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Severe laminitis in multiple zoo species
Abstract
A 10-year record review from a zoological institution in the western USA identified four cases of severe laminitis resulting in rotation and protrusion of the third phalanx through the sole. Laminitis is reported in a Masai giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis tippelskirchi), a Sichuan takin (Budorcas taxicolor tibetana), a greater Malayan chevrotain (Tragulus napu) and a giant eland (Taurotragus derbianus). This is the first report of severe laminitis with pedal bone rotation and protrusion in multiple species of non-domestic hoofstock, and the first report of this disease in three of these species (takin, chevrotain, and giant eland).
... Furthermore, we expected that animals fed a concentrate-based diet would develop gastrointestinal pathologies related to subacute ruminal acidosis, such as abnormal ruminal papillae shape, hyperkeratosis, parakeratosis, epithelial sloughing, a thicker Stratum corneum and development of epithelium pustules in the rumen (Kauffold & Piatkowski, 1971;Nour, Abusamra, & Hago, 1998;Steele et al., 2012). Finally, due to the negative effects on ruminal and extraruminal health associated with a high concentrate feeding regime, we expected that addax on the concentrate feeding regime would display a higher score of hepatic lipidosis, hoof lesions, as well as a higher adrenal medulla-to-cortex ratio (Boosman, Koeman, & Nap, 1989;Kleen, Hoouer, Rehage, & Noordhuizen, 2003;Thoefner et al., 2004;Wiedner, Holland, Trupkiewicz, & Uzal, 2014). ...
... Subacute ruminal acidosis has negative implications on hoof health in domestic and captive non-domesticated ruminants (Kleen et al., 2003;Wiedner et al., 2014;Zenker, Clauss, Huber, & Altenbrunner-Martinek, 2009). It is assumed that the long-term provision of highenergy concentrates in addax of this study negatively affected hoof health and influenced the increased score of inflammatory cells in hooves of addax in the concentrate group, despite not manifesting as clinical laminitis (Table 6). ...
Subacute ruminal acidosis is a common disease in captive non-domesticated ruminants and is mainly diagnosed by rumen fluid pH and rumen histology. Furthermore, differences in ruminant gastrointestinal histology have been hypothesized to correlate with the browser–grazer continuum. Twelve surplus addax antelope (Addax nasomaculatus) were divided into two groups, fed either their usual diet, consisting of a concentrate feed with a limited amount of hay, or a diet of unlimited hay only, for 3 months. After culling, descriptive and morphometric histology and pH measurements were compared between groups. Significant variations in cellular subpopulations were noted between groups, with roughage-fed individuals presenting primarily with balloon cells of the Stratum corneum and living layer cell vacuolization, whereas parakeratosis and intermediate-type cells were more frequent in the concentrate-fed group. Lesions typical of subacute ruminal acidosis were significantly more pronounced in concentrate-fed individuals. Ruminal pH measurements did not differ significantly, but were more consistent in forage-fed individuals, indicating a more stable reticuloruminal environment. The results indicate that ruminal histology may be more appropriate in assessing ruminal health compared to a single post-mortem pH measurement. It is proposed that Stratum corneum balloon cells may indicate cell maturation and not, as previously assumed, hyperfunction. Concentrate-fed individuals scored higher on the presence of inflammatory cells on hoof corium histology. The study further emphasizes the adaptability of ruminant digestive tract microanatomy in adult animals even after a short period of time and the positive effects an increased roughage diet may have in populations of captive grazing ruminants.
... Enclosure design, floor substrate, hygiene conditions and nutrition must meet with the natural history and welfare of the species to prevent health problems, including those of the feet. 8, 22 Spillover of foot pathogens between closely related species must be minimized by means of practical hygiene measures between enclosures and adequate quarantine investigations for new acquisitions. The inability to perform routine foot evaluations and trims in noncompliant species may further jeopardize foot health. ...
Introduction:
Dichelobacter nodosus (D. nodosus) is the etiological agent of ovine footrot affecting mainly sheep worldwide, but also free-ranging wild ungulates such as Alpine ibex (Capra ibex ibex) and mufflon (Ovis orientalis orientalis). A nationwide ovine footrot eradication program is planned for the years to come, based on polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-testing of interdigital swab samples and regular footbathing. In this cross-sectional study, we clinically evaluated the foot health and analysed presence of D. nodosus in 11 different even-toed ungulate species (mainly European species) during a 13 months (2018-2019) period in Berne Animal Park. The foot lesions were scored for any clinical signs of pathologies as described in cattle and simultaneously for clinical signs of footrot as described for sheep, using a scale from 0 to 5 (while 0 describes clinically healthy feet and 5 loss of the horn capsule). From a total of 53 animals, 4-feet swab samples were taken from the interdigital cleft and subjected to real-time PCR assays to detect D. nodosus at animal level. Foot lesions were detected in five different species. In 3/5 muskoxen (Ovibos moschatus wardi), 7/12 Cretan wild goats (Capra hircus cretica) and 2/3 dwarf goats (Capra hircus aegagrus), they mainly consisted of white line disease, whereas in 9/10 European bison, dermatitis of the interdigital cleft was diagnosed. 1/3 alpaca was diagnosed with chorioptic mange of the heel area. None of the examined animals showed clinical signs of footrot (score 0), and neither benign (aprB2-positive) nor virulent (aprV2-positive) D. nodosus were detected in any of the samples. This study provides additional information to facilitate an efficient ovine footrot control program in Switzerland and suggests that captive wild even-toed ungulates do not pose a risk to the planned footrot control program.
... Of these, laminitis, an inflammatory condition of the laminar corium, has been the most studied. This condition leads to changes in gait, posture and behavior, and eventual permanent damage to the hooves (Wiedner et al., 2014). While there are multiple potential etiologies for laminitis, research has shown that improper diet, leading to rumen acidosis, is a major cause (Clauss et al., 2001;Zenker et al., 2009). ...
