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Beneficial Microbes, 2014; 5(3): 305-314 WageningenAcademic
Publishers
ISSN 1876-2833 print, ISSN 1876-2891 online, DOI 10.3920/BM2013.0065 305
1. Introduction
Polydextrose (PDX) is a highly branched, randomly bonded
glucose polymer with an average degree of polymerisation
(DP) of 12, ranging from DP 2 to 120. The molecule contains
all possible combinations of α- and β-linked 1
→
2, 1
→
3, 1
→
4
and 1
→
6 glycosidic linkages, though the 1
→
6 (both α and
β) predominates (Lahtinen et al., 2010). Due to its complex
structure, PDX is not hydrolysed by mammalian digestive
enzymes in the small intestine. In the large intestine, its
fermentation is gradual and incomplete. It modifies the
composition of the colonic microbiota and results in the
production of short chain fatty acids (SCFA) and gas.
PDX has been acknowledged as a soluble fibre mediating
beneficial effects on gut health, postprandial glycaemia
and satiety (Tiihonen et al., 2011). Its prebiotic properties
have also been investigated. A prebiotic is a non-viable
food component that confers a health benefit on the host,
associated with selective modulation of the microbiota
composition and/or activity (Pineiro et al. 2008).
This review summarises the data obtained from various in
vitro, in vivo and human intervention studies addressing
the fermentation of PDX in the large intestine and the
effects deriving from this sustained fermentation. Classical
microbiological and in vitro cell cultures have been used as
well as multi-stage dynamic colonic fermentation models,
i.e. human colon simulators. In these simulators, the colonic
fermentation of substrates at different stages of the colon
can be studied using anaerobic, connected glass vessels
with varying environmental conditions (flow rate, pH) that
simulate the conditions in the human colon. These systems
work continuously or semi-continuously. Animal studies
have also been used to investigate possible mechanisms of
action of PDX in a living system facilitating the study of the
effects of PDX at various stages of the colon. The effects
seen in the in vitro and in vivo animal models have to large
extent been reproduced in human intervention trials, thus
validating the models and permitting the connection of
these effects to possible health benefits.
2. Fermentation of polydextrose
Fermentation of PDX in the large intestine has been
investigated in several in vitro studies and it is evident,
presumably due to the complex structure of the molecule,
that a consortium of microbes is needed to degrade this
polymer. This was demonstrated in simple pure culture
The fermentation of polydextrose in the large intestine and its beneficial effects
H. Röytiö1,2 and A.C. Ouwehand1
1
Kantvik Active Nutrition, DuPont Nutrition and Health, Sokeritehtaantie 20, 02460 Kantvik, Finland;
2
Functional Foods
Forum and Institute of Biomedicine, 20014 University of Turku, Finland; henna.roytio@utu.fi
Received: 25 October 2013 / Accepted: 15 January 2014
© 2014 Wageningen Academic Publishers
REVIEW ARTICLE
Abstract
Polydextrose is a randomly bonded glucose polymer with a highly branched and complex structure. It resists digestion
in the upper gastrointestinal tract and is partially fermented in the large intestine by the colonic microbes. Due to
its complex structure, a plethora of microbes is required for the catabolism of polydextrose and this process occurs
slowly. This gradual fermentation of polydextrose gives rise to moderate amounts of fermentation products, such as
short chain fatty acids and gas. The production of these metabolites continues in the distal part of the colon, which
is usually considered to be depleted of saccharolytic fermentation substrates. The fermentation of polydextrose
modifies the composition of the microbiota in the colon, and has been shown to impact appetite and satiety in
humans and improve the gastrointestinal function. The purpose of this short review is to summarise the in vitro,
in vivo and human studies investigating the fermentation properties of polydextrose in the large intestine.
Keywords: polydextrose, fibre, sustained fermentation, colon, prebiotic
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H. Röytiö and A.C. Ouwehand.
