Wetlands of Ethiopia

Full text

Wetlands of Ethiopia
Proceedings of a seminar on the resources and
status of in Ethiopia’s wetlands
Yilma D. Abebe and Kim Geheb(Editors)
IUCN - The World Conservation Union
Founded in 1948, The World Conservation Union brings together States,
government agencies and a diverse range of non-governmental organisations
in a unique world partnership: over 980 members in all, spread across some
140 countries.
As a Union, IUCN seeks to influence, encourage and assist societies
throughout the world to conserve the integrity and diversity of nature and to
ensure that any use of natural resources is equitable and ecologically
sustainable.
The World Conservation Union builds on the strengths of its members,
networks and partners to enhance their capacity and to support global
alliances to safeguard natural resources at local, regional and global levels.
IUCN Wetlands and WaterResources
Programme
Rue Mauverney 28
CH-1196 Gland, Switzerland
Tel: + 41 22 999 0001
Fax: + 41 22 999 0002
E-mail:wwrp@iucn.org
www.iucn.org/themes/wetlands/
IUCN Eastern Africa
Regional Office
P. O. Box 68200-00200
Nairobi, Kenya
Tel: ++ 254 20 890605-12
Fax: ++ 254 20 890615/407
E-mail: mail@iucnearo.org
IUCN
Wetlands
and Water
Resources
Programme
IUCN
Wetlands of Ethiopia
BLUE SERIES

Wetlands of Ethiopia
Proceedings of a seminar on the resources and
status of Ethiopia's wetlands
Editors
Yilma D. Abebe and Kim Geheb
IUCN
2003

Published by: IUCN
Copyright: 2003. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources
This publication may be produced in whole or part and in any form
for education or non-profit uses, without special permission from the
copyright holder, provided acknowledgement of the source is made.
IUCN would appreciate receiving a copy of any publication which
uses this publication as a source.
No use of this publication may be made for resale or other
commercial purpose without the prior written permission of IUCN.
Citation: Abebe, Y. D. and Geheb, K. (Eds), 2003. Wetlands of Ethiopia.
Proceedings of a seminar on the resources and status of Ethiopia's
wetlands , vi + 116pp.
ISBN: 2-8317-0689-0
Design and layout: Gordon O. Arara
Cover photographs: Front cover: Awassa wetland; Back cover: Fisherman in Awassa
© Alan Dixon, Research Fellow, Wetland and Natural Resources
Research Group, University of Huddersfield, Queensgate, Web site:
http://wetlands/hud.ac.uk
Available from: IUCN- EARO Publications Service Unit, P. O. Box 68200 - 00200,
Nairobi, Kenya; Telephone ++ 254 20 890605-12; Fax ++ 254 20
890615; E-mail: mail@iucnearo.org
The designations of geographical entities in this book, and the presentation of the material, do not
imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the participating organizations
concerning the legal status of any country, territory, or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the
delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
The opinions expressed by the authors in this publication do not necessarily represent the view of
IUCN.
The IUCN Seminar on the Wetlands of Ethiopia acknowledges the generous support of the Royal
Netherlands Embassy, Addis Ababa.

IUCN - The World Conservation Union
IUCN - The World Conservation Union was founded in 1948 and brings together 79
states, 112 government agencies, 760 NGOs, 37 affiliates, and some 10,000 scientists
and experts from 141 countries in a unique worldwide partnership. Its mission is to
influence, encourage and assist societies throughout the world to conserve the integrity
and diversity of nature and to ensure that any use of natural resources is equitable and
ecologically sustainable. Within the framework of global conventions IUCN has helped
over 75 countries to prepare and implement national conservation and biodiversity
strategies. IUCN has approximately 1000 staff, most of whom are located in its 42
regional and country offices while 100 work at its headquarters in Gland, Switzerland.
IUCN Wetlands and Water Resources Programme
The IUCN Wetlands and Water Resources Programme coordinates and reinforces
activities of the Union concerned with the management of wetland and water
ecosystems. The Programme focuses upon the conservation of ecological and
hydrological processes, in particular by developing, testing, and promoting means of
sustainable utilisation of wetlands. It does so in collaboration with IUCN members and
partners, in particular those other international institutions with a specific wetland
mandate, especially the Ramsar Convention Bureau, and the International Waterfowl
and Wetlands Research Bureau (IWRB).
The core of the Programme is a series of field projects which develop the methodologies
for wetland management, in particular in the countries of the developing world where
wetlands are used intensively by local communities which depend upon these for their
well-being. Related strategic and policy initiatives draw upon the results of these
projects and present their conclusions in a form useful for government decision makers
and planners.
The activities of the Programme are designed on the basis of the concerns and
information provided by IUCN members. To facilitate this, the Programme works
through IUCN's regional offices. The Programme also works closely with the major
development assistance agencies to ensure that conservation considerations are
adequately addressed in their projects.
The Wetlands and Water Resources Programme receives generous financial support
from the World Wide Fund For Nature (WWF), the Swiss Directorate of Development
Cooperation and Humanitarian Aid (DDA), the Finnish International Development
Agency (FINNIDA) and the Government of the Netherlands. Project support has been
received from the Swedish International Development Authority (SIDA), Norwegian
Agency for Development Cooperation (NORAD), United States Agency for
International Development (USAID), the Ford Foundation and a number of IUCN
members including the Finnish Association for Nature Conservation (FANC), Institut
Francais pour Le Developpement en Cooperation (ORSTOM), the Royal Society for the
Protection of Birds (RSPB), the United States National Park Service (USNPS) and the
World Wide Fund For Nature (WWF). It is coordinated from the IUCN Headquarters in
Switzerland, with regional coordinators in Central America, South America, Brazil,
West, East and Southern Africa, and Asia.

Table of Contents
Wetlands of Ethiopia: an introduction.......................................................................... 1
Yilma D. Abebe
The distribution and status of Ethiopian wetlands: an overview...................................12
Leykun Abunje
Biodiversity potentials and threats to the southern
Rift Valley lakes of Ethiopia......................................................................................18
Lemlem Sissay
Wetlands, birds and important bird areas in Ethiopia ..................................................25
Mengistu Wonderfrash
Wetlands research in south-western Ethiopia: the experience of the
Ethiopian Wetlands Research Programme ..................................................................37
Afework Hailu
Wetland plants in Ethiopia with examples from
Illubabor, south-western Ethiopia...............................................................................49
Zerihun Woldu and Kumlachew Yeshitela
Wetlands, gender and poverty: some elements in the development
of sustainable and equitable wetland management ......................................................58
Adrian Wood
Challenges and opportunities of Ethiopian wetlands: the case
of Lake Awassa and its feeders...................................................................................67
Zerihun Desta
Water resources policy and river basin development as related to wetlands.................76
Messele Fisseha
Wetlands policy development in Ethiopia...................................................................81
Dessalagne Mesfin
Environmental impact assessment and the wise use of wetlands..................................86
Berhanu Tekaligne
Towards Sustainable Wetlands Management: The Ugandan Experience......................97
Reint J. Bakema and Paul Mafabi

Appendix I. Ethiopian Wetlands...............................................................................108
Seminar attendance..................................................................................................111
Contributors.............................................................................................................113
Other titles in this series...........................................................................................114

1
Wetlands of Ethiopia: an introduction
Yilma D. Abebe
Regional Wetlands Programme
IUCN Eastern Africa Regional Office
P. O. Box 68200
Nairobi
Kenya
An introduction to wetlands
Wetlands are ecosystems or units of the landscape that are found on the interface
between land and water. While water is a major factor of wetland definition (Ramsar
Convention Bureau, 1997), soils, vegetation and animal life also contribute to their
unique characteristics (Koetze, 1996; Howard, 1995; Roggeri, 1995). As a result, it has
proved difficult to define wetlands, and over 50 definitions exist. That used by the
Ramsar Convention (1997: 2) is as follows:
“areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or
temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including
areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six meters”.
This definition provides significant latitude – wetlands, as a result, come in a whole host
of forms and types. The Ramsar Convention recognises five major wetland systems
(Ramsar Convention Bureau, 1997), while others identify up to seven main groupings
(Dugan, 1990). The major Ramsar groupings are:
– marine (coastal wetlands);
– estuarine (deltas, tidal marshes, and mangroves);
– lacustrine (lakes and associated wetlands);
– riverine (rivers, streams and associated wetlands);
– palustrine (marshes, swamps and bogs).
These forms are further divided into more than 30 sub-divisions classifying them
according to physical, chemical or biological characteristics.
Wetlands are distributed all over the globe and are estimated to cover about 6% of the
earth’s surface (Maltby, 1986) – some 5.7 million km2 (WCMC, 1992). Although Africa
is best known for its savannahs and hot deserts, 1% of its surface area (345,000 km2) is
covered by wetlands (Finlayson and Moser, 1991). These ecosystems range from the
Senegal River and the Inner Niger Deltas in the West, to the Sudd Floodplains and the
Ethiopian Wetlands in the East. Southwards, important wetlands include the Zaire Basin
Swamps, the Okavango Inland Delta, the Kafue Flats, the African Great Lakes and the
extensive Malagarasi-Moyovosi Wetlands in Tanzania. Wetland characteristics will also
vary with altitude, with high ground wetlands, such as those found in the Ethiopian and
Kenyan mountain systems, complementing lowland types found in the semi-desert.

Wetlands of Ethiopia
2
Wetlands have played a noticeable role in the growth of human civilisations and cultural
development. This is true globally, where major pre-historic civilisations, including
those on the Nile, Euphrates and Tigris, have emerged and developed (Finlayson and
Moser, 1991). It is noteworthy that the Great Rift Valley of Africa has yielded fossil
evidence of some of the world’s earliest hominids. This is especially true in the
Ethiopian Rift. Fossil remains from Hadar in the Afar depression, and at Omo in
Southern Ethiopia, suggest that in order for humans to have lived here, the Ethiopian
Rift must at one time have been better watered than it is presently. The Rift’s ever
changing geology, which was marked by the slow sedimentation of rivers and changes
in drainage and faulting, created ideal conditions for the rise and later development of
the hominids (Smith, 1995).
The importance of wetlands
Only 2.6% of the world’s water is fresh (Illueca and Rast, 1996). The remainder is
found in the oceans and brackish waters. Only a fraction of the world’s fresh water is
available for consumption because so much of it is locked up in polar icecaps and
glaciers (Illueca and Rast, 1996).
Freshwater resources are a finite, but global consumption rates are known to increase 2-
3% every year (Illueca and Rast, 1996). Africa uses only 4% of its renewable freshwater
resources because of the uneven distribution of water resources over the continent
(UNEP, 2000). At the same time, access to water is affected by its quality – much of
Africa’s water may be unsuitable for consumption by its people. These regional patterns
are also evident in Ethiopia, where water resources are unevenly distributed and only a
quarter of its population has access to safe water and sanitation.
Wetlands are the main custodians of these valuable water resources. They act as ‘banks’
from where water may be drawn, and groundwater replenished. Dugan (1990) explains
that wetland values are best understood in terms of their intrinsic conditions (biological,
chemical and physical), which allow them to carry out their distinctive functions and
generate products. Their functions comprise those natural processes that sustain
economic activities and fortify ecological integrity. Examples are groundwater
discharge and recharge, flood control, shoreline stabilisation and nutrient retention.
Besides water being the most basic product that a wetland can provide, food, fuel wood,
wildlife, fisheries, forage and agricultural resources are additional wetland products.
Wetland attributes are closely intermeshed with the ethical and aesthetic values that
human beings attach to them (Roggeri, 1995).
Wetlands are the most productive ecosystems in the world, by far outstripping some of
the alternative uses to which they are subjected. The annual primary production of
herbaceous swamps, for example, is impressive. Papyrus in tropical Africa can produce
up to 143 tonnes per hectare, while production rates for Typha range from 30 to 70
tonnes per hectare. Conversely, highly productive crops such as sugar cane and maize
produce just 63 tonnes and 60 tonnes per hectare respectively (Finlayson and Moser,
1991).