Giraffes are popular and widespread in zoos; however, many giraffes display stereotypic behaviors in these settings, suggesting that they have, at some point, experienced prolonged periods of poor welfare. The diversity of giraffe care practices across zoos, as well as potential associations with changes in welfare, have yet to be systematically evaluated. In Section 2 of this thesis, I propose an epidemiological framework for a large-scale study of giraffe welfare. The array of behavioral and physical health indicators known or hypothesized to be associated with giraffe welfare are reviewed, as well as the housing, husbandry and management factors known or hypothesized to influence these outcomes. Potential or established associations among welfare indicators and care practices are then highlighted. In Section 3, I present a zoo-level study of the behavioral effects of one of the specific management practices discussed in the preceding review, the guest feeding program (GFP), on the behavioral time budgets of a herd of five giraffes at a single zoo. Guest participation (Guests Per Hour; GPH) on the days of behavioral observation was determined by analyzing GFP revenue for those days. I used multivariate mixed models to test for hypothesized associations between behavior rate risks and the number of visitors patronizing the GFP, as well as the Hour of observation and Day of the week. The rate risk of Feed Station Engagement increased by 6.8% for every additional 10 GPH participated in the GFP. When giraffes were not engaged in the GFP, that same GPH increase predicted a 12.7% increase in Oral Stereotypy. This increase could be because: (1) encounters with zoo visitors are stressful; (2) engaging with a busy GFP interferes with the appetitive phase of feeding; and/or (3) oral stereotypies increase after meals because they support rumination and digestion. Oral Stereotypy rate risk also increased over 200% on weekdays compared to weekends, which suggests that these giraffes experienced a lack of engaging stimuli because of the infrequency of varied feeding opportunities when GPH was low across the entire day. Other behaviors in the time budget (Inactivity, Ruminating, Attentive and Feeding) did not change as a function of GPH. These findings suggest that behavioral performance of these giraffes is influenced by the operation of the GFP, and that zoos operating GFPs should develop and implement behavior monitoring programs to assess the effects of these programs.
... Giraffe foot health is also linked to diet and giraffe can be afflicted with laminitis when fed too much pellet ration (Wakeman et al., 2014, Wiedner et al., 2014. Over-grown hooves ( Figure 13) can lead to other musculoskeletal complications that will also impact on a giraffe's welfare. ...
Zoo animal husbandry continues to develop markedly to provide captive populations with more appropriate conditions for increased longevity, better reproductive potential and enhanced well-being. As zoos are more pressed to take on species of conservation importance pressure mounts on zoo biologists to research such species so that husbandry and management regimes are optimal. Without key biological evidence, species may not thrive in captivity and individuals can experience a poorer quality of life. The value of an animal collection is increased when it best meets the key research, conservation, and education aims of today’s modern zoo. “Added value” comes from the display of individuals within an environment that suits their biological needs. Such individuals can then perform appropriate behaviour patterns, which allow positive welfare states to be realised. Using species-specific case studies, integrated alongside of current research into components of animal welfare, this chapter will cover how quality of life can be measured and evaluated in the zoo. It will also discuss aspects of welfare compromise, and how research into species’ behaviour allows us to rectify issues that may cause a poorer quality of life. The use of natural history information (e.g. behavioural ecology, evolutionary adaptations, and life history strategy) to the planning, design and implementation of husbandry protocols is explained and reviewed. The importance of building in the capacity to uphold excellent welfare states to the animal itself, to the zoo’s keepers is discussed alongside of examples showing how this can be achieved. Individual responses to a managed environment will differ, as some animals cope better with the conditions of captivity. Coping is a measure of welfare state, and those individuals that do cope are more likely to influence the characteristics of future zoo populations. However, coping mechanisms can be deviations from normal time-activity budgets or behavioural repertoires. As directional selection can occur artificially in a captive population, zoos need to reduce the likelihood that species-specific, key adaptive traits are lost when animals do not thrive or breed in captivity. This can be performed by supporting husbandry and management regimes with information on key elements of natural ecology. To do as completely as possible, expanding the scope of zoo research is required. This means including those taxa less commonly seen in the literature that have little scientific data on their wild ecology and behaviour, as well as asking important evidence-gathering questions on familiar yet still under-explored captive species. Zoos will then be better equipped to provide environments most appropriate for the animals within their collection, and to objectively decide whether the welfare needs of a species are being adequately met by the captive care provided. Application of zoo welfare science is beneficial to the design of collection plans and ultimately the well-being of future generations of species held in zoological establishments.
... ; in contrast to many other species, reports on obese individuals are missing in giraffe; (ii) occasionally captive giraffes suffer from typical feeding-related disorders in ruminants like acidosis and laminitis related to high-concentrate rations (Clauss, Lechner-Doll, Flach, Wisser, & Hatt, 2002;Wiedner, Holland, & Trupkiewicz, 2014); (iii) heavier tooth wear was observed in captive compared to free-ranging giraffe (Clauss, Franz-Odendaal, Brasch, Castell, & Kaiser, 2007), potentially due to higher abrasiveness of zoo rations (Kaiser, Brasch, Castell, Schulz, & Clauss, 2009); (iv) captive giraffes excrete larger faecal particles compared to free-ranging giraffes indicating a less effective particle size reduction capacity for zoo rations (Hummel et al., 2008); and (v) the frequency of feeding and ration composition influenced feed intake activity and the occurrence of oral stereotypies in captive giraffes (Bashaw, Tarou, Maki, & Maple, 2001;Hummel, Clauss, Baxter, Flach, & Johansen, 2006). ...
The nutrition of captive giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis), a browsing ruminant, is challenging because browse availability is limited in zoos and rations need to be composed of compensatory feeds. In this study, ration composition for giraffes in 12 German zoos was documented and linked to animal variables that indicate suitability of nutrition. Rations differed in proportion of ration items and chemical composition resulting in various grades of accordance with feeding recommendations. An estimated daily metabolisable energy (ME) intake (MEI; mean ± SD) of 0.61 MJ ME/kg0.75 body weight (BW; ±0.1) was sufficient to cover estimated energy requirements. Daily dry matter (DM) intake (DMI) was 61 g DM/kg0.75 BW (±10) and correlated negatively to dietary ME content (p = .009; r = −.596). Apparently, feed intake was regulated by energetic satiety and not by physical properties of forage. A negative correlation between produce proportion and DMI (p = .002; r = −.676) led to the assumption of a low ruminal pH in giraffes fed high proportions of produce. Increasing dietary forage proportions led to an increasing duration of feed intake (p = .045; r = .477) and decreasing occurrence of oral stereotypies (p = .047; r = −.474). The weighted average faecal particle size was larger than reported for free-ranging giraffes, but no relation to ration characteristics among the facilities existed. The abrasiveness of rations was not excessive, as contents of silicate in faeces were similar to values from the wild. Body condition was generally acceptable, but there was no evident relation to ration characteristics. The capacity to self-regulate DM and ME intakes with lucerne hay may work at higher forage proportions than often assumed for captive giraffes. Rations with less energetic density can result in a greater DMI, including maximisation of forage intake and reduction of oral stereotypies.
... Laminitis has affected horses (family Equidae) since a time long before domestication (Wallett, 2013), and continues to affect both wild (Hampson, 2012) and domesticated horses. Other hooved animals, including cattle (Mendes, 2013), Roosevelt elk (Han and Mansfield, 2014), and exotic zoo animals (Sichuan takin, greater Malayan chevrotain, giant eland, and Masai giraffe) (Wiedner, 2014) are also affected. In an epidemiological review, estimates of overall frequency of laminitis in horses ranged between 1.5% and 34% (Wylie, 2011), with the number of horses suffering from acute or chronic laminitis at any time considered much greater than 2% (Moore, 2013). ...
