: Three Encounters with the Pangolin," a more anthropological and technical tone is utilized to address the issue of Zimbabwean property and resource-rights, as well as the significance of the pangolin as the ultimate symbol of human attachment to land. The last piece, entitled "The Bush," is an account of my personal adventures and discussions with four non-fictional characters who all perceive the same environment through decidedly different lenses. The characters consist of a poacher, a safari operator, an independent wildlife researcher, and a Shona rock sculptor. The purpose of this compilation of writings is isolate some of the dilemmas and issues occurring in the Zimbabwe land crisis and try to explain the historical and cultural dinamics of these tensions concerning the land.