Wetlands of Ethiopia: an introduction
3
Threats to wetlands
While wetlands may be the most productive of ecosystems on earth, they are also the
most threatened. Wetland destruction and alteration has been and is still seen as an
advanced mode of development, even at the government level. Wetlands and their value
remain little understood and their loss is increasingly becoming an environmental
disaster. While rates of wetland loss are documented for the developed world, the
limited study of these ecosystems in countries like Ethiopia leaves us with little to say.
Wetland loss is evident wherever major developments like dams, irrigation schemes and
conversion projects are present in the developing world. While most of the threats that
wetlands face result from their misuse, many are also related to unsustainable resource
extraction. Another important reason for their vulnerability is the fact that they are
dynamic systems undergoing continual change (Barbier et al., 1996). As a result, many
wetlands are temporary features that disappear, reappear and re-create themselves over
time (Barbier et al. 1996).
Humans usually and very dramatically accelerate natural processes often unintentionally
but usually in the course of activities like agriculture, industry and urban development.
These activities can involve anything from drainage and diverting water, to dredging
and loading water sources with toxic chemicals. Perhaps the most destructive of all
activities is mining (Williams, 1990) which permanently destroys the substrate and
prevents the natural restoration of a site. Wetlands whose biotic balance has been
disturbed can often recover.
Dugan (1990) claims that 65% of wetland disturbances are of human origin, while the
remainder have natural origins. Out of these, 73% of disturbances are thought to result
from direct human actions, while the remaining 27% are believed to come from indirect
sources (Table 1).
Table 1. Causes of Wetland loss (after Dugan, 1990)
Human Actions
Direct Indirect Natural Causes
Drainage Sediment diversion Subsidence
Dredging Hydrological alterations Sea-level rise
Filling Subsidence Drought
Conversion Hurricanes and storms
Construction Erosion
Discharge Biotic effects
Mining
Abstraction
The results of wetland loss are far-reaching and disastrous. Humans and other life close
to wetlands, and who depend upon them, are the first to feel the impact of wetland loss.
Dam construction can significantly impact the lives of people living downstream, as

Wetlands of Ethiopia
4
waters are regulated. Animal and plant life dependent on a dammed river’s annual
floods may be exterminated or become endangered. Dams affect flooding cycles, water
chemistry, sediment behaviour and fish migrations (Maltby, 1986). All too often,
wetland functions, including flood protection, nutrient retention, erosion control or
sediment retention, will be compromised by well-meant development interventions.
Once a wetland has been destroyed, the services it previously provided now have to be
paid for by tax payers (Dugan, 1990). Examples of wetland services artificially
performed by human interventions are water purification and erosion control schemes
(Dugan, 1990). While industrialised countries can probably pay for most of these
services from tax incomes, this is not so in developing countries, where wetland
destruction can have a very serious impact on the livelihoods of the rural poor.
The wise use of wetlands
At its meeting in Regina, Canada in June 1987, the Ramsar Convention defined ‘wise
use’ as follows: “the wise use of wetlands is their sustainable utilisation for the benefit
of mankind in a way compatible with the maintenance of the natural properties of the
ecosystem” (Davis, 1993). The term ‘wise use’ encapsulates the need to safeguard the
integrity of wetlands while at the same time providing sustenance to the natural and
human communities around them. This position was clarified at the first meeting of the
Ramsar contracting parties in Cagliari, Italy, when it was emphasised that the “wise use
of wetlands involves the maintenance of their ecological character as a basis not only
for nature conservation, but for sustainable development” (Davis, 1993).
It goes without saying that the wise use of wetlands is impractical if the people who
make use of them are not involved in one way or another. The involvement of such
people and a knowledge of their values is the basis for the implementation of wise use
strategies. If many of the causes of wetland degradation and loss are of socio-economic
origin, then social and economic factors need to form the crux of wise use programmes.
In particular, indigenous populations should be the beneficiaries of the improved
management of wetland sites (Davis, 1993). The wise use of wetlands is a complex
concept to implement and requires the support of national programmes addressing
several factors including information, policy, research, awareness, management and
institution building (Dugan, 1990).
Ethiopia and its wetlands
Ethiopia is a country in North-Eastern Africa lying between 8º 00’ N and 38º 00’ E. Its
area covers an estimated 1,127,000 km2 of which some 7,444 km2 is covered by water.
Ethiopia has 5,311 km of frontiers that it shares with Djibouti, Eritrea, Kenya, Somalia
and Sudan.
Ethiopia’s ecological diversity and climatic variation is to a large extent explained by its
highly variable topography. Altitudes range from 125 m below sea level in the Dallol
Depression, to 4,620 m above sea level at Ras Dashen. These altitudinal extremes mean
that Ethiopia is a country of enormous habitat diversity, which is also influenced by the
country’s climate. The tropical monsoon rainfall pattern is influenced by moisture-laden

Wetlands of Ethiopia: an introduction
5
winds from the Atlantic and the Indian Ocean and also by the Inter-tropical
Convergence Zone and variations in altitude variation.
With the exception of coastal and marine-related wetlands and extensive swamp-forest
complexes, all forms of wetlands are represented in Ethiopia. These include alpine
formations, riverine, lacustrine, palustrine and floodplain wetlands. Floodplains are
found both in Ethiopia’s highlands and lowlands, although they are most common in the
North-Western and Western Highlands, Rift Valley and Eastern Highlands. Hillman and
Abebe (1993) estimate that wetlands cover 1.14% of the total landmass of the country,
while forests cover approximately 2%. Rivers from the Ethiopian Highlands annually
produce in excess of 110 billion m3 of water, of which 74% flows into rivers draining
into Sudan, Egypt, Kenya and Somalia.
In a country like Ethiopia, a wise use wetland programme would need a responsible
agency to co-ordinate national action. Because wetlands fall within the ambit of a
crosscutting issue like environmental protection, both public and private institutions
would need to contribute their expertise and work together. The development of a
management plan for Ethiopia’s wetlands will need basic studies, including awareness,
surveys and inventories, which should be part and parcel of a wetland development
programme (Davis, 1993; Ramsar, 1997).
Some of the institutions that could take the lead in the development of a wise use
wetlands management plan for Ethiopia have already been involved in wetlands-related
work for some time. These are:
– the Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Organisation (EWCO): wetland distribution,
preliminary mapping and gathering information, protected area management;
– Ethiopian Wildlife and Natural History Society (EWNHS): wetland birds,
identification of wetland Important Bird Areas (IBAs) and promoting the research
and management of threatened species;
– Ethiopian Wetlands Research Project (EWRP): indigenous knowledge, sustainable
management, socio-economic processes, equity/gender, and cultural values;
– Environmental Protection Authority (EPA): environmental policy, conservation
strategies and Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) procedures;
– Institute for Biodiversity Conservation Research (IBCR): biodiversity conservation
in Ethiopian Rift Valley Lakes;
– Addis Ababa University: amongst others, limnological studies, wetland
biodiversity and social studies.
An over-view of wetlands work in Ethiopia
It was with the kind and generous support of the Royal Netherlands Embassy in Addis
Ababa that the first ever meeting on the wetlands of Ethiopia was possible. The meeting
brought together major stakeholders from the country’s wetland conservation arena to
discuss and look at wetland issues more closely than they have been considered in the
past. The meeting’s final resolution aimed to create a core team comprising various
institutions to look at wetland conservation and management. The papers presented in
this volume look at wetlands from various angles.

Wetlands of Ethiopia
6
The first paper, by Leykun Abunie, sets out to try and classify Ethiopia’s wetlands. He
starts by grouping them broadly into four biomes. At a far more localised level, Abunie
goes on to group Ethiopian wetlands by habitat, physical and biological characteristics,
yielding ten different groups. Like many of the other papers in this volume, Abunie
identifies the main threats facing wetlands as relating to their drainage and to human
activities in their catchment areas.
Lemlem Sissay’s paper concerns the value of wetlands, and considers Ethiopia’s Rift
Valley lakes. She argues that they are of extremely high value in terms of the wetland
functions that they provide, the biodiversity that they support and the economic values
that they generate. She then identifies a series of threats to these valuable resources as
high population pressure, wood harvesting and other excessive natural resource
exploitation in wetland drainage basins.
Mengistu Wondefrash’s paper builds upon the introduction to wetlands presented here.
He argues that in Ethiopia, there is a lack of awareness of the wetland ‘concept’, too few
resources to provoke wetlands conservation, a derth of tools or documents to ensure the
formulation of an adequate national wetlands policy, few focal groups – in the
government or otherwise – through which wetland issues may be channelled and,
finally, a lack of a sense of responsibility for the protection and wise use of wetlands.
Wondefrash summarises what he sees as the major threats facing wetlands as
demographic pressures, development pressures, pollution, mis-management and weed
infestation.
The vital importance of wetlands as ecological reserves is also considered in
Wondefrash’s paper when he summarises the role that they play in the conservation of
bird life. Hence, many wetlands conservation initiatives will concentrate their efforts on
the preservation of birds, not least as valuable indicators of biodiversity and ecosystem
health. He points out that migratory waterfowl often use a multitude of wetlands as they
travel to and from their migratory destinations, necessitating that wetland conservation
approaches need to be international in scope and organisation. Wondefrash then goes on
to discuss Ethiopia’s Important Bird Areas (IBAs) and demonstrates the critical
importance of these habitats in the protection and conservation of many of Ethiopia’s
most threatened bird species.
Wondefrash concludes with a series of management recommendations that include the
raising of public awareness, the need for national advocacy roles, a conservation action
plan, research and monitoring at selected wetlands and the need to develop a focal
institution for wetlands. Amongst these, he calls for participatory approaches in the
management and monitoring of wetlands, pointing out how necessary this is in the light
of Ethiopia’s enormous and growing human population.
Afework Hailu’s paper is the first of three to discuss the output of the Ethiopian
Wetlands Research Programme (EWRP). The study was based in Illubabor in southwest
Ethiopia, and concentrated on eight ‘core’ wetlands. A multi-disciplinary approach was
employed to not only consider the physical parameters of these swamps, but also to
examine the characteristics and use values of the swamps to surrounding human
populations. As can be expected, the physical work on these swamps was to determine
that substantial changes occur when they are drained or heavily exploited. Importantly,
Hailu claims that amongst the surrounding populations there is evidence of traditional

