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International Journal of Behavioral Research & Psychology, 2014 © 27
Raquel Rodríguez-Carvajal, Oscar Lecuona de la Cruz (2014) Mindfulness and Music: A Promising Subject of an Unmapped Field. Int J Behav Res Psychol. 2(3), 27-35
International Journal of Behavioral Research & Psychology (IJBRP)
ISSN 2332-3000
Mind fulness and Music: A Promising Subject of an Unmapped Field
Research Article
Oscar Lecuona de la Cruz1, Raquel Rodríguez-Carvajal2*
1 Clinical Psychology Student, Faculty of Psychology, Autonoma University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain.
2 Associate Professor, Faculty of Psychology, Department of Biological and Health Psychology, Division of Personality, Evaluation and
Treatment, Autonoma University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
*Corresponding Author:
Raquel Rodríguez-Carvajal,
Faculty of Psychology, Department of Biological and Health Psychol-
ogy, Division of Personality, Evaluation and Treatment, Autonomous
University of Madrid, Madrid, 28049, Spain.
Tel: +34 91 497 5122; Fax: +34 91 497 6409
E-mail: raquel.rodriguez@uam.es
Received: March 22, 2014
Accepted: April 11, 2014
Published: April 12, 2014
Citation: Raquel Rodríguez-Carvajal, Oscar Lecuona de la Cruz (2014)
Mindfulness and Music: A Promising Subject of an Unmapped Field . Int
J Behav Res Psychol. 2(3), 27-35. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.19070/2332-
3000-140006
Copyright: Raquel Rodríguez-Carvajal © 2014 This is an open-access
article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in
any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Introduction
Many musicians could describe performing as a touching, intense,
and high concentrated experience. The performer’s mind is get-
ting through the music piece with an intense attention and con-
centration to every aspect to assure the best outcome. Also, the
performer’s mind is aware of the audience remaining silent and
listening to the performance, activating the stress-response for a
social stimulus. As many musicians report, this intense situation
of perceived scrutiny may lead to a stressful response and threat-
ing experience [1]. In this situation, many musicians develop the
so-called stage fright, or music performance anxiety (MPA)[2], a
disrupting group of symptoms that could stop or difcult a per-
former’s career. On the opposite side, many performers describe
this experience as full, not painful, joyful and emotional, hence
meeting ow experiences [3]. At the same time, the audience is
putting all their senses into the performance, listening and feeling
what the performer has to express with intense attention. This
experience of intense present-orientation and focus is compared
in scientic literature with “peak experiences”, or ow [4].
Could this intense, emotional, demanding and present-centered
peak experiences have something in common with mindfulness?
This review focuses on these topics. For that purpose, several
sources and scientic databases were consulted. The rst conclu-
sion was that although promising contributions, there was not a
general overview or “map” to get oriented in this topic literature.
Hence, more awareness of contributions and systematization of
knowledge seem necessary. This paper tries to help in satisfying
this necessity.
Mindfulness
Mindfulness is usually dened as “paying attention in a particular
way: On purpose, in the present moment, and non-judgmentally”
[5]. Based on this denition, empirical research on mindfulness
began importing Eastern Buddhist practices, such as meditation,
into Western culture. On this process some modications and
conversions were performed, mainly depriving them of religious
or specic moral backgrounds [6]. This western translation has
encountered its main development within Health Sciences, es-
pecially Psychology and Behavioral Medicine, originating several
contributions at diverse levels.
Several intervention programs have been designed and tested.
Perhaps, one of the most widespread is the Mindfulness Based
Stress Reduction (MBSR), developed by Jon Kabat-Zinn and col-
leagues. It focuses on using mindfulness to damper stress, reduc-
ing suffering and increasing psychological well-being. Numerous
programs were implemented in several populations like pupils
with chronic pain, cancer, arthritis, or bromyalgia [1, 3]. Another
example of intervention program is the Mindfulness Based Cog-
nitive Therapy (MBCT). It focuses on using both mindfulness
Abstract
Mindfulness is dened as sustained, non-judgmental attention towards the world and the self. Several recent studies are bringing this
concept into cutting-edge research and creating important contributions for the clinical context. In spite of this fact, there is a promising
but unmapped eld of research around specic contributions of mindfulness to music, and more specically, for musicians. This article
reviews this topic in order to show the state of the art of mindfulness related to music and help further advancement. A total of 27 pub-
lications were reviewed. The main conclusion is that despite its youth, this eld is yielding some promising results in several dimensions:
(1) effectiveness in mindfulness-based intervention programs for professional and hobby performers, (2) attention and concentration
boost because of mindfulness induction in music audience, (3) effective induction of mindfulness states by music, and (4) promising
contributions of mindfulness and music therapies. Finally, some guidelines and future lines are suggested for expanding and improving
results, models, and methods.