ABSTRACT
Many studies show that fibroblasts are transdifferentiated to myofibroblasts in wound healing. These myofibroblasts lay down extracellular matrix (ECM), and assist in pulling wound edges together through the action of α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA). Regardless of the cause of the wound, certain aspects of wound healing share similar features, and we hypothesized that in laminitis, myofibroblasts would become overproductive, causing tissue fibrosis, as they do in other tissues. A cytokine responsible for the stimulation of fibroblast to myofibroblast transdifferentiation, is TGF-β1, and several reports suggest it participates in healing of epidermal wounds. In Aim 1, we found no indication that myofibroblasts increase in early stages of laminitis; however, our data suggests an acute change in vascular structures occurs. A finding of increased TGF- β1 protein measurement is discussed. In Aim 2, the relationship of Smad signaling was not found. In Aim 3, we established doxycycline-inducible immortalized culture line of fibroblasts and keratinocytes, but these cells did not become hyperproliferative, and scientific basis for these findings are discussed.
Zoo hoofstock species can benefit from routine hoof trims, as is a standard of care in domestic species like horses and cattle. While there are limited studies describing foot shape and foot health of free-ranging ungulates, differences in diet, exercise, substrate, and other factors may contribute to hoof overgrowth and associated lameness for zoo hoofstock species. To manage and appropriately trim
hoof overgrowth requires an understanding of how the hoof wall, heel, and sole can grow and distort, and should include trimming from the solar surface. Over time, hoof overgrowth and secondary hoof capsule distortions may lead to ligament injuries, osteoarthritis, or other pathologies. Restoring normal weight-bearing with hoof trims can help minimize disease progression. With some causes of foot pain including solar abscesses, laminitis, or pedal fractures, shoes or boots can be applied after hoof overgrowth has been removed. Proactive interventions that include hoof trims and medical management may be needed to successfully manage hoof cracks or infections. This chapter highlights techniques that can help manage some common foot diseases of zoo ungulates.
Foot health in zoo giraffe has been a topic of recent research, although little is known about the foot health of free-ranging giraffe. This study describes the foot shape and radiographic pathological changes in 27 young adult Nubian giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis camelopardalis) from a translocation in Uganda (August 2017). Giraffe feet were observed to have a concave sole, the hoof wall was longest by the toe tip, and the weight-bearing surface of the foot was primarily along the periphery of the foot including hoof wall, parts of the heel, and the edge of the sole. Radiographs showed that pedal osteitis and sesamoid bone cysts were relatively uncommon (3/24 giraffe with osteitis, 1/24 giraffe with sesamoid cysts), and that no giraffe in the study had P3 joint osteoarthritis, P3 rotation, or P3 fractures. Radiographs consistently demonstrated a positive palmar/plantar angle with the sole of the hoof thicker at the heel than by the toe tip, with the non weight-bearing palmar/plantar angle measuring 1.6˚- 4.3˚. This is the first systematic review of foot shape and radiographs in free-ranging giraffe and demonstrates a low prevalence of foot pathologies. This study suggests qualitative differences in foot shape, foot health, radiographic anatomy, and foot pathologies when comparing free-ranging and zoo giraffe. Further research is needed to identify why these differences occur and whether husbandry modifications could help improve zoo giraffe foot
health and prevent associated lameness.
Takin (Budorcus taxicolor) are classified as "Vulnerable" on the International Union for the Conservation of Nature Red List. Thus, ex situ conservation efforts provide assurance populations for future survival of this species. The objective of this study was to identify common causes of morbidity and mortality in takin populations in human care. Twenty North American institutions that housed takin from 1997 to 2017 completed a survey requesting medical and husbandry data. Data were examined broadly, by sex and age groups. There were 206 morbidity events (male = 133; female = 73) submitted across 102 takin (male = 62; female = 40). The most common causes of morbidity were infectious or inflammatory diseases (50%; 104/206), degenerative diseases (22%; 46/206), and traumatic events (17%; 34/206). Necropsy reports were provided for 42 takin that died during the study period. The most common causes of mortality were infectious or inflammatory diseases (26%; 11/42), traumatic events (24%; 10/42), and degenerative disease (12%; 5/42). Sixty-two percent of infectious or inflammatory diseases causing morbidity were associated with endoparasites (64/104). Degenerative joint diseases more commonly affected males (78%; 36/46) as well as forelimbs (48%; 22/46) when compared to hindlimbs (30%; 14/46) and unspecified limbs (22%; 10/46). The prevalence of trauma as a cause of morbidity and mortality was higher in neonate and juvenile takin groups combined (morbidity = 19%; mortality = 50%) as compared to adult and senior takin groups combined (morbidity = 15%; mortality = 11%). Older takin were euthanatized more often (57%; 16/28) than younger takin (29%; 4/14). Correlations between husbandry and health were difficult as a result of the inherent limitations of the survey. These data will inform takin-holding zoologic institutions and contribute to the successful management of takin in human care.
Front foot radiographs from 22 giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis reticulata) at one zoo were analyzed to better understand causes of lameness in this giraffe population. The herd had a history of front hoof overgrowth
and intermittent lameness. Radiographic findings included distal interphalangeal joint osteoarthritis (OA), distal phalangeal bone (P3) osteitis, P3 fractures, P3 rotation, and sesamoid bone cysts. OA of the distal interphalangeal joint occurred in at least one front foot of 73% (16/22 giraffe) of the herd, and all giraffe had OA by 7 yr of age. Pedal osteitis was present in at least one front foot in 86% (19/22) of the giraffe, starting in animals as young as 1 yr old. P3 fractures were present in 36% (8/22) of the herd. These fractures were near the site of the deep digital flexor attachment and were diagnosed in giraffe as young as 10 yr old. The presence of severe osteitis was associated with the presence of P3 fractures. This study is unique in that a large herd was trained to participate in voluntary front foot radiographs so multiple causes of foot disease could be diagnosed antemortem and without
anesthesia. Although the underlying causes of these lesions are likely multifactorial and currently unknown to us, the high prevalence of foot disease in relatively young animals warrants further investigation across zoos. In this study, OA, osteitis, and P3 fractures were common radiographic findings among giraffe that were limping. Subsequent monitoring and management changes suggest that proactive management of foot health can decrease morbidity and mortality in zoo giraffe.