306 Beneficial Microbes 5(3)
studies with single microbes where PDX was hardly
fermentable (Mäkeläinen et al., 2010b), whereas in batch
and colonic fermentation simulations utilising complex
microbiota PDX was slowly degraded by the microbes,
and fermentation products could be measured from the
fermentation fluids (Probert et al., 2004; Wang and Gibson,
1993). In colon simulator studies (Mäkeläinen et al., 2007),
a gradual disappearance of PDX from simulated digesta has
been shown (Figure 1), demonstrating its slow fermentation
extending from proximal to distal parts of the modelled
colon (Mäkeläinen et al., 2007, 2010a; Mäkivuokko et al.,
2005). This finding is in agreement with animal and human
studies. In a feeding trial with pigs, PDX was observed
to gradually disappear from the digesta obtained from
different parts of the intestines, being still measurable in
the contents of distal colon (Fava et al., 2007). Similarly,
in a human intervention trial, PDX was detected in faecal
samples after consumption (Costabile et al., 2011). Thus, the
sustained fermentation of PDX that has been demonstrated
in laboratory and animal experiments is in agreement with
human clinical data, and it is evident that PDX is also
available for fermentation in the distal part of the colon.
The relevance of this is discussed in the following sections.
Although all subjects excrete PDX in their faeces, substantial
subject-to-subject variation has been observed (Costabile et
al., 2011) suggesting that different gut microbiota exhibit
different abilities to degrade PDX. The fermentation of the
molecule has also been investigated in more detail. An in
vitro trial with simulated colon fermentation showed that
the non-branched molecules became more abundant, while
the relative proportion of branched molecules decreased
as the fermentation of PDX progressed. Also, the relative
abundance of α-1,6 pyranose glucose molecules decreased.
This indicates that the degradation of PDX is not a random
process, but that intestinal microbes have a preference
for branched PDX components and certain glycosidic
linkages when fermenting the complex molecule (Lahtinen
et al., 2010). The data regarding PDX fermentation are
summarised in Table 1.
3. Fermentability of polydextrose by the gut
microbiota
Effects on microbiota composition
As discussed above, PDX is partially fermented by the
gut microbiota in the colon, and this fermentation affects
the numbers of different microbial groups in the colon.
The human gut microbiota is dominated by three phyla of
microbes, i.e. Firmicutes, Actinobacteria and Bacteroidetes
(Lay et al., 2005). In a recent study by Hooda et al. (2012),
a high-throughput pyrosequencing analysis revealed that
PDX consumption resulted in significant shifts in the
microbiota composition of healthy adult males. Various
microbes in the Firmicutes phylum were affected, where
the abundance of e.g. Faecalibacterium, Clostridiaceae,
Akkermansia and Dialister genera was greater and the
abundance of e.g. Ruminococcus, Eubacterium and
Coprococcus genera was lower after PDX consumption,
as opposed to no supplemental fibre as a control. The
abundance of the phylum Actinobacteria was significantly
decreased, including Bifidobacterium and Coriobacterium
genera. When looking into the abundance of single
species of microbes, the abundance of Faecalibacterium
prausnitzii, known for its ant-inflammatory properties, and
Clostridium leptum was greater after PDX supplementation,
but the levels of Bifidobacterium, Eubacterium rectale
0
5
10
15
20
25
Ascending- Transverse- Descending- Sigmoid/rectum-
Concentration of polydextrose (g/l) in a
simulated model of the human colon
part of the colon model
Figure 1. Gradual disappearance of polydextrose from the faecal slurry in a simulated model of the human large intestine (Enteromix
model). Data are expressed as mean values ± standard deviation. Figure modified from Mäkeläinen et al. (2007).
http://www.wageningenacademic.com/doi/pdf/10.3920/BM2013.0065 - Thursday, October 22, 2015 7:51:44 AM - IP Address:46.246.28.95
Polydextrose fermentation in the large intestine
Beneficial Microbes 5(3) 307
and Ruminococcus species decreased. In another human
intervention trial, Costabile et al. (2012) also saw increased
numbers of C. leptum group members, but the levels of
F. prausnitzii and Bifidobacterium remained unchanged.
The changes observed in the microbiota composition are
summarised in Table 2.