Wetlands of Ethiopia: an introduction
7
natural resource management institutions that can be brought to bear in the community-
based management of these resources.
Zerihun Woldu and Kumlachew Yeshitela’s paper is the second to be derived from the
EWRP output, and focuses on the vegetation composition of the core wetlands, how this
changes over time and what happens to vegetation when the swamps are drained or
heavily exploited. Woldu and Yeshitela find that wetland plants are distributed across
time and space. Dominant plant species come and go with the seasons, and spatial
differences are attributed to different types and intensities of human exploitation. They
summarise the various species types collected from the wetlands and compare their
presence and absence at the eight sites at different times of the year. They argue that
there is a ‘terminal phase’ in the exploitation of wetland plants from which they will not
recover if it is reached. They suggest that such a phase may be achieved if grazing,
cultivation and grazing are practised continuously.
In the third EWRP paper, Adrian Wood draws on data collected under this project and
from experiences derived from developments on the lower Awash River, to argue that
making use of wetland resources may be restricted by access rules which depend on
local level political processes or by household resource constraints. In addition, he
suggests, when wetlands are altered or transformed in some way, the benefits they
previously generated may be destroyed and this can be particularly damaging to the
interests of the poor and women. Hence, social equity can be worsened by wetland
development and transformation. Wood recommends that a use regime needs to be
developed which ensures that the fullest range of benefits are produced from wetlands
for the local community in a sustainable way and within a framework which also
maintains the wetland’s ecological functions indefinitely. Management needs to ensure
equitable access to wetland-produced benefits. This requires agreement amongst all
wetland stakeholders over the uses to which a wetland can be put and how it should be
managed.
Zerihun Desta’s paper looks at three interconnected wetlands – Lake Awassa, which is
connected to the Shallo Swamp via the Tikur Wuha River. The swamp is located close
to Awassa Town, from where it receives the effluent of a textile factory. Using this as
an empirical basis for his discussion, Desta describes how wetlands may be polluted to
such an extent that their ecological functions collapse, sending out reverberations into
the human and natural communities that rely upon them. He suggests that one way
around this problem is to ensure that wetlands have ‘efficient’ property rights, so that
the costs of pollution may be borne by polluters.
Messele Fisseha’s paper is the first of two in this volume to consider wetlands-related
policy in Ethiopia. Fisseha points out the importance of Ethiopia’s water resources
against a background of the country’s often critical water problems. The place of
wetlands in the nation’s hydrological cycle, he argues, is sufficiently important that a
national wetlands policy is merited. At present, however, wetlands are only addressed as
components of other national water or environmental policies. He provides case studies
from a number of Ethiopian wetlands to demonstrate the variety of management
problems that they face, strengthening his call for a self-standing wetlands policy. He
concludes by recommending that the management of wetlands should be based on
monitoring, research and planning; that wetlands require a co-ordinated management

Wetlands of Ethiopia
8
approach based on Memoranda of Understanding (MOUs) between interested and
relevant national and regional government ministries; and finally, that Environmental
Impact Assessments (EIAs) should be undertaken before any development occurs in
wetlands.
Dessalegne Mesfin also reviews Ethiopia’s wetlands-related policies. In contrast to
Fisseha, he suggests that present policies and legislation sufficiently address wetlands
issues and problems. More site-specific legislation and regulation could be developed at
the regional level. In order for this to occur, he argues, certain data will be needed. In
particular, those data that can demonstrate the benefits of wetlands on the one hand, and
the cost of wetland destruction on the other. He implies that this data need arises, in
part, to counter the perception of wetlands as wastelands. In addition, he says, the
implementation of a wetland policy is compounded by more pressing food security
policies that may seek to reclaim wetlands for agricultural purposes.
Certainly, one possible way to review the status of Ethiopia’s wetlands and to pre-empt
the serious repercussions of wetland disturbance, would be through the use of
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIAs). Berhanu Tekaligne’s paper argues that many
of the problems that Ethiopia’s wetlands face today are derived from the fact that no
adequate EIA was carried out prior to development. Such development may directly
involve the wetland (through, for example, its drainage and filling), or be indirect, and
associated with development upstream from the wetland (for example, urban or
industrial development, and associated sewage and waste discharge into streams and
rivers). EIA, Tekaligne suggests, would enable development planners to better
anticipate and assess the impact of their activities on wetlands and resources well in
advance of project implementation. He then presents an outline of the steps through
which a wetland EIA might pass.
Reint Bakema and Paul Mafabi’s paper is not from Ethiopia at all, but from Uganda,
where the National Wetlands Programme has worked for ten years developing
awareness, policy and related legal instruments with which to protect the extensive
wetlands resources of that country. The paper provides an intriguing insight into how a
wetlands policy and attendant legislation might be developed. Drawing on this practical
experience, Bakema and Mafabi suggest that the development of a wetlands process
needs to go through six steps:
1. create an awareness and appreciation of wetland functions and values at all levels in
society;
2. develop a knowledge and understanding of wetland stocks and the ecological and
hydrological processes of wetlands;
3. develop a knowledge and understanding of the socio-economic uses of wetlands
4. develop a wetlands policy, legislation and wise use criteria, and incorporate or
harmonise wetland issues in other laws and policies;
5. develop an institutional framework and capacity for wetland management in the
government and civil society;
6. develop best practices for sustainable resource use and wetland system management.

Wetlands of Ethiopia: an introduction
9
Figure 1: Map of Ethiopia showing the regions and positions of neighbouring countries

Wetlands of Ethiopia
10
Figure 2: Map of Ethiopia showing lakes, rivers and wetlands

Wetlands of Ethiopia: an introduction
11
In their paper, each of these is carefully considered and discussed, generating an
important compendium of knowledge and experience that Ethiopia may itself wish to
follow in the development of wetlands-relevant national policy and legislation.
References
Barbier, E. B., M. C. Acreman, D. Knowler. 1996. Economic Valuation of Wetlands: A
guide for policy makers and planners. Ramsar Convention Bureau, Gland,
Switzerland 127pp.
Davis, T. J. (ed.). 1993. Towards the Wise Use of Wetlands. Wise Use Project, Ramsar
Convention Bureau, Gland, Switzerland 180pp.
Dugan, P. J. (ed.). 1990. Wetland Conservation: A Review of Current Issues and
Required Action. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland 94pp.
Finlayson M. and M. Moser (eds.). 1991. Wetlands. International Waterfowl and
Wetlands Research Bureau. Facts on File Ltd. Oxford, UK 224pp.
Hillman J. C. and D. A. Abebe 1993. Wetlands of Ethiopia. In: Ethiopia: Compendium
of Wildlife Conservation Information (ed. J. C. Hillman). NYZS - The Wildlife
Conservation Society International, New York Zoological Park, Bronx, NY and
Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Organisation, Addis Ababa, 2 Vol.s 786 pp.
Illueca J. and W. Rast. 1996. Freshwater Resources: precious, finite and irreplaceable.
Our Planet 8 (3): 19-21.
Howard, G. 1995. Freshwater Wetland Plants in East Africa. Swara. 18 (1): 18 - 21.
Koetze, D. 1996. How wet is a Wetland? An introduction to understanding wetland
hydrology, soils and landforms. Wetland Use Booklet 2. Share-Net. Wildlife and
Environment Society of South Africa. 24pp.
Maltby, E. 1986. Waterlogged Wealth: Why waste the world’s wet places? International
Institute for Environment and Development and Earthscan, London 200pp.
Ramsar Convention Bureau, 1997. The Ramsar Convention Manual: A Guide to the
Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar, Iran, 1971), 2nd ed. Ramsar Convention.
RCB, The Gland 170pp.
Roggeri, H. 1995. Tropical Freshwater Wetlands: A Guide to Current Knowledge and
Sustainable Management. Developments in Hydrobiology 112. Kluwer
Academic Publishers, Dordrecht 363pp.
Smith, A. 1995. The Great Rift Valley: Africa’s Changing Valley. BBC Books, London
364pp.
UNEP 2000. Global Environment Outlook. Earthscan Publications Ltd., London 432pp.
WCMC (World Conservation Monitoring Centre). 1992. Global Biodiversity: Status of
the Earth’s Living Resources. Chapman and Hall, London, 585pp.
Williams, M. (ed) 1990. Wetlands: A Threatened Landscape. UK, Institute of British
Geographers, Oxford. 419pp.

12
The distribution and status of Ethiopian wetlands:
an overview
Leykun Abunie
Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Organisation
P. O. Box 386
Addis Ababa
Ethiopia
Introduction
Ethiopia, with its different geological formations and climatic conditions, is endowed
with considerable water resources and wetland ecosystems, including twelve river
basins, eight major lakes, many swamps, floodplains and man-made reservoirs.
According to EFAP (1989), 110 billion cubic meters of water runs off annually from the
above sources. Major river and lake systems, together with their associated wetlands,
are fundamental parts of life interwoven into the structure and welfare of societies and
natural ecosystems. Wetlands are productive ecosystems that can play an important role
in socio-economic development if they are effectively utilised on a sustainable basis.
The extent to which water and wetland resources can potentially contribute to Ethiopia’s
development has barely been assessed. Ethiopian wetlands are currently being lost or
altered by unregulated over-utilisation, including water diversion for agricultural
intensification, urbanisation, dam construction, pollution and other anthropogenic
interventions.
Water resource and wetland development need environmentally sound planning systems
and to make room for long-term ecological productivity and the welfare of local
communities. It is therefore crucial to develop strategies for national wetland
programmes so that wetland values can be accrued. Amongst many other benefits, these
values include ecological and hydrological functions as well as the goods and services
wetlands provide to human beings.
This paper reviews the main types of wetlands in Ethiopia and their values and
examines the major reasons for their losses. It concludes with suggested options for
their effective management.
Wetlands in Ethiopia are defined as land covered by shallow water encompassing lakes,
rivers, swamps, floodplains, ponds, aquifers and dams. This paper only addresses the
country’s ‘minor’ wetlands whose ecological and hydrological functions are not often
recognised as productive. These are mainly swamps, marshlands and floodplains, which
are being converted and altered at an alarming rate into what many people consider
better alternative uses. This paper also emphasises lowlands that are covered by shallow
waters, which include swamps and floodplains. Floodplains differ from swamps in that
they are seasonally submerged as a result of riverine, lacustrine or other flooding.

The distribution and status of Ethiopian wetlands
13
The Ethiopian wetland resource base: major characteristics and
distribution
The classification of Ethiopian wetlands
Tesfaye (1990) listed 58 major lakes and marshes in Ethiopia (including Eritrea)
Hillman (1993) listed a total of 77 wetlands in Ethiopia and Eritrea, together with
locations. He estimated that Ethiopian wetlands covered an area of 13,699 km2 or 1.14%
of the country’s land surface. Appendix 1 to this volume provides a list of Ethiopian
wetlands and their locations. At the macro level, wetlands may be classified according
to biomes. At the local, and more specific level, wetlands may be grouped according to
their habitat type, physical and biological characteristics.
The classification of Ethiopian wetlands by biome
Ethiopian wetlands can be grouped into four major categories based on ecological
zones, hydrological functions, geomorphologic formations and climatic conditions.
These categories interlink to form four major biomes, which also describe climatic
conditions in Ethiopia. These biomes are the Afro-tropical Highlands, the Somali-
Masai, the Sudan-Guinea and the Sahelian Transition Zone groups (Tilahun et al.,
1996).
Group I – the Afro-tropical wetland system
The Afro-Tropical Highlands are composed of the Central, Western and Eastern
Highlands of Ethiopia that serve as the prime water catchments and sources of its major
rivers. The average annual rainfall is more than 2,000 mm. Rains are bimodal, with the
long rains extending from June to September and short rains between February and May
(Tilahun et al, 1996). These areas include most of Ethiopia’s alpine and fresh water
wetland ecosystems. The wetlands in this biome include Lakes Tana, Hayk, Ashange,
Wonchi and, in the Western Highlands, Gojjeb and Ghibe. Floodplains associated with
the biome’s lakes and rivers are the Fogera and Dembia on the shores of Lake Tana.
Some of the important wetlands of the Central Highlands are the Chomoga-Yeda
floodplains around Debre Markos, and the Borkena and Dillu swamps in the Upper
Awash Basin. The numerous alpine lakes of the Bale Mountains and the swamps of Arsi
and Alemaya are important wetlands in the Eastern Highlands.
Group II - Somali-Masai wetland system
This biome also exists, in large measure, due to the formation of the Great Rift Valley.
Its wetlands include the southern group of the Great Rift Valley Lakes and the northern
group of the Awash Basin together with their associated swamps and marshlands. The
water-divide of these two wetland complexes is near Meki town. The Awash Basin
wetland complex is to the north of the water divide and includes the wetlands of
Bishoftu, the Kesem-Meteka complex and Lake Abe complex. The southern group
comprises three separate and closed drainage systems. The first system comprises lakes
Langano, Abijatta and Shalla. The second drainage system comprises Lake Awassa and
Chelekleka, while the third comprises the rivers Abaya, Chamo and Chew Bahir
together with their associated floodplains. The rainfall distribution under this biome is