Keywords: Mindfulness; Meditation; Music; Performers; Audience; Musicians; Music Performance Anxiety.
International Journal of Behavioral Research & Psychology, 2014 © 28
Raquel Rodríguez-Carvajal, Oscar Lecuona de la Cruz (2014) Mindfulness and Music: A Promising Subject of an Unmapped Field. Int J Behav Res Psychol. 2(3), 27-35
and cognitive behavioral therapy to treat different syndromes like
depression [8], generalized anxiety disorder [9], generalized social
anxiety disorder [10], social anxiety disorder [11-13], bipolar dis-
order [14], panic disorder [15], or hypochondriasis [16]. Evidence
has been found even in heterogeneous psychiatric samples [17,
18]. Mindfulness has also been associated with greater physical
health, in terms of less somatization, and an increased awareness
and attention to somatic experience (e.g., increased skin clearing
in psoriasis disease), as well as decreased ambulatory measures,
less blood overpressure, and a better immune system response
to inuenza or other hazards [19]. In spite of being vanguard re-
search, it can be assumed that mindfulness is an effective tool for
many clinical populations, either within mental health or medical
contexts (e.g., tinnitus [20]).
In other contexts, mindfulness practice has been found to en-
hance spirituality, and as a couple, both factors (mindfulness and
spirituality) have inuence in decreasing reported psychological
and medical symptoms [21]. Also, mindfulness seems to contrib-
ute to self-care to therapists in training [22].
Mindfulness abroad
Mindfulness has also been associated with psychological health
and well-being in general population. Specically, research relates
dispositional mindfulness (as a general disposition in the indi-
vidual) with increases in psychological well-being [23], as well as
decreased neuroticism and psychopathological indexes [24]. More
specically, it seems that dispositional mindfulness is positively as-
sociated with self-esteem, optimism, positive emotional states, life
satisfaction and eudemonic well-being, as well as it is moderately
associated with emotional intelligence. In contrast, it is inversely
associated with social anxiety, rumination, anxiety, depression,
negative emotional states, and neuroticism. In a more neuro-
logical context, several contributions have been done to account
the effects of mindfulness in the brain and the central nervous
system. Some results indicate functional modications in several
brain networks, but also, and surprisingly, structural modications
of brain areas because of the effect of mindfulness [27-29].
It also seems that dispositional mindfulness is an effective predic-
tor of diary self-regulation and well-being, both in clinical and
general context. This is supported by self-report and also by lab
evidence, particularly in extent to the inuence of mindfulness
and self-concordance between implicit and explicit processes [21].
Also, it seems to be enhanced by practice since signicant dif-
ferences were found between practitioners and non-practitioners
[21]. Expanding this idea, it was specically found that there was
less dissociation, alexithymia, rumination, general psychological
distress and mood disturbance [14, 15].
Beyond those basic frameworks, some contributions were made
taking into account mindfulness and other aspects of well-being.
In a more social context, dispositional mindfulness has been as-
sociated with marital relationship health and, in a complementary
way, situational mindfulness was related with better communica-
tion during a discussion [31]. Another example is in mindfulness
and intrinsic value orientation, were signicant associates to both
subjective well-being (e.g. life satisfaction) and ecological well-
being (e.g. respect to nature), which leads to a conclusion towards
compatibility of both ways of personal and collective well-being
[32]. From an economical and nancial perspective, mindfulness
seems to play a role into diminishing nancial desire discrepancy
(distance between real and desired nancial state) and increas-
ing, therefore, subjective well-being [33]. In other words, “having
enough with what one has”. Also, mindfulness seems to enhance
moral decision making in a cheating context [34]
In summary, mindfulness appears to be an expanding topic of
research with non-frequent but strong contributions of its thera-
peutic effectiveness for many clinical populations, and also of its
effects in enhancing psychological health and self-regulation.