Lameness in dairy cows includes many disease conditions, and a systematic approach is required to diagnose the predominant causes and identify the important risk factors. Lameness prevalence can be quantified using locomotion scoring systems. Entire herds can be scored quite easily as they walk access lanes. If lameness prevalence exceeds 15% of the herd, it is important to differentiate the cause. Improved hoof health recording systems have become commonplace amongst many professional hoof trimmers, which has made it easier to monitor the prevalence of infectious and non-infectious causes of lameness. If laminitis and its associated claw horn lesions are identified as a major problem, environmental and ruminal acidosis risk factors should be assessed. Environmental risk factors for laminitis include aberrant and excess standing behavior, exposure to concrete and hard floor surfaces and abrupt introduction to confinement systems from pastures or bedded packs. Total daily time spent by cows in holding areas and parlors can be assessed, emphasizing the longest times for the last individual cows to come through the parlor. Stall usage indices are being developed to identify poorly designed or maintained freestalls. The diagnosis of ruminal acidosis is made with a combination of clinical signs, ration evaluation, ruminal fluid analysis, feces examination, or milk fat indicators. Rumenocentesis is a direct measure of rumen pH that can provide diagnostic information, provided that adequate samples are collected. This paper presents a clinical approach to investigations of lameness problem herds and discusses strengths and weaknesses of various tests to identify risk factors for laminitis.
The dietary composition of the western Derby eland (Taurotragus derbianus derbianus), a critically endangered antelope, was investigated using microhistological analyses of faeces. Samples were collected in the Niokolo Koba National Park, the refuge of the last wild population, and in the Bandia wildlife reserve, where the animals foraged on natural and supplementary food. Leaves, shoots of woody plants, and fruits were the three major components at both sites. They formed 98.8% of diet volume in the wild and 77.5% in the Bandia Reserve where supplementary food reduced the consumption of natural components but maintained the total content of major components together with supplement at 99.2%. Other components such as forbs and grasses appeared in low proportions, generally below 5% of the mean volume. Leaves of Boscia angustifolia, Grewia bicolor, Hymenocardia acida, and Ziziphus mauritiana, and fruits of Acacia spp. and Strychnos spinosa were identified as part of the diet in the wild. In the Bandia Reserve, the proportions of diet components did not differ between males and females, but there were differences in consumption of supplementary food between age classes. The results indicate that in the dry season the western Derby eland behaves as a pure browser, consuming grasses in negligible amounts. Consequently, woody savanna habitat is necessary for future conservation enclosures to ensure adequate natural forage resources for animals and thus to avoid food supplementing that presents a risk of dietary shifts in animals in captivity.
This paper summarizes 29 years of veterinary experience maintaining a herd of muskoxen at the Tierpark Berlin-Friedrichsfelde, Berlin, Germany. The transplanted muskoxen acclimated to the zoo enviroment without fatalities. However, a few striking changes were seen. They exhibit a high sensitivity to sudden changes in weather conditions (especially falling atmospheric pressure); there is a tendency for their qiviut to become sparser with time; rutting and subsequent calving occur later than in their native habitat. Details of medical conditions in both calves and adults ate given along with information on hematology and immobilization.
In the dairy cow, a statistical association between milk fever (MF) and placental retention (PR) has been observed in epidemiological studies. In order to prevent both diseases, an understanding of their common aetiological mechanism is necessary. In this paper, a new causal hypothesis concerning the nutrition-induced association between PR and MF has been put forward. This hypothesis integrates the aetiological concepts arising from the studies carried out by the authors of this paper, and those reviewed from the literature. The aetiological pathway leading to associated MF and PR in the dairy cow appears to include 3 main interrelated mechanisms: 1), decreased synthesis of cyclooxygenase products (mainly PgF2 alpha) via precalving linolenic acid-rich diets; 2), lack of calcium availability at calving via calcium-rich diets before calving; 3), intensive lipomobilization around calving due to a lack of energy supply. The risk for both MF and PR appears to be maximum with old cows fed diets rich in green fodder (fresh or ensiled) and in calcium, and poor in cereals in the prepartum period.
Eleven herds with clinical laminitis problems and 11 control herds were studied for 2 consecutive years. All the claws were trimmed and photographically recorded once each year, 2 to 6 months after the cows had calved. The haemorrhages of the sole horn were evaluated and scored for each digit, and data relevant to the factors associated with an increased risk of laminitis for each herd were collected and related to these scores for sole haemorrhages. It was found that the laminitic herds were more prone to the sole lesions than the control herds, the hind claws were more prone than the front claws, the primiparous cows were more prone than the multiparous cows and the Swedish Friesian cows were more prone than the Swedish Red and White cows. High scores were also correlated with hard floors (ie concrete) in the cow stalls, with fewer than 4 daily feedings of concentrates, with a short time allocated for the cows to eat concentrates, with feeding concentrates only at the first meal in the morning and in the afternoon and with the interaction between these last 2 variables.
A survey was mailed to 72 institutions in the USA requesting information on Salmonella spp. cultures in black rhinoceroses (Diceros bicornis), white rhinoceroses (Ceratotherium simum), and Indian rhinoceroses (Rhinoceros unicornis). Sixty-one institutions responded (85% return rate), with seven reporting positive cultures (11% prevalence rate; 10% if survey nonresponders had negative cultures). There were 17 positive cultures from 16 different animals, with nine different serotypes of Salmonella and 2 additional cultures identified to the group level.
Laminitis should be considered as a differential diagnosis in elk presenting with shifting leg lameness, reluctance to move, recumbency and hoof wall ridging. Eliminating the underlying cause and corrective trimming lead to a good prognosis for recovery.
A rare case of laminitis was recorded in an adult camel that was kept in confinement without giving any exercise and fed daily with considerable quantity of pearl millet grains (Pennisetum typhoideus) for more than five months.
Fifty-six tied heifers calving in autumn (trial I) and 21 tied heifers calving in late spring (trial II) were fed either a high or a low concentrate diet from 3 weeks before expected calving until 13 weeks after calving. Half the heifers in trial I were kept on concrete floors and the others were kept on rubber mats; all the heifers in trial II were on concrete floors. The hooves were trimmed and the soles were photographed 3 weeks before expected calving and again 13 weeks after calving. The photographs were evaluated, each claw was scored for sole haemorrhages, and the total score for all 8 claws was calculated. Before calving there were no differences between the groups of heifers within trial I or trial II, but the heifers in trial II had higher scores than those in trial I. Thirteen weeks after calving the scores had increased in both trials. In trial I the animals fed the high concentrate diet and kept on concrete floors had the highest score, and the type of floor had a greater influence than the level of concentrates fed. The heifers calving in the autumn had higher scores than those calving in the spring. The sudden change from being at pasture to being housed, and the events related to the periparturient period were the most significant factors for the development of sole haemorrhages.