Wetlands of Ethiopia
14
bimodal, with peaks between September and November, and March and May (Tilahun
et al., 1996).
Group III – Sudano-Guinean wetland system
The Sudano-Guinean Wetland System is found in the Western lowlands of Ethiopia.
The wetlands in this group stretch from the Turkana delta in the south-west of Ethiopia,
north along the Ethio-Sudanese border, the Baro-Akobo floodplains in Gambella
Region, the Dabus and Beles floodplains in the Benshangul-Gumuz Region and the
Metema and Tekeze floodplains in Amhara and Tigray Regions. Rainfall is unimodal,
from March to September (Tilahun et al, 1996).
Group IV – Sahelian transitional wetland system
The Sahelian Transitional Zone Biome is that found in the extreme north-eastern part of
Ethiopia. This area is the hottest and driest part of the country and is where the Dallol
depression is located – at its lowest point, Dallol is 116m below sea level, (Tilahun et
al., 1996). The area comprises semi-desert steppe, and the evapo-transpiration exceeds
mean annual precipitation by over ten times (Messele Fisseha, pers. comm.). The biome
contains a number of fresh and saline wetlands, including Lakes Afambo, Afdera,
Gamari and Asali. The water volume of these lakes is dependent on the rainfall from the
highlands during the wet season. In the dry season, most of the water in these wetlands
evaporates leaving large salt pans behind. Rainfall is unimodal and unreliable, with a
small amount received mainly between November and February (Tilahun et al., 1996).
Classification of Ethiopian wetlands by habitat, physical and biological
characteristics
Based on habitat type and basic physical and biological characteristics, wetlands may be
grouped into 30 categories and nine man-made ones (Dugan, 1990). Using the Directory
of African Wetlands as a basis, Ethiopian wetlands are classified into ten major groups,
lakes being included (Hughs and Hughs, 1992). This classification is based mainly on
river and lake drainage systems. The classification is not complete and will need
revision. Because they are so numerous, not all Ethiopian wetlands are listed. The
classification scheme is, however, able to show the diversity of wetland types in the
country. It is not able to cope with the many different forms of wetland e.g. alkaline,
fresh or seasonal. It includes those wetlands previously excluded by Hughs and Hughs
(1992), but excludes tidal and coastal wetlands because Ethiopia has no access to the
sea.
The Lake Tana and associated wetlands
– Lake Tana
– Fogera floodplains
– Dembia floodplains
The Ashenge and Hayk Lakes
Wetlands of the Bale Mountains
– Numerous alpine lakes including Garba Guracha
– Swamps and floodplains

The distribution and status of Ethiopian wetlands
15
Wetlands of the Western Highlands
– Keffa Zone - Ghibe and Gojeb
– Illubabor Zone
Lakes of Bishoftu
– Crater Lakes - Hora, Bishoftu Guda and Zukala
– Green, Babogaya, Bishoftu Lakes, etc.
Lakes and the associated wetlands of the SW Rift Valley
– Lakes Ziway, Langano, Abjiyata, Shalla
– Lakes Awassa and Chelekleka
– Lakes Abaya, Chamo, Chew Bahir
– Lake Turkana
Lakes and Swamps of the Awash River System
– The upper Awash Valley- Dillu Meda, Aba Samuel
– The Lake Beda Sector
– The Gewane Lakes/Swamp Complex
– The Dubti, Afambo and Gemari Lakes/Swamp complex
– Lake Abe and delta
Lakes of the Afar Depression
– Lake Afrera
– Lake Asale
– Dallol Depression
Western River floodplains
– Alwero, Baro, Akobo, Gilo
– Chomen, Fincha Swamps
– Dabus Swamp
– Beles floodplain
Artificial Impoundments and Micro Dams
– Koka, Fincha, Melka-Wakana and other hydropwer dams
– Municipal and other reservoirs like dams, aquifers, and wells
Threats and causes of wetland loss in Ethiopia
Ethiopia is often referred to as the water tower of Africa mainly because of its wide
variety of landforms and climatic conditions, creating an extensive wetland system
throughout the country. General wetland ecosystem values range from tangible
subsistence uses and direct benefits to intangible goods and services and the fulfilment
of human needs (Dugan, 1990).
The indirect uses of wetlands are their hydrological and ecological functions, which
support various economic activities, life support systems and human welfare. This
includes ground water recharge, flood control, nutrient cycling, erosion control and
sediment traps, climate regulation, habitats for migratory wildlife and pest control
(Dugan, 1990). As such, wetlands produce an ecological equilibrium in the environment
by maintaining the integrity of life support systems for sustainable socio-economic
development. Yet, many wetland ecosystems – particularly floodplains and swamps -

Wetlands of Ethiopia
16
are regarded as wastelands and continue to be depleted at an alarming rate throughout
Ethiopia. Moreover, national economic policies that prioritise crop production, severely
affects sensitive ecosystems including wetlands through extensive land development
schemes that have no concern for environmental costs.
The causes of wetland degradation include the conversion of wetlands for intensive
irrigation agriculture, the expansion of human settlement, industrial pollution, pesticides
and fertilisers and water diversion for drainage and the construction of dams. Wetland
conversion often results in water depletion, the displacement of populations, the
destruction of traditional production systems, habitat degradation, salinisation, increases
of waterborne diseases and other adverse ecological impacts (WCED, 1987).
The construction of dams and mechanised irrigated agricultural activities in particular
have emerged as controversial development issues in recent years. Proponents of such
development, such as the government, private developers and financing institutions such
as the World Bank, have faced increasingly bitter opposition from NGO’s, affected
people and environmentalists (Timberlake, 1985). This is particularly severe in
developing countries like Ethiopia where the lowlands already suffer from water stress
and drought. The desire to turn a quick profit and failure to use integrated planning
strategies with no concern for ecological and social values, have already had a harmful
impact on Ethiopia. For example, siltation problems in the Legedadi and Gefersa water
supply project and hydropower generation projects in Koka and Melka-Wakana impair
the proper functioning of dams and reservoirs. The Borkena dam, built for irrigation
development, broke due to sediment load. Given the increasing severity and scale of
threats, it is crucial that any water development related to wetland ecosystems use
appropriate strategies and plan with a vision for the environment.
Conclusions and recommendations
The underlying causes of wetland loss are that they are assumed to be less important
than other priorities or tend to be regarded as free goods. This is due to the absence of a
proper guiding policy and an accountable institution for addressing problems associated
to wetland degradation. The lack of any strategic planning and capacity for wetland
management programmes and sustainable uses are other impediments. Thus, the priority
actions and challenges to overcome this prevailing state of affairs are:
– An appropriate institution should be created with a mandate to implement policies,
provide alternatives to actions that cause wetland degradation and to formulate
modalities for a national wetland management programme. This would provide an
understanding of wetland values and problems, as well as filling gaps to support
the protection and wise use of wetland ecosystems in the country.
– Begin a national wetland inventory and build a wetland information database. This
would ensure a full understanding of wetland values, socio-economic importance
and provide answers for future management action.
– Environmental Impact Assessments should be carried out when any development
intervention is planned. Critical wetland ecosystems should be identified, their
ecological and hydrological functions evaluated, and any impact assessed.

The distribution and status of Ethiopian wetlands
17
– Integrated wetland ecosystem planning should be a requirement to enhance the
values of wetlands in ecological and socio-economic development.
– To gain technical support and development assistance, the country must ratify
international wetland agreements. Wetlands are a shared resource that have global
importance and require support from international communities for sustainable
management. Hence, there is a need to ratify international wetland conventions for
cooperation and as a means of gaining material and technical assistance.
References
EFAP (Ethiopian Forestry Action Programme), 1989. The Challenges for Development.
EFAP, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Vol. II
Hillman, J. C. (ed.) 1993. Ethiopia: Compendium of Wildlife Conservation Information.
NYZS - The Wildlife Conservation Society, International, New York Zoological
Park, Bronx, NY and Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Organisation, Addis
Ababa, 2 Vol.s, 786 pp.
Dugan, P. J. (ed). 1990. Wetland Conservation: A Review of Current Issues and
Required Action. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland 94pp.
Hughes, R. H. and J. S Hughes. 1992. A Directory of African Wetlands. IUCN, Gland,
Switzerland and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya/WCMC, Cambridge,
UK. 820pp.
Tesfaye, H. 1990. The Conservation Status of Wetlands and Waterfowl in Ethiopia.
Paper Presented to IWRP Workshop. 3 - 12 March, 1990, Uganda. 18pp.
Tilahun, S., S. Edwards, and B. G. E. Tewolde (eds.). 1996. Important Bird Areas of
Ethiopia: A First Inventory. Ethiopian Wildlife and Natural History Society,
Addis Ababa. 300pp.
Timberlake, L. 1985. Africa in Crisis: The Causes, the Cures of the Environmental
Bankruptcy. Earthscan. London 218pp.
WCED (World Commission of Environment and Development), 1987. Our Common
Future. WCED. Oxford University Press. New York, U.S.A. 398pp.

18
Biodiversity potentials and threats to the southern
Rift Valley lakes of Ethiopia
Lemlem Sissay
Institute of Biodiversity Conservation and Research
P.O. Box 30726
Addis Ababa
Ethiopia
Introduction
The Ethiopian Rift Valley runs the whole length of the country from neighbouring
Eritrea in the northeast to Lake Turkana in the southwest, bordering Kenya. The
Ethiopian Rift Valley Lakes Basin (RVLB) is one of the twelve Ethiopian river basin
ecosystems which share a common geological structure, history and similar biological
resources.
Within the RVLB, there are eight principal lakes: Ziway, Abijatta, Langano, Shalla,
Awassa, Abaya, Chamo and Chew Bahir, which drain an area of about 52,000 km2.
Four of these lakes - Ziway, Abijatta, Langano and Shalla - cover a hydrologically
closed drainage area of about 14,640 km2. The two southern lakes of Abaya and Chamo
are the largest and, relatively, the shallowest. The Rift Valley Lakes are very important
in terms of biological resources. Their ecosystems support both aquatic and terrestrial
biodiversity, such as migratory birds, wildlife, fishery resources and aquatic and
terrestrial vegetation. These ecosystems serve as wintering grounds and maintenance
stations for a large number of terrestrial and aquatic birds.
The mountain ranges on both sides of the Rift Valley have serious environmental
problems, the impact of which accelerates the loss of biodiversity in the lakes. These
problems are the result of a combination of social, economic and climatic factors, which
have increased pressure on the natural resources of the Rift Valley Lakes (RVLs) and
wetlands. This has caused the degradation of watersheds, increased soil erosion,
decreased water quality and caused immeasurable loss to biological diversity.
In view of this, the Institute of Biodiversity Conservation and Research in collaboration
with relevant stakeholders, is in the process of developing a project on the conservation
and sustainable use of biodiversity in Ethiopia’s RVLs. This paper is based on the
information collected for the problem analysis and synthesis components of this project.
It explores the values of the lakes in Ethiopia’s southern Rift Valley area, and finds that
these are considerable. It then proceeds to consider the threats posed to these lakes and
the values that they represent.