Overall, the changes in the observed composition of the
microbiota following PDX intervention vary greatly from
study to study, perhaps due to the different methods used
(classical plating method, quantitative PCR/fluorescence in
situ hybridisation or high-throughput sequencing) and due
to different subject populations. In vitro studies and earlier
human interventions have mainly focused on assessing the
effects of PDX fermentation on a few specific species and
genera, such as Bifidobacterium, Lactobacillus, Bacteroides
and Clostridium, which are traditionally considered to be
important members of the microbiota (Fuller and Gibson,
1997). However, as our knowledge of the composition of the
microbiota is improving, the traditional division into solely
‘beneficial’ (bifidobacteria and lactobacilli) and ‘harmful’
(clostridia and Bacteroides) components is problematic. For
instance, the beneficial and selective prebiotic effects could
be mediated through increased numbers or activities of
butyrate-producing microbes, such as E. rectale/Roseburia
species and F. prausnitzii belonging to clostridial clusters
IV and XIVa (Louis and Flint, 2009). Decreased levels of
these microbes in the gut have been recently linked to
inflammatory bowel diseases (Sokol et al., 2008; Takaishi
et al., 2008), and their faecal levels strongly correlate with
faecal butyrate concentrations. The numbers of these
microbes are modifiable with dietary carbohydrates and
fibre (Benus et al., 2010; Duncan et al., 2007) and according
to a recent study by Hooda et al. (2012), their numbers also
respond favourably to a PDX-supplemented diet.
Fermentation products
The fermentation of non-digestible carbohydrates in the
colon leads to production of SCFA (acetate, propionate
and butyrate) and gases (hydrogen, methane and carbon
dioxide). The production of various fermentation
metabolites is dependent on the composition of the
colonic microbiota. Prebiotic carbohydrates as well as
other types of carbohydrates, e.g. polyols and plant-derived
gums and fibres, may cause extensive gas production
after consumption and lead to undesired side-effects,
such as distension and bloating of the stomach and loose
Table 1. Fermentation of polydextrose (PDX) in different in vitro, in vivo and human clinical trials.
Reference Study type Amount of
polydextrose
Results Conclusions
Mäkeläinen et al., 2010a pure culture 1% concentration Only minor growth of single microbes
was observed when PDX was the
sole carbohydrate source.
Single microbes were not able
to degrade PDX.
Mäkivuokko et al., 2005 colon simulator 0.5, 1, 1.5%
concentration
PDX degradation proceeded from
proximal part to distal part of the
model; the amount of degraded PDX
was dependent on the concentration
added.
PDX was gradually fermented
by gut microbiota and
available for degradation in
the distal part of the colon
model.
Mäkeläinen et al., 2007 colon simulator 2% concentration PDX levels decreased gradually from
the proximal to the distal part of the
colon model. Part of the fed PDX was
still present in the distal part.
Gut microbiota degraded PDX
slowly and part of the fed
material remained intact
throughout the colon model.
Lahtinen et al., 2010 colon simulator 2 or 3% concentration Gut microbes had a preference for
branched PDX molecules and 1,6
pyranose linkages.
Degradation of PDX in the gut
was not a random process;
PDX was degraded slowly
and sustainably.
Fava et al., 2007 animal study 30 g/day The amount of PDX decreased in
digesta taken from the distal small
intestine, caecum, proximal colon,
middle colon and distal colon.
PDX was gradually fermented
in the pig gut and still present
in the distal colon.
Costabile et al., 2012 human intervention 8 g/day PDX was recovered (on average 0.8 g)
from faecal samples after a two-week
intervention period
Sustained fermentation of PDX
also occurred in humans and
part of the fed PDX was still
present in the distal colon
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H. Röytiö and A.C. Ouwehand.
308 Beneficial Microbes 5(3)
stools (Flood et al., 2004). The gas production of PDX
has been compared in vitro to other carbohydrates, and
it was seen that the more rapidly fermented short chain
oligosaccharides resulted in more rapid production and
accumulation of gas than the substrates with greater degrees
of polymerisation, such as PDX. Also, the total amount of
gas produced from PDX was substantially less; this was
mainly due to less production of H2 (Hernot et al., 2009).
This effect owes most likely to the slow degradation of the
PDX molecule. Furthermore, short chain oligosaccharides
blended with PDX had a lower gas production rate as well as
a reduced rate of SCFA production compared to short chain
oligosaccharides fermented alone (Vester Boler et al., 2009),
although neutral effects were also reported (Ghoddusi et
al., 2007). In humans, PDX has been reported to be well
tolerated upon consumption (Boler et al., 2011; Costabile
et al., 2011), even in large single doses of up to 50 g or
daily consumption of 90 g (Flood et al., 2004). The high
tolerability is most likely due to the slow fermentation
rate of the complex molecule and, thus, less and slower
gas production.