Music Performance Anxiety
Although there is a lot of evidence on mindfulness and an in-
crease of positive variables and diminishment of negative ones,
we question: Could musicians be a population sensitive for be-
ing beneted from mindfulness? Do musicians suffer from sig-
nicant psychology-related problems susceptible to be solved
through a mindfulness intervention? Would it be even possible
to increase musicians’ performance with a mindfulness training?
It seems that these questions could have an afrmative answer.
The music profession appears to be a competitive, demanding
and high-task occupational eld, with great personal demands on
performers [42, 43]. The career begins with an extended, time
consuming training and continues with a demanding context of
social evaluation. This process might induce performance anxi-
ety, and utterly stage fright [1]. As Kenny and Steptoe defend [1,
35], performance anxiety is a common phenomenon in several ac-
tivities such as test-taking, public speaking, sports, and perform-
ing arts. Thus, it can occur in a continuum from normal healthy
anxiety and stress, to the problematic, debilitating and disrupt-
ing symptoms of stage fright. This phenomenon seems to be the
most frequent non-musculoskeletal medical problem among mu-
sicians [1].
Stage fright is dened as a subtype of social phobia [37], and
therefore considered a clinical disorder in the area of mental
health. This concept has a more broad basic process, namely “mu-
sic performance anxiety” (MPA), and dened by Steptoe [35]. It
appears to present a deviation towards women [1], with the largest
proportion of prevalence of music performance anxiety (MPA).
Also it seems to be an association with trait anxiety and MPA,
while not with occupational stress [2]. Cognitive models of social
phobia make a valid account for the cognitive processes of MPA,
mainly focused on social evaluation of the audience: audience
view of the performance, audience standards, discrepancy be-
tween audience view and standards, perceived likelihood of nega-
tive evaluation, and importance of consequences of that nega-
tive evaluation. Those types of cognitive schemes (core beliefs
and assumptions), associated with diathesis factors (critical past
aversive events, low self-esteem or self-efcacy, etc.) may induce
to maladaptive cognitions and survival rules (e.g. “I can’t make
mistakes”) producing, therefore, MPA [38]. Treatments for MPA
and stage fright were imported from, mainly, cognitive-behavioral
therapy (CBT) and combined treatments with CBT and pharma-
cologic therapy. There has been some considerable contributions
with modest efcacy, but lack of strong methodologies and larger
scales of study bring need of rigorous, evidence-based, scientic
contributions to asses MPA with the best efcacy [41].
Up to the knowledge of the authors, there are no systematic re-
views analyzing if mindfulness and music performing (e.g. MPA)
or listening are related or can interact. Neither there is any study
reporting a methodologically strong efcacy of a mindfulness-
based intervention program with MPA. To this point, some clues
International Journal of Behavioral Research & Psychology, 2014 © 29
Raquel Rodríguez-Carvajal, Oscar Lecuona de la Cruz (2014) Mindfulness and Music: A Promising Subject of an Unmapped Field. Int J Behav Res Psychol. 2(3), 27-35
we follow could justify this possible interactions between mind-
fulness and music: (1) MBSR seems to be effective treating social
anxiety disorder [10-13], showing a positive and good inuence
compared with cognitive-behavioral therapy, the actual treatment
of choice. (2) Also, trait mindfulness seems to modulate neuroen-
docrine response to social stressors [40], concretely with cortisol.
Consequently, it can be inferred that mindfulness could be related
to music performance anxiety, due to its relation to the broad
branch of social anxiety. (3) In addition, there are peer-reviewed
studies reporting efcacy of meditation-based intervention pro-
grams (in this case, Zen meditation) with specically MPA [48-
49]. (4) Regarding music listening, mindfulness seems to interact
with music audience [43]. (5) In a music therapy context, mindful-
ness seems to play an active role [44]. From all of this, this review
article focuses on the broad topic of the possible interactions of
mindfulness and music as a stimulus (e.g. to the audience) or as a
response (e.g. to musicians).