Biodiversity potentials and threats to the southern Rift Valley lakes of Ethiopia
19
Values of biological resources
Direct and indirect values
Wetlands have direct values that include both production and consumption goods. These
are the raw materials and physical products that are used directly for production,
consumption and sale including those providing energy, shelter, food, agricultural
production, water supply, transportation and recreation.
The Rift Valley’s ecosystems provide ecological functions which maintain and protect
nature and human systems through services such as the maintenance of water quality,
flow and storage, flood control, sand storm protection, nutrient retention and micro-
climate stabilisation, along with the production and consumption activities that they
support.
Optional values associated with the lakes are primarily those that maintain the pool of
wetland species and genetic resources for future possible uses such as leisure,
commercial, industrial, agricultural, pharmaceutical applications and water-based
developments, some of which may not be known at present. Other import values are
existence values, which have merits regardless of the possibility of current or future use
possibilities, such as cultural, aesthetic or heritage bequest significance. All of these
benefits have value because they contribute to economic activity and enhance human
welfare.
Some of the important ecological values of the Ethiopian rift are to be derived from its
large variety of habitats. Lakes of various sizes and of fresh and alkaline waters are
home to a large diversity of animal species, especially birds. Thirty-five fish species
have been described from the above-mentioned lakes and the Omo River. Ninety-four
mammal species are recorded from the Ethiopian Rift system, of which six are endemic
(Tesfaye, 1990).
The whole Rift Valley ecosystem, including its wetland drainage system and the
uplands, is regarded as a rich strategic site for a wide variety of resident and migratory
avifauna populations (Hillman, 1993). In contrast, the overall ecosystem lies in a region
of rainfall deficiency, with evapo-transpiration higher than the mean annual rainfall,
making the area susceptible to drought and ecological degradation (EMA, 1985).
Aquatic biodiversity values
Less is probably known about the diversity level and ecosystem values of phytoplankton
and aquatic invertebrates than of fish. As primary producers in the food web,
phytoplankton are important as sources of energy and food for other trophic levels, and
thus their loss entails changes to aquatic food webs. Some phytoplankton, such as
Arthrospira fusiformis, have gained recognition because of their high content of unique
and novel biomolecules. Other phytoplankton is toxic to fish, other aquatic animals and
even to terrestrial wildlife.

Wetlands of Ethiopia
20
Algae are involved in the improvement of air and water quality through their
photosynthetic activity and uptake of undesirable nutrients. The few intensive studies
done in Ethiopia report 206 phytoplankton species collected from ten lakes in the Rift
Valley. About ten species recently collected from these lakes are new to science
(Elizabeth and Willen, 1996). Clearly, more studies are needed to exhaustively list the
phytoplankton species of Ethiopia’s lakes.
Invertebrates are important biological control agents of some disease vectors. The
copepod mesocyclops, for example, is an effective predator of malaria-causing
mosquitoes. Certain aquatic beetles can clear the alien invasive aquatic weed, water
hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes). Many invertebrates have educational, scientific and
biotechnological values because they are good models with which to understand
biological systems (such as DNA/chromosome functions, embryogenesis) and are used
in sewage treatment plants, fermentation processes and in the production of useful bio-
molecules.
Benthic invertebrates, such as oligochaetes and chironomids, serve as useful bio-
indicators of environmental perturbations and ecosystem health. They have been used as
bioassay organisms to monitor pollution levels in waters, and bio-geographical studies
have used them as paleo-indicators of past climatic change.
From limited and fragmented reports, it is known that more than 110 invertebrate
species new to science have recently been described in Ethiopia. There is a pressing
need, however, to continue the inventory and cataloguing of invertebrates on a more
systematic and wider scale in order to have a better understanding of the aquatic
invertebrate biodiversity status of the country.
Fish species values
Over 35 fish species have been described from the Rift Valley Lakes (RVLs) and the
Lower Omo River Basin. The fish fauna is more diverse in the Southern RVLs of Abaya
and Chamo and in the Lower Omo River basin. The need to study and carry out
inventories of fish taxa is acute since new species still appear in sporadic surveys.
The fisheries of the RVLs support over 3,000 families in commercial and subsistence
fishing activities and many more in processing, distribution and marketing centres.
Additional incomes are obtained through the production, supply and repair of fishing
gear, boats and engines. In the Oromia Region, 19 fisher’s cooperatives with more than
1,700 members have been registered from Lakes Langano, Ziway, Koka and Basaka.
In the Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples (SNNP), Region, about 550
fishermen are engaged in full-time fishing activities on Lakes Awassa, Chamo and
Abaya. Over 60% of Ethiopia’s fish supply originates from the RVLs. The uneven
exploitation of the lakes, however, has meant that some lakes are almost over-fished
(Lakes Chamo, Awassa and Ziway) and others under-exploited.
Sport fishing for Nile perch is an important activity on Lakes Chamo and Abaya. In
general however, people are engaged in fishing for its food value. The actual landings
from the Oromia lakes is around 60 - 70% of total national production.
The waters of Lake Turkana, which span the Ethiopian – Kenyan border, have high fish
species diversity. Many of these migrate up the Omo River to spawn. Few studies have

Biodiversity potentials and threats to the southern Rift Valley lakes of Ethiopia
21
been carried out on the diversity level and the ecological status of this trans-boundary
aquatic resource (see, however, Kolding, 1989).
Birdlife
A total of 538 species of birds - more than 65% of the country’s total – are recorded
from the RVL’s ecosystem. Of the 29 Ethio-Eritrean endemic bird species, eight are
endemic to the Ethiopian Rift Valley. Because of its geographical position, the
Ethiopian RVLs serve as a wintering and maintenance station for a large number of
terrestrial and aquatic birds, including Southern African, Sub-Saharan and Palearctic
species.
According to a relative abundance classification system, there are 201 species of birds
in the Ethiopian Rift Valley that are common (60 - 100% chance of being seen), 241
species that are frequent (10 - 59% chance of being seen) and 96 species that are rare (0
- 9% chance of being seen).
Some RVLs, such as Lake Abijatta, have plenty of birdlife. The latter lake had 230,000
Lesser flamingos and 150,000 Yellow wagtails during a count conducted in 1992/93
(Hillman, 1998). Northern Palearctic visitors such as stilts, ruffs and various ducks also
use this lake as a staging and wintering ground. The lake has been proposed as an
international wetland national park (EWCO, 1989) and is a protected bird sanctuary.
Many bird species make their home on the plains and watersheds of the RV region,
including the endemic Nechsar nightjar, the Star-spotted nightjar and the White- tailed
bush lark. There are also a number of threatened species such as the Lesser kestrel,
Pallid harrier and Lesser flamingo.
Other wildlife
The Ethiopian Rift Valley (RV) has 94 mammal species or 40% of the country’s total of
277 species. Among the 94 species, 50% are smaller mammals consisting of bats,
insectivores and rodents. Six of the country’s 31 endemic mammals occur in the RV, as
do half of Ethiopia’s hares and predators. The RV ecosystem has several conservation
areas, including sanctuaries, controlled hunting areas, national parks and game reserves.
There is ample potential for wildlife ranching in the RV because wild animals require
less husbandry and utilise range lands better than domestic livestock. The areas
surrounding the RV lakes are ideal ranching sites with their park-like acacia woodland.
Livestock farms in the RV could be supplemented with game-ranching using grazers
and browsers without affecting domestic animals. Wildlife products could include meat,
fur, household goods, cultural relics, ceremonial dresses, medical paraphernalia, trophy
hunting and tribal prestige markings.
Some of the RV’s species, such as Swayne’s hartebeest and Grevy’s zebra, are
threatened, while very little is known about Scott’s Hairy Bat, the shrew Crocidura
phaeura, Mahomet’s mouse, the Ethiopian grass rat and Harrington’s scrub rat.
In general, the terrestrial mammals of the Ethiopian RV are a precious biodiversity
resource whose ecological and scientific significance has not been evaluated fully.
There is an urgent need for understanding and conserving this important biodiversity
before human activities damage it irrevocably.

Wetlands of Ethiopia
22
Threats
Degradation of catchment areas
The water catchment areas of the Rift Valley Lakes Basin (RVLB) range from an
altitude of more than 3000 m asl on the eastern and western rift valley floor, to the 500
m asl in the southern low lands. The causes of the basin’s degradation are generally the
same for all of Ethiopia’s catchments. The major ones are deforestation mainly for
agricultural purposes, encroachment and settlement as a result of population pressure
and the need for grazing land, over-grazing as a consequence of overstocking and soil
erosion and land degradation. The stocking rate of livestock is 4.62 to 68.2 Tropical
Livestock Units (TLU) per hectare in the Abijatta-Shalla lake basin, which is 3 to 27
times the carrying capacity of most of Ethiopia, the average for which is 2 TLU per
hectare.
Concomitantly, the hilly nature of the land and the erodibility of volcanic soil also
contribute greatly to land degradation in the RVLB. Soil fertility loss and cropland
abandonment may well then result. This kind of land degradation has occurred in Ziway
Dugda woreda1 to the south of Lake Ziway, in the Upper Woito-Segen basin, the
eastern uplands of Lake Abaya, West Abaya and Chamo.
Demographic pressure
High population pressure and urbanisation in developing countries increases the demand
for land, encourages deforestation, increases pollution and promotes the trade of species
in danger of extinction. Just over 900,000 people live in the six woredas2 around Lakes
Ziway, Langano, Shalla and Abijatta). Approximately 781,000 of these people are
located in rural areas, where there are 1.5 to 4.4 people per hectare of agricultural land.
There are an estimated 6 million people in the Abaya, Chamo, Awassa and Chew-Bahir
catchments, yielding an average population density of more than 160 people/km2.
High population densities within the catchments of the Ethiopian Rift Valley Lakes
have been associated with a series of deleterious trends, in particular those arising from
the clearance of vegetation for grazing and agriculture, resulting erosion and
downstream nutrient and silt loading. Other problems are as follows:
– improper farming methods and poor tillage systems, which contribute towards the
erosion of steep cultivated land;
– fish-kills, algal blooms and the associated death of wildlife in Lakes Chamo (Amha
and Wood, 1982) and Abijatta (Kassahun, 1982) are in part attributed to human
activities within the RVLB;
– urbanisation and human settlement are amongst the most serious of problems in the
RVLB. The fast-growing cities of Ziway, Awassa and Arbaminch are all close to
the Rift Valley Lakes. Associated industrial development is also problematic. The
1 A woreda is an Ethiopian administrative unit equivalent to a district.
2 These are Munesa, Arsi-Neggellee, Adami Tullu, Bora Dugda, Ziway Dugda and Siraro

Biodiversity potentials and threats to the southern Rift Valley lakes of Ethiopia
23
extraction of soda ash from Lake Abijatta, for example, involves the evaporation of
900,000 m3 of water a year from the lake;
– farming along the lakes’ shores not only disturbs shore ecology but also
exacerbates siltation and increases the turbidity of the bank. Resultant
sedimentation tends to be more pronounced in the littoral than in the pelagic zones
of lakes, affecting aquatic life at the shore.
Deforestation
Small pockets of natural forest remain on the south-east shore of Lake Langano, the
eastern catchment of Lake Awassa, in Nech-Sar National Park and the intermediate
uplands of Wonago and Yirga Chefe. These are, however, under continual threat from
deforestation due to population growth and the associated expansion of farming,
increasing demand for fuel, construction wood and charcoal. Charcoal production is
becoming a serious cause for concern in the Sub-Rift Valley System of Ziway,
Langano, Abijatta and Shalla.
Overfishing and destructive fishing
Overfishing may result in the loss of some fish species and their replacement by others.
This effect cascades throughout the trophic food web and ends in structural ecosystem
changes, which are sometimes difficult to detect unless monitored on a continual basis.
On Lake Chamo, the ‘gancho’ net has caused the rapid depletion of Nile perch stocks.
Some 70% of the fish landed from the Rift Valley Lakes comes from Lake Ziway alone,
suggesting excessive fishing pressure. Tilapia stocks in Lake Awassa are also thought to
be over-fished.
Amongst the destructive fishing techniques employed on these lakes are the use of
herbicides, fishing in reed belts, chase and trap fishing and shore beach-seining. These
activities deplete juvenile stocks and destroy nursery grounds. The immediate and long-
term effects of over-fishing and destructive fishing on biodiversity resources have not
been properly assessed.
Common threats to all lakes
– institutions for the management and proper use of fisheries are weak, as is law
enforcement for resource and protected area conservation;
– lack of awareness, information and research on wetlands;
– poverty, the lack of livelihood alternatives for farmers, poor agricultural
technology and productivity;
– dependence of local communities on wood fuel for energy;
– the delicate arid and semi-arid environment surrounding the lakes, associated low
and erratic rainfall and the threat of high human population pressure;
– illegal settlement in parks and conservation areas;
– livestock pressure on conservation areas.