In ruminants, consumption of diets high in readily fermentable carbohydrates can result in a rapid increase in total ruminal acid load leading to a drop in ruminal pH and ultimately ruminal acidosis. Currently, there are no simple and rapid methods to determine the potential for a feedstuff or feed ingredient to cause ruminal acidosis. The objective of this study was to assess the acidogenicity value of some common feed used in zoos and determine if the associated acid-load could be estimated using this in vitro technique. Acidogenicity values of feed samples were determined after dissolution of Ca from CaCO3 powder added after 24 or 48 h of incubation in a rumen liquor and buffer solution media. True acidogenicity value was negatively correlated with the NDF fraction (R2 = -0.63, P < 0.01 after 24 h of incubation and R2 = −0.71, P < 0.01 after 48 h); positively correlated with the starch fraction (R2 = 0.66, P < 0.01 after 24 h of incubation and R2 = 0.71, P < 0.01 after 48 h) and the sugar fraction (R2 = 0.51, P < 0.05 after 24 h of incubation and R2 = 0.57, P < 0.05 after). Only the NDF fraction showed a significant (R2 = −0.60, P < 0.01, after 24 h of incubation) correlation with rumen acid load. Since only a small amount of further rumen acid load accumulated after 24 h of incubation, feeds need to be incubated for only 24 h to estimate their acidogenicity. These results suggest this quick and simple in vitro technique, which eliminates animal factors, could be incorporated easily into captive herbivore feeding strategies to quickly rank feeds in terms of their potential to affect net rumen acid-load.
The connection between a feeding regime with a high proportion of concentrates and laminitis is well recognized in domestic animal medicine but has received little attention in captive wild hoofstock. We used the occasion of a transport of two ruminant groups, that necessitated immobilization, for an evaluation of the appearance of the hooves on the one, and of the pH of the rumen fluid gained by ruminocentesis on the other hand. A group of eight Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus) had a median rumen pH of 7.2 and a low hoof ring score, indicative of good hoof health. A group of seven blackbuck antelope (Antilope cervicapra), in contrast, had a median rumen pH of 6.0, and an intermediate hoof ring score and elevated hoof temperatures, indicative of a chronic laminitis. In relation to body weight, the feeding regime of the blackbuck included a higher proportion of concentrates. These observations suggest that a connection between concentrate feeding, low rumen pH, and hoof health could exist in captive wild ruminants, and that a feeding regime that prevents a drop of rumen pH could support hoof health.
Tragulids, also known as chevrotains or mouse deer, belong to the family Tragulidae of the order Artiodactyla (even-toed ungulates). They are small, hornless ungulates and, as the term “mouse deer” suggests, look rather more like large rodents or rabbits than like true deer (see Fig. 1). The order Artiodactyla also includes suoids (suids, i.e. pigs and tayassuids, i.e. peccaries), deer, camels, bovids, and giraffes. The family Tragulidae is classified within the infraorder Tragulina in the suborder Ruminantia (see Fig. 2). The sister-group to the Tragulina is the infraorder Pecora, which in the present day represents the most numerous, diverse, and geographically widespread group of ungulate mammals.
The intent of this article is to alert biologists of a potential mortality factor of moose in agricultural areas. It has long been recognized that ruminants switching from a natural diet of browse (a cellulose-based diet) to one of more readily digestible carbohydrates (a starch-based diet), such as corn and wheat, are predisposed to developing conditions such as enterotoxemia, polioencephalomalacia, acute rumenitis, liver abscesses, laminitis, and to sudden death. These are often secondary to grain overload (acute acidosis) and are frequently documented in cattle and sheep which are moved from pasture to feedlot. Necropsies of 4 moose in North Dakota were not entirely conclusive, but suggested that grain overload occurred and was a cause of mortality. Necropsy findings that supported grain overload as a contributing factor to death included acute rumenitis, isolation of Clostridium perfringens coupled with hemorrhagic enteritis, chronic laminitis, and polioencephalomalacia. Four likely scenarios exist in which grain overload occurs in North Dakota moose including consumption of planted crops such as corn and wheat, access to bait piles mainly intended for deer, access to cattle feeding sites, and access to recreational feeding sites. These findings have important implications for the regulation of baiting and recreational feeding practices in North Dakota and elsewhere in moose range of similar situation.
Reprinted from the Hoof Trimmers Association Inc.'s March 2001 newsletter. Laminitis refers to a condition that impairs the circulation in the horn-producing tissues of the foot (corium). Coriosis might be a better term for the disease since more than the laminae, which produce new horn, are involved and laminitis lesions develop in other locations on the claw. The disease results in the hoof producing poor-quality horn, which leads to increased injury from concussion and other causes. There are various forms of laminitis: acute or subacute, subclinical and chronic. Acute or subacute laminitis is a rare occurrence and is usually due to a single, gross metabolic insult such as a grain overload or diseases like metritis (retained placenta) or mastitis. It develops rapidly and causes severe signs of acute pain, but does not produce lesions that are visible in the hoof. Subclinical laminitis is a multifactorial disease, meaning several factors work together to cause it, with lesions first visible about six to eight weeks after distinct insults. Recently, veterinary researchers have discussed whether subclinical laminitis really occurs or we do not see lesions because we are not looking carefully enough? Chronic laminitis develops from continuous or repeated insults that cause lesions that affect the shape and function of the feet and eventually locomotion.
Markers provide a method for indirect quantitation of digestive parameters. Gastrointestinal physiology and kinetics show a tremendous variation among species that is undoubtedly a reflection of evolution and dietary adaptation. Therefore, markers used in nutrition research must be appropriately selected for each species and each circumstance. Markers serve to facilitate quantification of passage rate and digesta fill as well as the relationship between intake and diet digestibility. They are generally administered by one of two techniques, either as a constant level in the diet or as a Pulse (or bolus) dose. By definition, markers are closely associated with the fractions of the digesta, are non-absorbable by the animal, and do not interfere with the normal function of the gastrointestinal tract. Additionally, it is a general assumption that the marker is in equilibrium with the pool of the fraction that it labels and that it is recoverable. Digesta may be divided into two fractions, a liquid phase and a particulate phase. Appropriate markers for most circumstances are those which are specific to a particular phase of the digesta. However, multiple marker systems in which both liquid and particulate fractions may be monitored simultaneously have been developed and successfully utilized in a number of species. Unfortunately, a perfect marker or marker system for all species does not seem to exist. Sensitivity to particular markers may cause a gastrointestinal upset that alters transit time, and in turn digestibility, eliminating the possibility of collecting valid data.
Equine practitioners are sometimes asked to treat zebras or zebra-horse or zebra-donkey hybrids. Although these equids are subject to many of the same health issues as domestic horses, they cannot be handled like horses and generally require heavy sedation to full anesthesia, even for minor procedures. This usually necessitates the use of ultrapotent narcotics administered by remote delivery systems. This article discusses the handling, sedation, anesthesia, and common medical issues of zebras and zebra hybrids.