In line with gas production, the rate of SCFA production
from PDX is also more moderate than from short
chain oligosaccharides, such as fructo- and galacto-
oligosaccharides (Hernot et al., 2009; Mäkeläinen et al.,
2010a). In vitro studies have demonstrated that PDX
fermentation leads to increased concentration of all three
SCFA commonly found in the intestine (Mäkeläinen et al.,
2007, 2010a; Probert et al., 2004). In vitro methods enable
accurate analyses of the microbial metabolites formed, as
the fermentation end-products accumulate in the growth
media in batch and simulator experiments. In animal
and human trials, the fermentation products are quickly
absorbed and/or utilised by the colonocytes or other cells
in the body, thus the concentrations measured in faecal
samples do not describe the total production rate. However,
in animals it is also possible to collect the contents of the
intestine, which gives a better view of PDX fermentation
in a physiological situation. In contrast to in vitro studies,
fermentation of PDX reduced the concentrations of all
SCFA in the colon of pigs (Fava et al., 2007). Concomitantly,
increased levels of acetate and lactate measured from blood
Table 2. Effects of polydextrose on gut microbiota composition.
Hooda et al. (2012)1,2 Costabile et al. (2012)1,3
Phylum Firmicutes
Faecalibacterium
↑
-
Ruminococcus
↓
-
Eubacterium
↓
x (Eubacterium rectale/Clostridum coccoides group)
Clostridiaceaea
↑ ↑
(Clostridial cluster I and II)
Clostridium
↑
-
Akkermansia
↑
-
Dorea
↓
-
Dialister
↑
-
Coprococcus
↓
-
Lactobacillus x
↓
(Lactobacillus/Enterococcus spp.)
Phylum Actinobacteria
Bifidobacterium
↓
x
Coriobacterium
↓
-
Phylum Bacteroides
Bacteroides x x
Species/strains
Faecalibacterium prausnitzii
↑
x
Clostridium leptum
↑ ↑
Ruminococcus spp.
↓
-
Ruminococcus intestinalis -
↑
Eubacterium rectale
↓
-
Eubacterium hallii
↓
-
Bifidobacterium spp.
↓
x
1
↑
= significantly increased numbers (P<0.05);
↓
= significantly decreased numbers (P<0.05); x = no change; - = not tested in this trial.
2 Determined by 16S rRNA gene pyrosequencing.
3 Determined by fluorescence in situ hybridisation and quantitative PCR.
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Polydextrose fermentation in the large intestine
Beneficial Microbes 5(3) 309
samples suggest an improved absorption rate from the
gastrointestinal tract rather than a reduced production by
the microbes. Similar results have been reported in human
dietary interventions; PDX has a neutral or even decreasing
effect on the faecal SCFA concentrations (Boler et al., 2011;
Costabile et al., 2011; Hengst et al., 2008). As the faecal
levels of acetate have been inversely correlated with the
acetate absorption rate from the human distal colon (Vogt
and Wolever, 2003), it may also be that the serum levels of
these fermentation metabolites are increased in humans
as in pigs, although no data on blood levels currently exist.
The levels of metabolites derived from protein fermentation
are reduced in the presence of PDX. It has been shown in
human interventions (Boler et al., 2011; Jie et al., 2000)
as well as in animals (Fava et al., 2007; Peuranen et al.,
2004) and in vitro (Mäkeläinen et al., 2007, 2010a) that
the levels of proteolytic fermentation metabolites, such
as branched chain fatty acids, faecal ammonia, phenol
compounds, indole and cresole, decrease in association
with PDX. This effect is sustained into the distal part of the
colon and is presumably due to the partial fermentation of
PDX over protein. The production of various fermentation
metabolites from PDX is summarised in Table 3.
4. Beneficial effects of polydextrose
consumption
Slow and gradual fermentation of PDX has been
documented in various studies and the beneficial effects
of PDX are mediated either through the metabolites
produced and/or altered microbiota composition. Enhanced
production of SCFA after PDX consumption was shown
to improve the absorption of minerals from the colon.