Wetlands of Ethiopia
24
References
Amha, B. and R. B. Wood, 1982. Limnological aspects of an algal bloom on Lake
Chamo in Gamo Goffa Administrative Region of Ethiopia. Ethiopia. J. Sci. 5
(1): 1 - 19.
Elizabeth, K. and E. Willen. 1996. Phytoplankton composition and diversity in salinity-
alkalinity series of Lakes in the Ethiopian Rift Valley. Hydrobiologia 80
(1996): 1-8.
EMA (Ethiopian Mapping Authority). 1985. Ethiopia Map at 1:2,000,000 scale
showing major geographic features. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
EWCO (Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Organisation) 1989. Agro-Ecological
Zonation Study. EWCO, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Hillman, J. C. 1998. Abijatta-Shalla Lakes National Park: Report on Status and
Proposals. Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Organisation, Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia. 14pp.
Hillman, J. C. (ed.) 1993. Ethiopia: Compendium of Wildlife Conservation Information.
NYZS - The Wildlife Conservation Society - International, New York
Zoological Park, Bronx, NY and Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation
Organisation, Addis Ababa, Vol. 2. 332 pp.
Kassahun, W. 1982. Comparative limnology of Lake Abijatta and Lake Langano in
relation to primary and secondary production. M.Sc Thesis, Addis Ababa
University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Kolding, J. 1989. The fish resources of Lake Turkana and their environment.
Unpublished Thesis for the Cand. Scient. Degree in Fisheries Biology.
University of Bergen, Department of Fisheries Biology, Bergen, Norway.
Tesfaye, H. 1990. Wetlands and waterbirds in Eastern Africa. Proceedings of the IWRB
Workshop in Uganda, 3-12 March 1990.

25
Wetlands, birds and Important Bird Areas in
Ethiopia
Mengistu Wondefrash
Ethiopian Wildlife and Natural History Society
P. O. Box P.O. Box 13303
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
An introduction to wetlands
A wetland is the collective term for ecosystems whose formation has been dominated by
water and whose processes and characteristics are largely controlled by water (see
Abebe, this volume). As defined by the Ramsar Convention, wetlands include a wide
variety of habitats, as well as man-made wetlands such as rice fields and reservoirs
(Barbier et al, 1996). In addition, the Convention (Article 2.1) provides that wetlands
incorporate riparian and coastal zones adjacent to the wetlands (Ramsar Convention
Bureau, 1997).
In trying to categorise the wide range of wetlands encompassed by the Ramsar
definition, Scott (1989) defined 30 groups of natural wetlands and nine manmade ones.
For illustrative purposes, it is possible to identify five broad wetland systems that
include estuaries, marine wetlands, riverine wetlands, palustrine and lacustrine wetlands
(see Abebe, this volume) (Barbier et al, 1996).
The complex interactions between biotic (fauna and flora) and abiotic (soil, water and
topography) components of wetland systems make them amongst the earth’s most
productive ecosystems. Wetlands are very important for the multifarious values that
they provide free of charge. They constitute a resource of great economic, cultural,
scientific and recreational value. They are described both as ‘the kidneys of the
landscape’ because of the functions they perform in the hydrological and chemical
cycles, and as ‘biological supermarkets’ because of the extensive food webs and rich
biodiversity that they support (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1993).
The values and services that wetlands provide can be broadly categorised as:
– Functions: flood alleviation, erosion control, stream flow regulation, water storage,
ground water recharge, retention of pollutants, water purification, nutrient cycling,
exchange of water between the surface and the groundwater and the surface and
the atmosphere.
– Products: fish, fuel wood, timber, fodder for domestic animals, habitat for wetland-
dependant species, rich sediments used for agriculture in the floodplains, fibre for
thatching roofs and handicrafts.
– Attributes: diversity of species, aesthetic beauty, cultural heritage, tourist
attractions, recreation such as bird watching, sailing, education and archaeology.

Wetlands of Ethiopia
26
Despite all these direct and indirect services, many wetlands have historically been
considered as unproductive ‘wasteland’ swamps full of slimy creatures, harbouring
diseases such as malaria, and Schistosomiasis. Indeed, it is this view that has led to the
extensive drainage and conversion of wetlands. All this has been done in the name of
improving public health, for intensive agricultural and fisheries production, or land
reclamation for industrial or urban development.
Recently, however, the more wetlands that have been lost, the more society has begun
to appreciate their benefits. There is now a growing awareness that many wetlands are
more valuable in their natural, or only slightly modified state, than if drained, dyked or
built upon. Many countries that have sought to prevent any further wetland loss or
degradation, and promoted their sustainable use, exemplify the trend towards wetland
conservation.
Towards that end, the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance was
put in place to promote the conservation of wetlands and their sustainable management.
Since the Ramsar Convention promotes only those types of wetlands that fall within its
criteria, wetlands that do not meet these criteria are left in a precarious situation.
Ethiopia has not ratified the Ramsar Convention, and hence has not designated a single
Ramsar Site. In addition, Ethiopia has also not ratified the African-Eurasian Migratory
Waterbirds Agreement (AEWA), so the future for Ethiopia’s wetlands and waterbirds is
in some doubt.
Wetlands in Ethiopia
Because Ethiopia forms a watershed between the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean,
it is often referred to as the ‘water tower of northeast Africa’. The western and
northwestern parts of the country drain into the Mediterranean Sea via the Abay, Baro
and Tekeze Rivers, while the eastern and southeastern parts of the country drain into the
Indian Ocean via the Wabe Shebelle and Genale Rivers.
Because of its large lakes and rivers, different landforms and large size, Ethiopia is
endowed with an array of different wetlands too numerous to be counted. Moreover,
recurrent droughts, the need for electric power generation, reliable potable water
supplies and irrigated agriculture for increased food production have all positively
contributed towards the creation of additional wetlands in the country.
Given this, a surprising number of Ethiopians take it for granted that wetlands refer to
visible water bodies such as lakes. Wetlands, such as swamps, marshes, floodplains,
mudflats, etc, are considered unproductive and unhealthy ‘wastelands’. The biodiversity
component of these wetlands is never considered important. If the capacity were there,
wetlands would probably be converted into other forms of land use.
Perhaps for these reasons, wetlands and their management are poorly addressed issues
in Ethiopia. There is little or no awareness of the current status, threats or values of
wetlands, or even the need for their conservation and sustainable utilisation. Although
there are individuals in various organisations with some sort of wetland expertise and
awareness, no coordination exists between these organizations for the conservation,
management and wise use of wetlands in Ethiopia. At another scale, the mandates of
stakeholder institutions to address wetland issues are not clearly defined. As a result,

Wetlands, birds and Important Bird Areas
27
there is no entry point for one to initiate any effective wetland undertaking at the
moment.
The major gaps with regard to wetland issues in Ethiopia are summarised as follows:
– Lack of awareness of the wetlands concept: definitions, resource base (how much
and where?), threats, traditional use and wise use of wetlands, their appropriate
management and the need for their conservation.
– Insufficient resources: human resources, expertise/technical knowledge, financial,
working documents such as manuals, guidelines, spreadsheets and tools,
equipment, vehicles, etc. and capacity for research, data collection, information,
networking documentation and communications.
– Lack of advocacy tools/documents that can give rise to the formulation of a
wetlands policy, strategies, action plans and legal frameworks. There are no
‘bargaining chips’ with which to approach appropriate government bodies to take
conservation action, or donors to solicit funding.
– Lack of a single focal institution/inter-ministerial steering committee that can serve
as an entry point to initiate wetland conservation activities and advocacy roles.
– Lack of a sense of ownership/responsibility: the government is neither giving due
attention nor allocating enough resources and support for wetland initiatives.
Although the mission and roles of each stakeholder with regard to the wetlands of the
country is not clearly defined, there exist various government institutions that are
directly or indirectly involved in wetlands-related activities. Paradoxically, the roles of
many of these conflict and there is inadequate coordination and collaboration amongst
them. Below, the major stakeholders and their roles in Ethiopia’s wetlands are listed.
The roles indicated should not be considered exhaustive, and are mentioned here only to
provoke discussion.
Ministry of Water Resources
– Gives due attention mainly to major rivers, river basins and lakes.
– Involved in conversion and water works (dams, irrigation canals, drilling of wells).
– Development of drinking water supplies.
– Formulated a Water Policy that addresses wetlands very little.
Ministry of Agriculture
– Development of small dams and pans for domestic stock.
– Determines land-use planning.
– Conversion of wetlands into farmlands (drainage, micro-dam construction,
development of pans and ponds).
Environmental Protection Authority
– Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA).
– Policy issues.

Wetlands of Ethiopia
28
Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation
– Macro-dams (hydroelectric plants).
– Irrigated farms (adjacent to dams).
Ministry of Industry:
– Establishment of non-environmentally friendly industries, such as tanneries and
textiles, on wetland edges.
– Pollution.
Ministry of Health
– Draining and spraying.
Investors
– Construction of industries, recreation centres, etc.
– Conversion and pollution.
Because of lack of awareness of the current status of wetlands, and the absence of any
concerted conservation efforts, Ethiopian wetlands are threatened in the following ways:
Demographic Pressures
Cultivation, especially of green maize and vegetables, results in soil disturbance and
reduces the ability of wetlands to control erosion. Intensive over-grazing and trampling
results in the formation of gullies and dries out wetlands. Disturbance caused by human
activities at the edges of wetlands hampers the breeding of wetland-dependent species.
Occasional burning to clear land for agriculture and to prompt the new growth of reeds
is a threat often encountered. Draining sites makes them unsuitable for wetland
dependent-species and the wetland becomes less able to purify or store water or to
regulate stream flow. Cutting grass for fodder, thatch and the construction of boats can
reach critical levels if it is not carried out sustainably. Where population density is low,
wetlands are used mainly as a source of reeds for thatching village huts. Changes in
vegetation as a result of wetland drainage and cultivation are already having impacts
through swamp reed shortages that now occur in some areas. These shortages have
sometimes badly affected the swamp reed trade, and some communities have
established rules to protect the last remaining areas of wetland because of the need for
reeds.
Development Pressures
Wetlands are threatened by several development pressures including damming, which
destroys habitats for wetland dependent-species. Wetlands may be modified for
industrial and technical purposes and mining, e.g. the soda ash extraction plant at Lake
Abijatta has a detrimental effect on the lake levels.
Pollution
The pollution of wetlands arises from human-induced activities and natural sources. The
use of agricultural inputs, such as chemical fertilisers and herbicides, and pesticides
(such as DDT) for malaria control schemes, can contribute towards the pollution of
wetlands. Eutrophication, which occurs naturally in some lakes, results in animal