Materials and Methods
Computer and manual searches were conducted to nd research
papers regarding empirical and theoretical ndings of mindful-
ness specically applied to the eld of music, either of three pos-
sibilities: (1) as a stimulus (e.g. effects on the audience), (2) as a
response (e.g. effects on performers or in composers), or (3) as a
complement to mindfulness (e.g. mindful listening). The search
was conducted for publications from the past ten years (2003-
2013). The combinations of keywords were introduced into three
databases: PsychINFO, PubMed, and Google Scholar. The key-
words were mindfulness, mindfulness meditation, music, musical,
musicians, music performers, music performing, music perfor-
mance anxiety, music listening, audience, and ow. Afterwards,
peer-reviewed articles, theses, dissertations, and books were cho-
sen as a primary selection. To nd older relevant publications,
a retrospective secondary search was conducted based on refer-
ences of the retrieved high impact scientic journals, selecting
the most cited ones and related publications within those primary
Figure 1: Flowchart of inclusion/exclusion procedures for reviewed articles.
Table 1: Types and number of publications found
Type of publication Number of publications
Peer-reviewed articles 15
Book Sections 1
Theses and Dissertations 8
Conference Proceedings 3
TOTAL 27 publications
International Journal of Behavioral Research & Psychology, 2014 © 30
Raquel Rodríguez-Carvajal, Oscar Lecuona de la Cruz (2014) Mindfulness and Music: A Promising Subject of an Unmapped Field. Int J Behav Res Psychol. 2(3), 27-35
selected. A owchart of the inclusion procedure is displayed in
Figure 1.
Results And Discussions
The results of the review were organized as four main parts in the
following lines. First of all, in Section 3.1, we focus on music as a
response and on to what extent mindfulness and meditation inu-
ence that response in music performance. In this section the main
interaction investigated is the benets of meditation in MPA,
while some attention is devoted to musical performance quality.
Afterwards, in Section 3.2, we describe the effects of music as a
stimulus and its possible interactions with mindfulness medita-
tion. In this section, some interactions are reported, specically
the inuence of mindfulness within the audience, and the inu-
ence of mindfulness and music to cope with other issues (e.g.
depression). Then, in Section 3.3, we focus on music as a therapy
and on to what extent mindfulness can inuence that therapeu-
tic process. Lastly, Section 3.4, provides a selection of webpages
about mindfulness and music in order to show the popular impact
of mindfulness in music.
As an overview of the methodology used in the studies found
and hereinafter reviewed, Table 2 shows the main methodological
designs. To explore a deeper methodological assessment of quan-
titative studies, we have separated those studies into two tables:
Table 3 reports intervention studies with their methodological
considerations, and Table 4 reports experimental and cross-sec-
Table 2: Main methodological scope
Designs Quantitative Qualitative Theoretical
Studies
[43] Diaz (2010, 2011) X
[45] Bakker (2005) X
[46] Langer et al (2009) X X
[47] Farnsworth-Grodd (2012) X
[42] Cope et al (2009) X
[48] Chang et al (2003) X
[49] Khalsa et al (2013) X
[41] Lin et al (2008) X
[50] Monti et al (2006) X
[51] Stern et al (2012) X
[52] Robarts (2009) X
[53] Wolfe (2009) X
[54] Steyn (2013) X
[55-58] Vidyarthi et al (2012a, 2012b, 2013, in press) X
[59] Coholic (2011) X
[60] Fidelibus (2004) X
[61] Brown (2011) X
[44] Eckhardt, Dinsmore (2012) X
[62] De Felice (2004) X
[63] Oyan (2006) X
[64]Xu (2010) X
Table 3: Intervention studies with their methodological designs
Designs Control Group Randomized Follow-Up Blind / Double blind Others (case studies)
Studies
[42] Cope et al
(2009)
X X X
[48] Chang et al
(2003)
X
[49] Khalsa et al
(2013)
X
[41] Lin et al (2008) X X
[50] Monti (2006) X X
[51] Stern (2012) X
[52] Robarts (2009) X
[54] Steyn (2013) X X
International Journal of Behavioral Research & Psychology, 2014 © 31
Raquel Rodríguez-Carvajal, Oscar Lecuona de la Cruz (2014) Mindfulness and Music: A Promising Subject of an Unmapped Field. Int J Behav Res Psychol. 2(3), 27-35
tional studies and their methodological considerations.
As Table 2 shows, the majority of the studies reviewed adopt a
quantitative methodological scope, with few mainly qualitative
scopes or theoretical essays. The only exception is [46], with a
mixture of quantitative-qualitative scopes.