In a feeding trial with four captive giraffes, nutrient digestibility was determined using four different marker systems. Although cobalt-ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid proved to have no utility as a digestibility marker in this study, reasonable values could be obtained using C36 n-alkane, acid detergent lignin, and acid insoluble ash as markers. A comparison of methods and literature data suggests that the values derived from the C36 n-alkane assay are the most reliable absolute values. Apparent digestibility ranges thus determined were 63.5–74.3% for dry matter, 73.4–82.4% for crude protein, 49.9–62.2% for neutral detergent fiber, and 49.7–63.7% for acid detergent fiber. However, digestibility data gained by the ADL method provided the most stringent inter-individual comparisons. It is concluded that both alkanes and lignin can be used for giraffe digestibility studies. These captive giraffes ingested a smaller quantity of food than has been reported for other giraffes from both the wild and other zoos. Energetic calculations showed that these animals might be on the brink of an energy deficit. A similar situation has been described at least once before in captive giraffes, and the results are of direct relevance to the peracute mortality syndrome, a condition of captive giraffes in which severe depletion of body fat stores occurs. Reasons for the seemingly low food intake could not be elucidated, but observations suggested that these giraffes were ready to ingest more if more palatable or suitable food was offered. Monitoring food intake in other giraffe groups and designing a diet that is both palatable and nutritious are important objectives of captive giraffe management. Zoo Biol 20:315–329, 2001. © 2001 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
Anemia is a common finding in small animal practice; however, the multitude of potential causes can make determining the underlying diagnosis a challenging and frustrating endeavor. With a basic understanding of red blood cell production and a systematic diagnostic approach, clinicians should be able to clearly define the cause of anemia in most cases.
Equine laminitis is a highly debilitating disease of the foot. Despite its perceived importance, epidemiological characteristics are poorly understood and the true frequency of the disease remains unclear. The objective of this study was to retrospectively assess previous research to identify publications which provide the best evidence of the frequency of naturally-occurring equine laminitis. A systematic review of English language publications was conducted using MEDLINE (1950-2010), CAB Direct (1910-2010) and IVIS (1997-2010). Additional publications were included by searching bibliographies. Search terms included laminitis, equine, frequency, prevalence and incidence. Studies that allowed frequency estimations to be made for naturally-occurring equine laminitis were included. Information was extracted using predefined data fields, including 13 study quality indicators. Sixty-nine publications were appraised. Ten were considered to provide the most reliable information, estimating the frequency of equine laminitis ranging from 1.5% to 34%. Previous publications estimating laminitis frequency were generally poor quality. Laminitis frequency varied across publications however the publications included in this review focussed on many of the different underlying laminitis aetiologies and comparison of the frequencies between groups would be inappropriate. High-quality evidence-based studies are needed to estimate the true disease frequency in different equine populations.
The distribution of bluetongue virus has changed, possibly related to climate change. Vaccination of domestic ruminants is taking place throughout Europe to control BT expansion. The high density of wild red deer (Cervus elaphus) in some European regions has raised concerns about the potential role that unvaccinated European wild ungulates might play in maintaining or spreading the virus. Most species of wild ruminants are susceptible to BTV infection, although frequently asymptomatically. The red deer population density in Europe is similar to that of domestic livestock in some areas, and red deer could account for a significant percentage of the BTV-infection susceptible ruminant population in certain regions. High serum antibody prevalence has been found in red deer, and BTV RNA (BTV-1, BTV-4 and BTV-8) has been repeatedly detected in naturally infected European red deer by means of RT-PCR. Moreover, red deer may carry the virus asymptomatically for long periods. Epidemiological studies suggest that there are more BT cases in domestic ungulates in those areas where red deer are present. Vector and host density and environmental factors are implicated in the spatial distribution of BT. As in domestic ruminants, BTV transmission among wild ruminants depends almost exclusively on Culicoides vectors, mainly C. imicola but also members of the C. obsoletus and C. pulicaris complex. However, BTV transmission from red deer to the vector remains to be demonstrated. Transplacental, oral, and mechanical transmissions are also suspected. Thus, wild red deer contribute to the still unclear epidemiology of BTV in Europe, and could complicate BTV control in domestic ruminants. However, further research at the wildlife host-vector-pathogen interface and regarding the epidemiology of BT and BT vectors in wildlife habitats is needed to confirm this hypothesis. Moreover, red deer could be used as BT sentinels. Serum and spleen tissue of calves sampled from late autumn onwards should be the target samples when establishing a BTV surveillance program.
In response to new recommendations for feeding giraffe in zoos, giraffe (n = 6) were transitioned from a typical hoofstock diet to diets containing reduced starch, protein, Ca and P and added n3 fatty acids. This diet was fed as a 50:50 mix with alfalfa and grass hay. Over the next 4 years, serum Ca, P, and fatty acids were measured every 6 months (summer and winter). Serum Ca was not affected by season (P = 0.67) or by diet (P = 0.12). Serum P was not affected season (P = 0.14), but was reduced by diet (P<0.01), and serum Ca:P was also increased by diet (P<0.01). The ratio of serum Ca:P tended to be affected by season (P = 0.07), in which animals tended to have greater Ca:P during the summer vs. the winter. The diet transition resulted in reduced serum saturated fatty acids (including lauric, myristic, palmitic, arachidic, and behenic acids), and increases in n6 fatty acids (including linolenic and arachidonic acids) and n3 fatty acids (docosahexaenoic acid) (P<0.05 for each). Overall, this diet transition resulted in blood nutrient profiles that more closely match that of values found in free-ranging giraffe.
A five year-old bull moose (Alces alces) was culled due to chronic hoof overgrowth that required frequent intervention. Radiographic examination revealed changes in phalangeal bone structure usually considered indicative for laminitis in domestic cattle; similar changes were absent in the hooves of a free-ranging moose of similar age. The captive animal had been maintained in exhibits whose flooring were much harder than the soil in natural moose habitat, and on a diet with a high proportion of easily fermentable carbohydrates. These findings indicate that chronic laminitis should be considered as a potential underlying factor for hoof overgrowth, and that measures aimed at reducing the incidence of laminitis in domestic cattle, such as the use of softer flooring and diets with a higher proportion of fibre, might have prophylactic potential in captive wild ruminants.