Wetlands, birds and Important Bird Areas
29
deaths. For example, over 2000 Lesser flamingos were found dead at Green Lake in
1995, an event attributed to the eutrophic conditions in the lake.
Mismanagement
The loss, destruction and siltation of habitats result from anthropogenic activities and
can arise from over-grazing and agricultural practices in the water catchment of
wetlands.
Weed Infestation
Alien plants compete with indigenous plants and destroy or alter the habitat of
indigenous plants and animals. The Akaki Wetland near Addis Ababa has already been
totally infested by water hyacinth and the surrounding mudflats, once heavily populated
by waders, no longer attract these birds.
Avifauna and wetlands
Wetlands shelter countless species of fauna and flora, of which the most widely
explored, scientifically studied and appreciated are the birds (Carp, 1980). Many
wetlands are renowned because of their birdlife. Indeed, around 12% of all African bird
species are found in and around wetlands (Mafabi, 1995). In Ethiopia, 204 (around
25%) of bird species are wetlands-dependent. Although many of these birds are known,
much about their habitats remains uninvestigated.
There are two categories of waterbirds: wetland specialists and generalists. Specialists
are those that nest, feed and roost in wetlands. Wetland specialists are wholly dependent
on aquatic habitats, and cannot survive without them (Airinatwe, 1999). Examples are
ducks, gulls, herons, waders, crakes, the Black-crowned crane, etc. Generalists are
those birds that are frequently found in wetlands, but are sometimes seen in other
habitats as well, such as ibises, herons, some weavers, warblers, plovers etc. Cranes, for
example, are generally regarded as terrestrial birds, but breed exclusively in wetlands,
especially favouring seasonal grass swamps. If their wetland habitat is lost, cranes will
be driven to extinction. For this reason, two out of the six African crane species (the
Wattled and Black-crowned cranes) are now endangered because of threats to their
wetland habitats.
Waterfowl, wetlands and conservation
The Ramsar Convention defines waterfowl as bird species that are ecologically
dependent upon wetlands (Rose and Scott, 1997). The waterfowl definition excludes
kingfishers (Alcedinidae) and some birds of prey, and includes a few non-wetland
species such as some seabirds and stone-curlews. The avian genera defined as
waterfowl are Gaviidae, Podicipedidae, Pelecanidae, Phalocrocoracidae, Anhingidae,
Ardeidae, Balaenicipitidae, Scopidae, Ciconiidae, Threskiornithidae, Eurypygidae,
Jacanidae, Rostratulidae, Dromadidae, Haematopodidae, Ibidorhynchidae,
Recurvirostridae, Burhinidae, Glareolidae, and Charadriidae.
Birds migrate in response to biological requirements, such as the need to find suitable
locations for breeding and for raising their young, and to feed. Migratory birds are
dependant on their destination sites and those located along the way (van Vessem,

Wetlands of Ethiopia
30
1997). Waterfowl concentrations in wetlands can often reach spectacular proportions,
and are one of the most obvious indicators of the richness, health and diversity of the
wetlands they frequent. Furthermore, the long migrations of some waterfowl, and the
fact that some species are the prized quarry of hunters, have made these birds a favoured
subject for research, surveys, education and recreation throughout the world.
This clearly demonstrates that there must be international responsibility for their
conservation, including the designation of an adequate network of the wetlands on
which birds can depend in different seasons. Accordingly, experts on every continent
contribute to coordinated waterfowl monitoring programmes, making waterfowl one of
the most comprehensively studied groups of animals on Earth. It is hoped that by
working closely together on an international level, we can best learn how to successfully
manage our wetlands and the waterbirds that depend on them. This is particularly true
for migratory waterbirds, which are the shared resources of many countries. Some of
these migrants use Ethiopian wetlands as wintering grounds during the northern winter
(from November to March). Other species, such as Lesser flamingo, Lesser moorhen,
Glossy ibis, Cattle egret, etc. are intra-African migrants. The remainder are resident
birds which reside in wetlands perennially.
Birds can be used as bio-indicators with which to identify wetlands of international
importance. International action for wetland conservation started with birds and the
Convention on Wetlands become internationally important in the conservation of
waterfowl habitat (Mafabi, 1995). Birds are the sole cause for the formulation and
development of the Ramsar and Bonn Conventions and the African-Eurasian Migratory
Waterbirds Agreement (AEWA). The presence of birds contributes towards the
designation of important sites for conservation, lending support to the Biodiversity
Convention.
Habitat loss is the single biggest problem facing waterbirds. Other threats are
disturbance and persecution. Persecution can be deliberate or accidental. Some
agricultural communities consider waterbirds, such as ducks, geese and cranes, as crop
pests, and seek to control them by killing them or trying to scare them away. These
methods are not usually specific to the target bird species and hence many other birds
may be adversely affected (Airinatwe, 1999). This is a significant threat, especially for
the vulnerable Wattled crane. Another case of direct persecution is hunting for food,
although luckily this is comparatively insignificant in Ethiopia compared to other
countries.
Accidental persecution occurs mainly as a result of chemical poisoning and fishing.
Some fish-eating birds, for example, get entangled in fishermen’s nets. This is a
significant cause of mortality for pelicans, the Great crested grebe (Podiceps cristatus)
and the African darter (Anhinga melanogaster) (Airinatwe, 1999).
The conservation of waterfowl poses many challenges. Many species are migratory, and
therefore require a network of wetlands throughout their ‘flyway’ in order to complete
their annual cycle. In addition, they often congregate in large numbers in relatively
small, but vital wetlands at certain times of the year, making their populations
vulnerable if these sites become threatened. Waterfowl are also vulnerable to human
activities, including hunting, and suffer from pollution, habitat loss or disturbance. This
means that their populations can be monitored as indicators of the health and quality of

Wetlands, birds and Important Bird Areas
31
the environment. Additional reasons for conserving waterfowl populations are that they
are a spectacular and popular wildlife resource. In some countries (developed and
developing) they are also an important economic resource either through sport or
subsistence hunting or through tourism.
For these reasons, it is important to have a good base of information about the
distribution and status of waterfowl populations, so that conservation measures can be
formulated and necessary actions taken in appropriate time if a species or a site comes
under threat. The need for international co-operation in collecting such information is
essential, since many species migrate between different countries.
The mechanism for achieving this exists in the International Waterfowl Census (IWC),
a programme of waterfowl counts co-ordinated by Wetlands International (Rose, 1990).
The counts are carried out in mid-winter, when populations of migratory waterfowl are
relatively stable and concentrated into discrete areas of wetland habitat where they can
be counted most easily. A network of volunteers from over 100 countries, including
ornithologists and conservationists, undertake the counts. Thousands of highly
competent amateur observers also offer to count them regularly. Site/regional co-
ordinators that liase closely with Wetlands International usually organise the counts.
Counts are collected at the level of individual wetlands, and then summarised by
country, flyway or continent. The major aims of the IWC include the following:
– Gathering information on the distribution and abundance of waterfowl at the level
of individual sites, regions and flyways, so as to contribute information to enhance
the conservation of waterfowl populations and their wetland habitats.
– Monitoring trends in the size of waterfowl populations in order to detect ecological
problems and find solutions before species or wetlands become irreversibly
affected.
– Promoting awareness of the aesthetic and economic values of waterfowl and their
wetland habitats so as to enhance their conservation.
As an integral part of the IWC, Wetlands International initiated the African Waterfowl
Census (AfWC) in 1991, which has been conducted in Ethiopia annually ever since.
The first six counts were co-ordinated by an expatriate volunteer and since then by the
Ethiopian Wildlife and Natural History Society (EWNHS). A staff member of the
Society, who has been designated as national co-ordinator for the counts, implements
the programme with voluntary and collaborative assistance secured from within and
outside the country. Counts occur in January and February and compiled data are
forwarded to the Wetlands International Africa Regional Office based in Dakar,
Senegal. Table 2 below summarises the data gathered during AfWC 2000.
The Important Bird Areas (IBAs) of Ethiopia
An additional and vital tool for the conservation of waterfowl and their wetland habitats
are Important Bird Area (IBA) designations. IBAs are:
– Places of international significance for the conservation of birds at global, regional
and sub-regional levels.

Wetlands of Ethiopia
32
– Sites exceptionally important for birds – bird ‘hotspots’.
– Sites that are important for non-bird biodiversity - biodiversity ‘hotspots’
(although, it should be noted, a site’s designation as a biodiversity hotspot is not
necessarily sufficient for it to qualify as an IBA).
Table 2: Summary of bird species counted in Ethiopia during AfWC 2000
No. Site Name Survey Date # of
species # water-fowl
spp. Total # of
waterfowl
1. Lake Abijatta 22/01/00 51 44 31,119
2. Akaki Wetland 15/01/00 62 43 11,364
3. Lake Ardibu 22/12/99 73 39 962
4. Areket Swamp 30/01/00 54 36 3,383
5. Lake Ashenge 25/12/99 69 38 6,501
6. Lake Awassa 26/01/00 159 84 14,462
7. Babo Gaya Swamp 16/01/00 60 42 3,929
8. Berga Floodplain 14/01/00 57 21 672
9. Borkena Marsh 20/12/99 117 49 1,915
10. Boyo Wetland 29/01/00 78 43 1,802
11. Chelekleka Swamp 16/01/00 74 45 2,786
12. Lake Chitu 28/01/00 47 13 55,826
13. Green Lake 17/01/00 65 20 1,151
14. Gudo Flood plain 13/01/00 41 25 913
15. Lake Hayk 23/12/99 92 38 1,682
16. Infranz Wetland 01/01/00 84 32 490
17. Koka Dam 18/01/00 111 53 3,596
18. Kurt Bahir Swamp 03/01/00 74 29 686
19. Lake Langano 23/01/00 69 39 1,101
20. Shesher-Wollala Swamp 29/12/99 98 62 16,761
21. Tikurit Marsh 02/01/00 95 38 537
22. Tikur Wuha 27/01/00 95 30 308
23. Yiganda Marsh 31/12/99 108 35 925
24. Wagetera Swamp 28/12/99 67 34 13,000
25. Lake Ziway 20/01/00 125 58 1,855

Wetlands, birds and Important Bird Areas
33
The use of IBAs as a conservation tool has been developed by Birdlife International,
which is represented in over 100 countries worldwide. In Ethiopia, its partner
organisation is the Ethiopian Wildlife and Natural History Society.
IBAs are selected using standardised and internationally accepted criteria, which
preferably include existing protected area networks where appropriate. If sites are meant
for migrant birds, they should provide for the birds’ requirements for the duration of
their presence. To qualify as IBAs, sites must have species that are globally threatened,
with a very small world range and/or concentrations confined to particular habitat types
(notably wetlands).
The IBA programme was initiated in Europe in 1985 and extended to the Middle East.
Since the end of 1994, it has been underway in Africa, and Ethiopia was one of the first
African nations to begin the work of identifying IBAs. This work began in 1995 and
culminated at the end of 1996 with the production of a first inventory in 1995 (Tilahun
et al, 1996). The second phase of the IBA programme is underway with funding secured
from GEF/UNDP for the period 1998 – 2002.
IBAs form habitats for Ethiopia’s endemic and globally threatened species and are used
by wetland congregatory species. They also act as flyways and wintering grounds for
Palearctic, Eurasian and intra-African migrants. From a conservation point of view, the
IBA network could ensure the survival of a correspondingly large number of other taxa
in the region. Planners and/or decision-makers can use data collected through the IBA
process for setting priorities for conservation action. This is relevant where the effective
targeting of funds is necessary for various conservation purposes, including the
gazettement of sites. Information gathered during the process can assist in advocacy
work, promote awareness programmes, build upon an internationally accessible
database, provide guidance for the development of policies and act as a tool for
promoting conservation priorities to governments, donors and NGOs.
Ethiopian IBAs and wetlands
In Ethiopia, a total of 73 hotspots have been identified as Important Bird Areas (IBAs).
30 of these sites (41% of the total) comprise wetlands, while the rest are representative
of other types of ecosystems, indicating the importance of wetlands as bird habitats.
Nationally, Ethiopian IBA sites have been grouped into three conservation categories:
critical (19), urgent (23) and high (31). Table 3 depicts the relationship between IBAs,
wetlands and their conservation status.
Amongst other things, wetland ecosystems provide shelter to the following categories of
bird species of Ethiopia:
Endemic
– Spot-breasted plover (Vanellus melanocephalus)
– Blue-winged goose (Cyanochen cyanopterus)
– Rouget’s rail (Rougetius rougettii)