As Table 3 shows, the majority of intervention studies have
control group, although only three of them have a randomized
group assignment and only two have follow-up measures. Only
one study [42] accomplishes those three methodological condi-
tions. None of the studies reviewed adopts blind or double blind
designs. Finally, Table 4 shows only one experimental study and
three cross-sectional studies. Although the cross-sectional studies
have strong methodological analyses (modelling, regression mod-
elling, structural equation modelling, etc.) this evidence suggest
lack of empirical, lab-based studies, thus empirical and theoretical
need for well-driven studies.
Mindfulness and Music Performing
The effects of meditation on MPA were rst reported in 2003,
showing a signicant decreased of trait anxiety in music perform-
ers[48] as the mainly outcome, but no effects were found in music
performance concentration or state anxiety. From this, point, a
rst wave of studies reported promising results to meditation and
MPA. This rst wave of studies had an exploratory nature of the
possible positive effects of mindfulness in MPA. Although one
had an empirical scope [48], the most prevalent body of work was
theoretical.
In 2008, through Zen meditation, evidence suggested consistency
with the damping effect of meditation and MPA at a dispositional
level, but not within a situational level. In this study, Music Perfor-
mance Quality (MPQ) was negatively associated with MPA in the
control group, but was positively associated in the experimental
group. In addition, these associations were stronger when scoring
post-performance than in general punctuations [41,64]. Authors
concluded, rst of all, that meditation could be useful to damper
general MPA and trait anxiety. Secondly, Zen meditation might
work as a resource to change a possible hindrance like MPA to a
challenge in order to use MPA as a means to enrich their inter-
pretation. That is to say, MPA was not inhibited in interpretations
but maintained, and meditation skills empowered performers to
foster their interpretation and increase their quality. Subsequently,
we could hypothesize that mindfulness training could increase
MPQ. One study might support this assumption [46], report-
ing the same effect and assessed by performers and audience. In
this study the authors claimed that having musicians mindfully
inserted in a performance leads them to insert subtle, spontane-
ous modications and enjoy the performance. Consequently, this
effect was reected by the audience, making them enjoying the
performing even more. These two afrmations were evaluated
with a self-report methodology: (1) Performers were instructed
to perform the same piece like “the nest performance of this
piece you can remember” (control/xed goal condition) and like
“the nest way you can, offering subtle new nuances to your per-
formance” (experimental condition). To ensure a mindfulness
induction, a qualitative questionnaire for state mindfulness was
developed and applied with positive results. (2) Moreover, mem-
bers of a chorus were assembled and listened to both recordings.
Then, they were asked if they noted a difference and if they had
a preference to one of the recordings. Effects were consistent in
replication, and controlled for a practice bias (performers) and for
an order bias (audience).
This new understanding led to other studies to explore this regu-
latory effect, suggesting general emotion regulation through yoga
intervention [49, 51] and mindfulness meditation [54]. In this last
study, exploring the regulating function of mindfulness in MPA,
Farnsworth-Grodd developed a theoretical model, stating medi-
ating mechanisms in mindfulness and MPA. As it could be hy-
pothesized, acting with awareness was the greatest predictor of
lower MPA. Also, this variable, essential in mindfulness, received
other inuences in dispositional (e.g. studying or practicing music)
and situational (e.g. concerts and shows) contexts. Such predictors
were: higher hope, lower avoidance, and increased goal-orientated
strategy in a dispositional level (practicing music); and positive
focus, self-kindness, and self-acceptance in a situational level (dur-
ing a performance). It could be possible to link this self-regulatory
and positive effect with some exploratory evidence: from (1) an
increased psychological well-being and mental performance in
music students after a mindfulness intervention [54], to (2) an
increased ow response linked to mindfulness states while per-
forming [61].