Calcium and magnesium absorption were enhanced in a
postmenopausal rodent model (Legette et al., 2012), and
increased bone calcium content had also been observed
(Weaver 2010). PDX has also been shown to improve iron
absorption in rats (Santos et al. 2010). Other beneficial
effects are thought to be mediated by increased SCFA
levels in the gastrointestinal tract and beyond. These
effects include relief of constipation, growth inhibition of
pathogenic microorganisms, and impact on cholesterol
biosynthesis in the liver (Topping and Clifton, 2001; Wong
et al., 2006). Indeed, PDX has been reported to shorten
gastrointestinal transit time in constipated (Hengst et
al., 2008) and healthy subjects (Timm et al., 2013) and
soften the stools of healthy humans (Costabile et al., 2012).
Butyrate is considered to be a particularly beneficial SCFA,
as it provides nutrition for colonocytes, enhancing the
integrity of the colonic mucosa. It also promotes appropriate
cell differentiation (Hamer et al., 2008). Conversely, acetate
acts more systemically, influencing fatty acid and cholesterol
synthesis in the liver, whilst propionate may impact satiety
by participating in the regulation of gastrointestinal-derived
hormones (Hosseini et al., 2011). PDX has been shown to
induce short-term satiety and suppress energy intake in
humans (King et al., 2005; Ranawana et al., 2012) in a dose-
dependent manner (Astbury et al., 2013). These effects can
derive and be mediated by the increased concentrations
of various SCFA from sustained PDX fermentation. For
example, satiety and energy intake can be affected through
free fatty acid receptors expressed on enterocytes, which
in turn modulate the release of gut hormones, such as
glucagon-like peptide-1, controlling insulin release and
appetite in the central nervous system (Tolhurst et al., 2012).
Epidemiological studies have long suggested an inverse
association between fibre intake and a range of colonic
and systemic illnesses, such as certain cancers and
cardiovascular disease (Divisi et al., 2006). Fermentation
of fibre into SCFA, especially butyrate, has been speculated
to be behind the protective mechanisms (Hamer et al.,
2008), but also the decreased production of other types of
metabolites may contribute to the effect. Diseases of the
colon manifest themselves predominantly in the distal part
of the colon. The increased proteolytic fermentation taking
place when carbohydrate substrates are depleted may result
in the production of harmful substrates in the distal part
of the colon, which are implicated in disease progression.
In humans, the genotoxicity of faecal water on colonocytes
was decreased after PDX consumption, implying that PDX
fermentation led to desirable changes in the composition
of the lumen contents and, therefore, might decrease
the risk of disease development (Costabile et al., 2011).
Cell culture studies further suggest that the fermentation
products deriving from PDX may partly mediate their
protective activities through modulation of gene expression
of the colonocytes. The expression of colorectal cancer
markers, such as the COX-2 gene, can be suppressed by
PDX fermentation metabolites (Mäkivuokko et al., 2005).
Using a metagenomic approach, PDX fermentation has
been shown to modify the expression of genes in colon
cancer cells that are related to cell cycle, apoptosis and
energy metabolism (Putaala et al., 2011). In animal trials,
PDX tended to decrease the expression of mucosal COX-
2 in pigs (Fava et al., 2007). Furthermore, diets with PDX
as soluble fibre have been shown to increase urinary
excretion of polychlorinated biphenyls (environmental
carcinogens) compared to diets with water-insoluble
fibre in rats (Kimura et al., 2004). These effects of PDX
on the metabolite concentrations may contribute to the
health of the colon, especially in the distal part. It should
be reiterated that the composition of the gut microbiota
impacts the composition of metabolites that are produced
from the fermentation of carbohydrates. Nevertheless, the
changes in the numbers of specific microbes in the colon is
not a health benefit as such, but should be connected to a
beneficial shift in a biomarker of a disease and, therefore,
it is difficult to conclude yet whether PDX possesses ‘true
prebiotic properties’ in addition to its fibre properties.
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H. Röytiö and A.C. Ouwehand.
310 Beneficial Microbes 5(3)
Table 3. Fermentation metabolites produced from polydextrose (PDX).