The aim was to describe the clinical orthopedic implications of oligofructose overload. A group of 8 nonpregnant dairy heifers were given an oral dose of oligofructose (17 g/kg of body weight). At predefined times during a period spanning 3 d before and 9 d after oligofructose overload, the heifers underwent a clinical examination including locomotion scoring, hoof-testing, and palpation of tarso-crural joints, as well as the collection of blood and ruminal fluid samples. Locomotion sessions were videotaped; subsequently, locomotion was blind-scored. Locomotion scores increased after oligofructose overload and declined toward the end of the study period. The greatest locomotion scores were recorded on d 3 to 5 (60 to 120 h) where 12 of 42 (29%) locomotion scores were 3 and 13 of 42 (32%) were score 2. Positive reactions to hoof-testing were observed from 30 h after oligofructose overload and reached a maximum on d 7 and 9 where 12 of 28 (43%) reactions were marked positive. Distension of the tarso-crural joints was observed from 24 h after oligofructose overload, with maximum distension being observed on d 2, in which 44 of 56 (79%) of observed joints were either moderately or severely distended. The heifers developed classic signs of acute ruminal and systemic acidosis after the oligofructose overload (ruminal pH 4.3 +/- 0.07, standard base excess -10.8 +/- 2.3 at 18 h). With few exceptions, clinical and laboratory variables returned to normal within 9 d of oligofructose overload. But, good body condition and previous feeding with grass apparently predisposed the heifers to more severe systemic affection. Oligofructose overload in dairy heifers induced ruminal and systemic acidosis, diarrhea, dehydration, and, subsequently, lameness, claw pain, and joint effusion, collectively interpreted as signs of acute laminitis. Oligofructose overload at 17 g/kg of body weight represented a relatively mild laminitis model in cattle, as demonstrated by a reasonably quick recovery from systemic as well as orthopedic signs.
The hypothesis that equine laminitis is caused by thrombosis of vessels in the laminar corium (dermis) was investigated. Hemostatic alterations were evaluated by determining platelet count, platelet survival, platelet adhesiveness to vascular subendothelium, activated clotting time, and whole blood recalcification time. Thrombosis of vessels in the hoof wall was evaluated by scintigraphic studies of the hoof wall after administration of indium-111 (111In)-labeled platelets, contrast arteriography, and histologic examination. Platelet count remained constant before and at the onset of lameness; however, survival of 111In-labeled platelets was shortened. Scintigraphy of affected feet revealed accumulation of 111In-labeled platelets distal to the coronary band. Arteriography of disarticulated saline-perfused feet revealed marked reduction in blood supply to affected hooves. Histologic examination of the laminar dermis disclosed variable numbers of microthrombi in dermal veins of affected feet from 3 of 4 ponies with laminitis. Whole blood recalcification time was shortened at 8 hours after administration of carbohydrate and was prolonged at the onset of laminitis. Activated clotting time was prolonged at 32 hours after carbohydrate administration and at the onset of lameness. Plasma endotoxin-like activity was detected in 1 of 4 affected ponies. These data confirm that microvascular thrombosis existed at the onset of lameness in ponies with carbohydrate-induced laminitis and indicate that systemic coagulopathy may have preceded development of thrombosis.
Fifty-six tied heifers calving in autumn (trial I) and 21 tied heifers calving in late spring (trial II) were fed either a high or a low concentrate diet from 3 weeks before expected calving until 13 weeks after calving. Half the heifers in trial I were kept on concrete floors and the others were kept on rubber mats; all the heifers in trial II were on concrete floors. The hooves were trimmed and the soles were photographed 3 weeks before expected calving and again 13 weeks after calving. The photographs were evaluated, each claw was scored for sole haemorrhages, and the total score for all 8 claws was calculated. Before calving there were no differences between the groups of heifers within trial I or trial II, but the heifers in trial II had higher scores than those in trial I. Thirteen weeks after calving the scores had increased in both trials. In trials I the animals fed the high concentrate diet and kept on concrete floors had the highest score, and the type of floor had a greater influence than the level of concentrates fed. The heifers calving in the autumn had higher scores than those calving in the spring. The sudden change from being at pasture to being housed, and the events related to the periparturient period were the most significant factors for the development of sole haemorrhages.
Relationships of the takin (Budorcas taxicolor) and muskox (Ovibos moschatus) have been speculated upon for many years. Morphological and behavioral similarities between these species have led to suggestions that they are closely related. To test the hypothesis that characteristics shared by the takin and muskox stem from a recent common ancestor, we compared sequences of their mitochondrial cytochrome b genes with those of three other species of Caprinae. We present data that may support rejection of the hypothesis of recent common ancestry and suggest that similarities in behavior and morphology in these two species might be attributed to convergent evolution rather than shared phylogeny.
Sole ulcers are among the most frequent causes of lameness in dairy cattle. They are found most commonly in the hind lateral claw, are frequently bilateral, and have a high rate of reoccurrence. The pathogenesis of sole ulceration is primarily based on mechanical injury by the 3rd phalanx to the corium, basement membrane, and basal layers of the sole epidermis as a result of failure of the suspensory apparatus in the claw. The main pathways in the failure of the suspensory system include inflammatory (dermal vascular changes followed by disruption of keratinocyte proliferation and differentiation caused by local and systemic mediators) and noninflammatory (hormonal and biochemical changes in the peripartum period resulting in alterations of connective tissue in the suspensory system) pathways. Sole ulcers tend to occur in specific locations; the most reported site is the junction of the axial heel and sole. Other locations include the apex of the toe and the heel. Varying degrees of lameness may result, and the most severe are seen with complicated cases in which ascending infection affects the deeper structures of the claw. Pathologic changes at the ulcer site include dyskeratosis and dilated horn tubules with microcracks. Vascular changes include dilatation and thrombosis of capillaries with "neocapillary formation." Areas of dyskeratosis may remain for as long as 50 days at the ulcer site. Treatment includes corrective trimming and relief of weight bearing. Complicated cases may require surgical intervention.
This study describes the pharmacokinetics of enrofloxacin following oral and i.v. administration to goral (Nemorrhaedus goral arnouxianus). The objective of this study was to expand upon current antimicrobial treatment options available for use in goral by measuring plasma concentrations and examining the pharmacokinetics of enrofloxacin in these animals. Two single-dose treatments of enrofloxacin were administered to four goral in a crossover design. Single-dose treatments consisted of administration of injectable enrofloxacin i.v. (5 mg/kg) and enrofloxacin tablets (136 mg chewable tablets) dissolved in a grain slurry and administered p.o. (10 mg/kg). Plasma levels of enrofloxacin and its metabolite ciprofloxacin were measured with the use of high-performance liquid chromatography with UV detection. Plasma volume of distribution for i.v. enrofloxacin was 2.15 - 1.01 L/kg, with a mean elimination half-life of 13.3 hr and total body clearance of 0.19+/-0.14 L/kg/hr. The maximum plasma concentration measured for oral enrofloxacin was 2.77 microg/ml, with a mean half-life of 5.2 hr and systemic availability of 14.6%. The area under the plasma concentration over time curve (AUC) for oral enrofloxacin was 21.06 microg/hr/ml. The area under the plasma concentration over time curve generated for oral enrofloxacin in goral yields an area under the plasma concentration over time curve to minimum inhibitory concentration ratio > 100 for many gram-positive and gram-negative bacterial pathogens common to small ruminants. Based on these results, oral enrofloxacin may be considered for further study as a treatment option for susceptible infections in goral.
To identify risk factors for development of acute laminitis in horses during hospitalization for illness or injury.
Retrospective case-control study.