In another trend, some research was performed with yoga in-
terventions analyzing its effects in Performance-Related Mus-
culoskeletal Disorders (PRMD), besides MPA. While one study
reports no changes in PRMDs with yoga interventions [42], an-
other study reveals inconsistent results [49]. The authors of the
last study report a signicant effect in one sample compared to
the control group while non-signicant in another. Some possi-
ble reasons for this inconsistency were explained by the authors:
(1) Low baseline scores in PRMDs, revealing a healthy musicians
sample and a possible oor effect, and (2) not long enough dura-
tion of the program to produce signicant stable effects [49]. A
general conclusion is an uncertain issue that needs to be explored
Table 4: Experimental and cross-sectional studies with their methodological designs
Designs Experimental
(lab-based)
Cross-Sectional
(self-report-based)
Studies
[43] Diaz (2010, 2011) X
[53] Wolfe (2009) X
[45] Bakker (2005) X
[46] Langer (2009) X
[47] Farnsworth-Grodd
(2012)
X
[54] Steyn (2013) X
International Journal of Behavioral Research & Psychology, 2014 © 32
Raquel Rodríguez-Carvajal, Oscar Lecuona de la Cruz (2014) Mindfulness and Music: A Promising Subject of an Unmapped Field. Int J Behav Res Psychol. 2(3), 27-35
and explained, hence a deeper study is necessary.
Mindfulness and Music Listening
Attending to music as a stimulus, only a few contributions have
been found. The most directly related contribution is a research
project by Frank Diaz [4, 43], analyzing effects of mindfulness
and ow in the audience. Using Continuous Response Digital
Format (CRDI) and self-reports, music pieces were exposed to
a selected sample audience. Participants were randomly assigned
into three groups: (1) mindfulness induction and aesthetic re-
sponse, (2) mindfulness induction and ow response, (3) aes-
thetic response only, and (4) ow response only. The procedure
to induce mindfulness was a 15 minute recorded guided induc-
tion, centered in a body scan meditation procedure. Results of
this work indicate no signicant differences in attention, which
were based on summative accounts. However, self-reports and
verbal responses revealed differences between groups, highlight-
ing benets of mindfulness induction in the attention task leading
to a decreased mental distraction, increased awareness of music
characteristics, and an enhanced focus. In addition, it seems that
magnitude response was also behaving like attention or attentive-
ness. Summative accounts report no signicant differences in par-
ticipants’ level of magnitude, but real time data analysis brings up
differences regarding mindfulness. It seems that mindfulness has
a differential effect on ow and aesthetic responses. As regards
to ow, magnitude tends to have an overall decrease, whereas for
aesthetic response, an overall increase. This differential inuence
could be interpreted as mindfulness having an empowering role
for the participants’ goal: if they want to concentrate and not be
distracted, mindfulness helps decreasing affective response; and
if they want to enjoy and get immersed in the most powerful way,
mindfulness can boost their peak affective experiences, and there-
fore, increase response magnitude (intensity). And both effects
might be explained by the increase of awareness, the difference
lays on the goal of the subject.
In a different way, a research project proposed music listening (or
even sound listening) as a feedback source to the subject in order
to cultivate mindfulness, namely “The Sonic Cradle Project”. It is
based on a device that is dened as “a chamber of complete dark-
ness where users shape a peaceful soundscape using only their
respiration” [55]. The subject lies in a suspended hammock hang-
ing from the ceiling of the chamber and surrounded by darkness
(to avoid visual or interoceptive distractions). Then, the real-time
measurements of the subject’s breathing modulates the musical
stimulus (type of instrument, pitch, rhythm, etc.), thus closing the
feedback loop [56]. Through this biofeedback device, the authors
pretend to foster meditation and mindfulness skills to the users
of the device and to divulgate and facilitate mindfulness mindsets
to non-practitioners [57]. Evidence suggests that its effects are
really similar to mindfulness meditation [57, 58] reporting loss of
intention, relaxation, positive emotional responses, reduced think-
ing (“emptiness”) and self-awareness. Meditators compared the
experience highly with ordinary meditations [58].
In this context, a theoretical framework is established based on
the salutary effects of music listening, but also proposing atten-
tional and metacognitive mechanisms (and thus, mindfulness)
to cause these positive effects. Moreover, experimental evidence
shows an attentional improvement (one key factor of mindful-
ness) because of musical content in a vigilance task with auditory
distractors in kindergarten children [53].
Thus, it seems that music listening can induce mindfulness states,
with consequential benets, e.g. improved attention or improved
peak response intensity.
Mindfulness and Music Therapy
Some studies explored the conjunction of mindfulness and music
as an intervention for applied contexts (e.g. clinical or education-
al). Some explorations have been carried out with interesting con-
clusions. For instance, Coholic [59] proposes Arts-Based Mind-
fulness-Based Practices for young children in need. This program
pretends to train mindfulness skills with art practices, seeking
clinical goals, such as emotion regulation, social and coping skills,
self-esteem, resilience, and self-awareness. These ndings seem
to be similar in another studies [52]. The mindfulness effects on
music therapists when performing clinical music therapy improvi-
sation has also been studied, showing a qualitative prevalence of
mindfulness states in the music therapists [65-67].