Reference; study type; amount
of polydextrose
Results1 Conclusions
Gas production
Hernot et al., 2009; batch
fermentation; 0.1% concentration
At all measurement points, PDX fermentation produced the least
total gas and H2 of all the tested carbohydrates.
PDX fermentation was slower than that
of short chain oligosaccharides.
Vester Boler et al., 2009; batch
fermentation; 0.1% concentration
PDX produced the lowest volume of gas of all tested
carbohydrates. Blending of PDX with short chain oligosaccharides
(FOS, GOS) reduced the rate and amount of gas formation in
batch cultures.
Mixing of long and short chain
oligosaccharides attenuated gas
production.
Ghoddusi et al., 2007; batch
fermentation; 0.1% concentration
Low amounts of gas were generated from PDX during the first 8
h, but higher amounts after 32 h. Mixing PDX with short chain
oligosaccharide did not lower the amount of gas produced.
Slow gas production indicated a slow
fermentation rate of PDX .
SCFA production
Hernot et al., 2009; batch
fermentation; 0.1% concentration
Acetate, propionate and butyrate were produced from PDX, but no
lactate was formed. The concentration of SCFA was significantly
lower than that from short chain oligosaccharides.
Slower fermentation rate and longer
time to attain maximal production
rate caused fewer SCFA produced
from PDX.
Mäkeläinen et al., 2010b; colon
simulator; 2% concentration
Concentrations of all SCFA were significantly increased in the
middle and distal part of the colon model. GOS increased acetate
and butyrate levels already in the proximal part of the model.
Slower fermentation of PDX resulted in
less and slower production of SCFA.
Probert et al., 2004; colon
simulator; 1% concentration
PDX increased the production of all SCFA in all stages of the
simulator, acetate being most pronounced.
PDX stimulated bacterial metabolism,
as judged by the increased levels of
SCFA.
Fava et al., 2007; animal study;
30 g/day
PDX reduced the levels of all SCFA in the small and large intestines
of pigs. Increased levels in blood were measured.
Decrease of SCFA in the lumen might
indicate increased absorption, as
measured from blood samples.
Costabile et al., 2012; human
intervention; 8 g/day
No significant changes were observed in the faecal levels of SCFA
after PDX or placebo treatments
PDX consumption did not increase
faecal SCFA levels
Boler et al., 2011; human
intervention; 21 g/day
Faecal acetate, propionate and butyrate concentrations were lower
after PDX consumption compared to control (no fibre).
PDX consumption decreased faecal
SCFA concentrations. SCFA were not
measured from blood.
Hengst et al., 2009; human
intervention; 8 g/day
Faecal levels of SCFA remained constant over the whole study
period.
PDX had no effect on faecal SCFA
concentration.
Proteolytic metabolites
Mäkeläinen et al., 2010a; colon
simulator; 2% concentration
PDX decreased the levels of branched chain fatty acids in the colon
model.
PDX fermentation decreased the
production of proteolytic metabolites
in the colon model.
Peuranen et al., 2004; animal
study; 2% in feed
PDX ingestion reduced the production of BCFA and few biogenic
amines in rat caecum.
PDX fermentation decreased the
production of proteolytic metabolites
in rats.
Kimura et al., 2004; animal study;
10% in feed
In rats, PDX increased the urinary excretion of polychlorinated
biphenyls compared with water insoluble fibre.
PDX increased the excretion of
environmental carcinogens from rats.
Boler et al., 2011; human
intervention; 21 g/day
Faecal ammonia, 4-methylphenyl, indole and branched chain fatty
acids were decreased after PDX consumption.
All measured protein fermentation
metabolites were decreased after
PDX fermentation.
Hengst et al., 2009; human
intervention; 8 g/day
Branched chain fatty acid levels decreased in faeces after PDX
consumption. A significant decrease of cholesterol degradation
products was measured as well as a decreased faecal excretion
of bile acids.
PDX consumption decreased
putrefactive protein fermentation
and changed bile acid and sterol
excretion.
1 BCFA = branched chain fatty acids; SCFA = short chain fatty acids; GOS = galacto-oligosaccharides; FOS = fructo-oligosaccharides.