73 horses that developed laminitis (case horses) and 146 horses that did not develop laminitis (control horses) during hospitalization.
Case and control horses were matched in a 2:1 ratio by the date on which each horse was evaluated. Potential risk factors investigated included age, breed, and sex; highest and lowest values recorded during hospitalization for fibrinogen concentration, WBC count, PCV, and total solids concentration; and comorbid disease states, including pneumonia, endotoxemia, diarrhea, medically treated colic, surgically treated colic, pituitary adenoma, retained placenta or metritis, forelimb lameness, hind limb lameness, acute renal failure, and vascular abnormalities. A univariate screening of all potential risk factors was performed to determine which variables should be selected for further analysis. All factors found to be associated with development of laminitis were included in a multivariate conditional logistic regression model.
Development of laminitis was marginally associated with lowest and highest fibrinogen concentrations, highest PCV, and lowest total solids concentration and significantly associated with pneumonia, endotoxemia, diarrhea, abdominal surgery for colic, and vascular abnormalities. In the multivariate analysis, only endotoxemia was significantly associated with laminitis.
Endotoxemia is an important risk factor for development of acute laminitis in horses during hospitalization for medical or surgical conditions. Early recognition of endotoxemia, or the potential for it to develop in certain disease states, and initiation of treatment directed at endotoxemia or its consequences may help prevent laminitis in horses during hospitalization.
To determine proinflammatory gene expression, endothelial adhesion molecule gene expression, and matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) concentrations in laminar specimens at 1.5 hours after administration of black walnut extract (BWE) and to compare these values with later time points.
25 horses.
After nasogastric administration of BWE, anesthesia was induced at 1.5 hours in early time point (ETP) horses (n = 5), between 3 and 4 hours in developmental time point horses (5), and between 9 and 10 hours in acute onset of lameness time point horses (5). Anesthesia was induced at 3 and 10 hours after nasogastric administration of water in 2 groups of control horses (3-hour control group, n = 5; 10-hour control group, 5). Real-time quantitative PCR assay was performed on laminar specimens from control and ETP horses for cyclooxygenase (COX)-1, COX-2, interleukin (IL)-1beta, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, MMP-2, and MMP-9 gene expression; and on laminar specimens from all groups for endothelial adhesion molecules, intercellular adhesion molecule (ICAM)-1, and E-selectin gene expression. Leukocyte emigration was assessed via CD13 immunohistochemistry, and gelatinase accumulation was determined by gelatin zymography.
Laminar concentrations of IL-1beta, IL-6, IL-8, COX-2, ICAM-1, and E-selectin mRNA were significantly increased in ETP horses, compared with control horses. Concentrations of IL-1beta, IL-8, ICAM-1, and E-selectin mRNA peaked at 1.5 hours. In ETP horses, leukocyte emigration was present in 3 of 5 horses and pro-MMP-9 was detected in 2 of 5 horses.
Results indicated that endothelial activation and laminar inflammation are early events in laminitis; MMP accumulation likely is a downstream event.
During subacute ruminal acidosis (SARA) rumen pH is depressed for several hours per day due to accumulation of volatile fatty acids and insufficient rumen buffering. Surveys suggested an incidence of SARA of between 19% and 26% in early and mid-lactation dairy cows. Causes of SARA include feeding excessive amounts of non-structural carbohydrates and highly fermentable forages, and insufficient dietary coarse fiber. Consequences of SARA include feed intake depression, reduced fiber digestion, milk fat depression, diarrhea, laminitis, liver abscesses, increased production of bacterial endotoxin and inflammation characterized by increases in acute phase proteins. The increase in endotoxin is similar among methods for SARA induction, but depends on the diet fed before induction. Increases in acute phase proteins vary among methods of SARA induction, even when the methods result in similar rumen pH depressions. This suggests that the inflammatory response might not be solely due to bacterial endotoxin in the rumen.
Sub-acute ruminal acidosis (SARA) has become an increasing problem in well-managed, high yielding dairy herds and the monitoring of groups of cows for signs of the condition is now crucial. Rumenocentesis may be ethically questionable but the technique remains the most reliable means of diagnosing SARA. Continuous measurement of ruminal pH may however be possible in the future. Parameters reflecting the metabolic acidosis caused by SARA are also promising tools, and measurement of milk fat content may be useful in individual mid-lactation cows although it is less valuable for bulk tank milk samples. The prevention of SARA includes the establishment of feeding and management guidelines seeking to minimize rumen acidotic load. Regular monitoring may facilitate early recognition of the condition and limit economic losses. Some degree of SARA may however be inevitable and presents a challenge to the dairy industry as consumers become increasingly concerned about the welfare of production animals.
Chronic laminitis is a severe disease affecting the equine digit. It was hypothesized that magnetic resonance (MR) imaging would improve visualization of structures within the foot and pathology associated with chronic laminitis. This study aimed to describe the MR imaging findings in chronic laminitis, compare different pulse sequences for visualization of pathology, and to compare MR imaging with standard radiography. Twenty (10 forelimb, 10 hindlimb) cadaver limbs from 10 horses clinically diagnosed with chronic laminitis (group L) and 10 limbs without laminitis (group N) were used. Lateromedial radiographs and sagittal and transverse MR images of the foot were obtained. Radiographs and MR images were evaluated for anatomic definition and evidence of pathology. Dorsal hoof wall thickness and angle of rotation and displacement distance of the distal phalanx were measured. Comparisons were made between group L and N, forelimb and hindlimb within each horse, and MR imaging and radiography. Features consistently noted with MR images in group L, but not detected using radiography, included laminar disruption, circumscribed areas of laminar gas, laminar fluid, and bone medullary fluid. Other findings seen only on MR images included increased size and number of vascular channels, alterations in the corium coronae, and distal interphalangeal joint distension. Magnetic resonance imaging allowed better definition of laminar gas lines and P3 surface irregularity observed on radiographs. Based on measurements, group L had a greater angle of rotation, distal displacement, and dorsal hoof wall thickness than group N; forelimb hoof wall thickness was greater than hindlimb; and distal displacement and hoof wall thickness measurements were smaller using MR imaging than radiography, but had a similar pattern. It is concluded that there are features of chronic laminitis consistently observed using MR imaging and that these may be additional to features observed radiographically.
Technical note: acidogenicity value and rumen acid load of common zoo animal feeds
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Budorcas taxicolor. IUCN red list of threatened species Available from: http://www.iucnredlist.org Review of Pododermatitis cir-cumscripta (ulceration of the sole) in dairy cows
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Digestibility and passage of standard zoo diet fed to greater mouse deer
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Budorcas taxicolor. IUCN red list of threatened species
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Digestibility and passage of standard zoo diet fed to greater mouse deer (Tragulus napu)
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BTV infection in wild ruminants, with emphasis on red deer: a review
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