In another clinical context, Monti et al [50] proposed a Mindful-
ness-Based Art Therapy (MBAT) for women with cancer. This
program, hybridized between the MBSR protocol and art thera-
pies, focuses on training mindfulness skills using art practices. The
MBAT has shown efcacy in reducing psychological distress and
enhancing quality of life. One particularity of the MBAT could
be its own name, because attending to its main curriculum the
great majority of art-related exercises are of plastic art (e.g. paint-
ing) practices. Nevertheless, the nal exercises are open to any
form of art, including music, and the evidence exposed underpins
promising results when in conjunction applying mindfulness and
music for clinical or educational purposes.
In a parallel way as in music performing, music listening and
mindfulness could be studied in conjunction for applied contexts.
One study explored this possibility [44]. Using their appointed
Mindful Music Listening (MML), the authors applied music lis-
tening practices combined with mindfulness training to patients
with depression. Results show an enhanced emotion regulation,
greater self-awareness and a strengthened therapeutic relation-
ship. Thus, listening to music with a mindful disposition leads
to positive outcomes (e.g. enhanced emotion regulation or self-
reference).
In conclusion, it seems that mindfulness can contribute to musi-
cal therapy programs to enhance their efcacy. And, to achieve
this goal, music can be employed by both performing or listening
dimensions.
Conclusions and guideslines for future research
The present review encourages research in mindfulness and mu-
sic towards a better understanding of its object of study. With a
better mapping of the state of the art, and a condensed view of
the latest results, researchers can get their job done quicker. This
seems to be a little explored eld (according to results in Table 1),
but shows promising results and thus seemingly offering poten-
tial. In general it seems that mindfulness can be characterized by
an important interaction with the art of music in many contexts,
thus deserving research and exploratory applications: (1) mindful-
ness could improve MPQ by mediating the positive relationship
between MPA and MPQ, thus turning MPA into performance-
facilitating, apart from enhancing psychological well-being in
International Journal of Behavioral Research & Psychology, 2014 © 33
Raquel Rodríguez-Carvajal, Oscar Lecuona de la Cruz (2014) Mindfulness and Music: A Promising Subject of an Unmapped Field. Int J Behav Res Psychol. 2(3), 27-35
musicians; (2) mindfulness could enhance music listening, raising
the intensity of peak responses; (3) music listening could con-
tribute to mindfulness induction (4) music performing could be
for therapeutic use in relation with mindfulness to foster clinical
treatments.
Based on these interactions, a possible map of the existing con-
tributions is displayed in Fig. 2, showing each possible interaction
between mindfulness and music. Bold connections are referred to
actually researched interactions, whereas dotted connections are
allocated for general coherence of the model.
As it can be seen in the present review, a substantial part of the
domains of music has been explored, but with parts still in an
unexplored state and with much progress awaiting and research
to be done in the already explored elds. More theoretical de-
velopment seems necessary, as well as further examination on
conceptual denitions and hypothesis fabrication. Also, as it was
stated in the initial results section, although the majority of stud-
ies reviewed have quantitative methodologies, there seems to be
still few empirical studies in the eld. Furthermore, there is a
lesser amount with experimental designs, remaining quantitative
studies just mainly cross-sectional or intervention designs. Thus,
the methodological strength of these ndings remains somehow
unstable as a consequence of the youth of the eld, in opinion
of the authors.
Future research in this eld could not only well theoretical found-
ed studies are needed but also to improve the accuracy of designs,
increasing longitudinal, diary and lab-based experimental studies.
Also, some dimensions seemsstill unexplored. One example is the
exploration of mindfulness in what relates to music creation. For
example, composing or improvising could be also inuenced by
related processes, like ow or creativity, both related to mindful-
ness. Furthermore, music could be studied as a stimulus inducer
to mindfulness, which has been only scouted initially. Research
also could explore possible roots of western culture within mind-
fulness and music from an anthropological or musicological ap-
proach, hence enhancing theoretical frameworks.
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MPA = Music Perfomance Anxiety
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PH = Psychological Health.
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