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Polydextrose fermentation in the large intestine
Beneficial Microbes 5(3) 311
5. Conclusions
The sustained and slow fermentation of PDX has been
demonstrated in vitro, in vivo and in human dietary
intervention trials. In the gastrointestinal tract, PDX acts as
soluble fibre. It escapes digestion in the small intestine and is
available for fermentation in the large intestine. In the colon,
PDX is gradually fermented by the colonic microbes into
SCFA and minor amounts of gas. The increased amounts
of SCFA in the more distal part of the colon may mediate
the beneficial effects connected with PDX consumption,
such as increased satiety, absorption of minerals from the
colon and improved gastrointestinal function, e.g. relief
of constipation and softer stools in humans. The slow
and sustained fermentation most likely explain the good
tolerance of PDX observed in human intervention studies.
It also ensures that PDX is present in the distal part of the
colon, where it decreases proteolytic fermentation that
would otherwise take place once saccharolytic substrates
are depleted. PDX fermentation leads to changes in the
composition of the colonic microbiota, However, the
reported changes varied greatly between different studies
(in vitro, in vivo and human trials), and their implications
are not totally clear yet. In the most recent human clinical
trial using modern molecular techniques, microbial groups
considered to possess anti-inflammatory properties were
enhanced.
Acknowledgements
Dr. Julian Stowell is gratefully acknowledged for valuable
comments and proofreading the language of the
manuscript. DuPont manufactures and sells polydextrose;
A.C. Ouwehand is an employee of DuPont and H. Röytiö
was a DuPont employee until 2012.
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J., Rowland, I.R., Ouwehand, A.C., Rastall, R.A., Gibson, G.R. and
Walton, G.E., 2012. Impact of polydextrose on the faecal microbiota:
a double-blind, crossover, placebo-controlled feeding study in
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Table 4. Summary of human intervention trials showing benefits of polydextrose (PDX) consumption.
Reference Amount of polydextrose Conclusions
Costabile et al., 2012 8 g/day PDX reduced genotoxicity of faecal water and improved bowel habits and stool
consistency. Intervention also reduced the tendency of snacking of subjects.
Hengst et al., 2009 8 g/day PDX shortened orofaecal transit time and improved stool consistency in subjects suffering
from constipation.
Timm et al., 2009 20 g/day PDX improved stool consistency and resulted in mild laxative effect in healthy subjects with
only mild or none gastrointestinal tolerance issues.
Hull et al., 2012 0, 6.25, and 12.5 g/test day PDX consumed 90 min before ad libitum lunch and ad libitum dinner decreased the
feelings of hunger. The highest PDX dose decreased energy intake at lunch, which was
not compensated for at dinner. Thus, PDX might aid in increasing satiety and decreasing
energy intake in short-term
Konings et al., 2013 30% of carbohydrates of
breakfast and lunch
Replacement of carbohydrates with PDX increased fat oxidation and pronounced
suppressive effects on appetite ratings, which might affect body weight control over a
long period of time
Ranawana et al., 2013 12 g PDX dose 60 min before ad libitum lunch resulted in a significantly lower energy intake at
lunch. PDX may be a good fortificant for reducing short-term food intake
Astbury et al., 2013 0, 6.25, 12.5, and 25 g PDX dose 90 min before ad libitum lunch decreased the energy intake in a dose-
dependent manner
http://www.wageningenacademic.com/doi/pdf/10.3920/BM2013.0065 - Thursday, October 22, 2015 7:51:44 AM - IP Address:46.246.28.95
H. Röytiö and A.C. Ouwehand.
312 Beneficial Microbes 5(3)
Duncan, S.H., Belenguer, A., Holtrop, G., Johnstone, A.M., Flint, H.J.
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butyrate-producing bacteria in feces. Applied and Environmental
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Stowell, J., Tuohy, K., Gibson, G.R. and Rautonen, N., 2007. Effect
of polydextrose on intestinal microbes and immune functions in
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Lahtinen, S.J., Knoblock, K., Drakoularakou, A., Jacob, M., Stowell,
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Lay, C., Rigottier-Gois, L., Holmstrøm, K., Rajilic, M., Vaughan, E.E.,
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Mäkeläinen, H., Ottman, N., Forssten, S., Saarinen, M., Rautonen,
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