Wetlands of Ethiopia
34
Table 3: The relationship between IBAs, wetlands and their conservation status
IBA Site Categories Total %Wetland IBAs %
Critical 19 26.03 413.33
Urgent 23 31.51 12 40.00
High 31 42.46 14 46.67
Total 73 100.00 30 100.00
Globally Endangered Species
– White-winged flufftail (Sarothrura ayresii)
Vulnerable Species
– Wattled crane (Bugeranus carunculatus)
– Corn crake (Crex crex)
Near-threatened Species
– Blue-winged goose (Cyanochen cyanopterus)
– Ferruginous duck (Aythya nyroca)
– Lesser flamingo (Phoeniconaias minor)
– Black-crowned crane (Balearica pavonina)
– Rouget’s rail (Rougetius rougettii)
– Great snipe (Gallinago media)
– African skimmer (Rynchops flavirostris)
– Basra reed warbler (Acrocephalus griseldis)
Data deficient Species
Black-winged pratincole (Glareola nordmanni)
Recommendations and conclusions
As Ethiopia still needs to make progress addressing wetland issues, it is recommended
that the following activities take place in the very near future:
Raise Public Awareness
In order to alert the public to the values and functions of wetlands and the need for their
wise use, a series of public awareness campaigns are needed. These should include the
production and distribution of awareness materials (posters, leaflets and fact sheets),
involve the mass media to carry features on wetlands and conduct a series of awareness-
raising seminars and workshops.

Wetlands, birds and Important Bird Areas
35
Play Advocacy Roles
Develop a national policy and legal framework for the conservation, management and
wise use of wetlands, ratify conventions and agreements on waterfowl and wetlands of
international importance, promote the wise use of wetlands, create wetland reserves, and
liase with other parties on issues of wetland conservation.
Assessment of Wetlands Resource Base
Conduct surveys and compile a preliminary inventory of wetlands, that is, develop a
computer database for sites in the inventory.
Prepare an action plan
An action plan for wetlands should be prepared that considers, amongst others, the
identification of areas important for biological diversity, unique flora and fauna,
endangered species, or those that are of national or international importance and make
recommendations for their protection (through law enforcement). The plan should also
seek the improved management of wetlands so that the various uses can be retained
without conflict. An increasingly vital aspect is the participatory approach, which seeks
to involve and directly benefit local people in wetlands conservation. If this is not
achieved, conservation objectives will be unattainable, especially in Ethiopia, with its
alarming human population growth rate. Last but not least, rehabilitation activities in
water catchment areas will ensure that functions and benefits from wetland resources
are maintained well into the future.
Conduct Research and Monitoring at selected wetlands
Identify and prioritise wetlands for research and monitoring activities. Involve the site-
adjacent community in the research and monitoring activities to make them aware of the
importance of the target wetlands. Incorporate the outputs of the research and
monitoring into existing community traditional knowledge to come up with wetland
management plans.
A Focal Institution for wetlands
This institution could be a government body or made up of a number of different bodies
in the form of a national steering committee. Its task will be to lead the cause for
wetlands in the country and, amongst other things, will look at issues of wise use,
management, research, monitoring and networking.
Wetlands occupy less than 7% of the earth’s surface, but their importance is
disproportionately much greater. Wetlands are often shared by different countries
making them inherently international in scope. As a result, a collective, collaborative
approach is essential if efforts for their conservation are to succeed (Wetlands
International, 1998). Although wetlands management and conservation are local issues,
most waterbirds use many wetlands, travelling between local wetlands and across
national boundaries during the course of their annual cycle. So how do we match the
need for the wise use of local wetlands with those of internationally migrating birds?
The big challenge is to identify best practice approaches and priorities for the
conservation of waterbirds and their wetland habitats within the overall context of
sustainable development.

Wetlands of Ethiopia
36
References
Airinatwe. J. 1999. Wetlands and Waterbird Conservation in East Africa: Strategies for
Conserving Migratory Waterbirds. Wetlands International Publication No. 55.
Wageningen, The Netherlands 71pp.
Barbier, E. B., M. C. Acreman, and D. Knowler 1996. Economic Valuation of Wetlands:
A guide for Policy-makers and Planners. Ramsar Convention Bureau. Gland,
Switzerland 127pp.
Carp, E. 1980. A Directory Western Palearctic Wetlands. Compiled for UNEP, Nairobi,
Kenya and IUCN, Gland, Switzerland 506pp.
Mafabi, P. 1995. Wetlands and their Wildlife. Swara 18 (1): 36
Mitsch, W. J. and J. G. Gosselink. 1993. Wetlands. 2nd Edition. Van Nostrand Reinhold,
New York, U.S.A. 537pp.
Ramsar Convention Bureau, 1997. The Ramsar Convention Manual: A Guide to the
Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar, Iran, 1971), 2nd ed. Ramsar Convention.
RCB, The Gland 170pp
Rose, P. 1990. Manual for International Waterfowl Census Coordinators. The
International Waterfowl and Wetlands Research Bureau, Slimbridge, Gloucester,
England. 30pp.
Rose, P. M. and D. A. Scott, 1997. Waterfowl Population Estimates. 2nd Edition.
Wetlands International Publication No. 44. Wageningen, The Netherlands.
106pp.
Scott, D. A. 1989. Design of Wetland Data Sheet for Database on Ramsar Sites. A
Report to the Ramsar Convention Bureau. Gland, Switzerland. Mimeograph.
Tilahun, S., S. Edwards and T. B. Gebre Egziabher (eds.) 1996. Important Bird Areas of
Ethiopia: A first inventory. Ethiopian Wildlife and Natural History Society,
Addis Ababa. 300pp.
Wetlands International. 1998. Wetlands: A Source of Life. Wetlands International.
Brochure prepared for the 2nd International Conference on Wetlands, 7-14 Nov.
1998, Dakar, Senegal.
van Vessem, J. (ed.) 1997. Determining Priorities for Waterbird and Wetland
Conservation. Proceedings of Workshop IV of the International Conference on
Wetlands and Development 9 - 13 October 1995, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
Wageningen, The Netherlands, Wetlands International.

37
Wetlands research in south-western Ethiopia: the
experience of the Ethiopian Wetlands Research
Programme
Afework Hailu
Ethiopian Wetland Research Programme
P. O. Box 60
Metu, Illubabor
Ethiopia
Introduction
Over the last three years, the Ethiopian Wetlands Research Programme (EWRP) has
carried out research on the wetlands of south-western Ethiopia. The EWRP was
established in 1997 by the Huddersfield University (UK) in collaboration with Addis
Ababa University, and with technical support from the IUCN’s East African Regional
Office and the University of East Anglia (UK). The programme was financed by the
European Commission with additional contributions from Huddersfield University.
The EWRP’s field offices are based in Metu, in the Illubabor Zone of Oromia Region,
600 km southwest of Addis Ababa. The programme has carried out various types of
research into the valley bottom wetlands of Illubabor, and has undertaken awareness
creation with local communities, governmental organisations and NGO staff. After three
years of work, the programme is finalising its activities.
The overall objective of this first phase of the EWRP was “to contribute to the
sustainable management of wetlands in Illubabor Zone, south-western Ethiopia” (Wood,
1996). The six specific objectives of the first phase were to:
– identify the nature, extent and trends in drainage and the use of wetlands;
– assess the ecological impacts of different types of wetland use and drainage,
including changes to hydrology, pedology and biodiversity;
– identify and assess local socio-economic processes leading to changing wetland
uses;
– building on the existing indigenous knowledge where appropriate, identify
management practices which will ensure the sustainable use of wetlands;
– disseminate an understanding of wetland dynamics and sustainable management
practices, and support the development of a local monitoring and management
capacity;
– at regional, national and wider levels, contribute material to debate on policies
which impact upon wetlands.

Wetlands of Ethiopia
38
This paper outlines the methodology and research approaches adopted by the EWRP to
undertake this work and summarises the research findings and outputs achieved under
each objective.
The research approach of the EWRP
A range of different research approaches and techniques were adopted by the EWRP,
and synchronised to investigate the current status of Illubabor’s wetlands. The research
approach was distinctive in that it tried to bring researchers from different disciplines
together and to integrate their efforts to arrive at a conclusive output. The various
approaches used included detailed case studies, the use of Participatory Rural Appraisal
techniques to support scientific work, paying attention to indigenous knowledge and
linking research work with information dissemination and incorporating policy research.
Researchers from a whole range of backgrounds, such as hydrology, pedology,
biodiversity, socio-economics, natural resources and policy, undertook this work.
Because wetland use and change is the result of the complex interactions between and
within human and environmental systems, it was necessary to involve this range of
disciplines. Most research on wetlands does not integrate a wide range of disciplines
and pays little attention to local knowledge. As a result, the EWRP was considered a
pioneering project in the region (Howard, 1998, pers. comm.).
On the environmental side of the programme, there were three activities: hydrological
monitoring and analysis, biodiversity assessment and analysis and pedological analysis.
There were also three major socio-economic activities: socio-economic surveys, PRAs
and policy analysis.
The programme recognised the importance of local knowledge in all aspects of its work.
Local communities know their environment well, having lived there for generations,
observed the seasons and understood the environmental and social processes that take
place. Some communities have exploited wetlands continually for centuries. Through
this long-term utilisation, a body of local knowledge has evolved that guides the use of
the wetlands. Thus, the investigation of this knowledge was given paramount
importance by the EWRP and investigated in depth. PRA tools and discussions with the
farming community were used extensively to investigate this local knowledge.
PRA tools also complemented and supported formal social science field surveys. Even
the environmental monitoring work was supplemented with PRA methods in the field to
explore local environmental knowledge, management practices and skills. These PRAs
generated a lot of practical information that supplemented scientific knowledge and
helped researchers to understand the complex issues of wetland use and management.
The programme used two different survey approaches: detailed case studies and zone-
wide surveys. ‘Core sites’ were selected for detailed scientific and socio-economic
monitoring. The zone-wide survey was undertaken to understand broader trends in
wetland use and to provide a context within which to place and interpret core site
findings.

Wetlands research in south-western Ethiopia
39
The nature, extent and trends in wetland drainage and use in
Illubabor Zone
Government staff and knowledgeable farmers were interviewed in all of Illubabor
Zone’s woredas so as to gather data from a variety of sources on wetland use and
history. Data were derived from current and past reports, and PRA meetings were held
to investigate the history and influences on land use change, especially wetland use.
Within the project’s focal area (including core sites), detailed land use mapping was
undertaken and digitised using aerial photographs from 1982 and 1996.
Illubabor covers 226.7 km2 of which 1.4% is covered by swamps and marshy wetlands.
If floodplains and seasonally flooded grassland are included, the total wetland area of
Illubabor is estimated to cover 4 - 5% of the zone. Out of the total of 375 kebeles3 found
within the eleven woredas of Illubabor, 325 have wetlands (Hailu 1998: 27).
Wetlands are a small but significant part of the resource base in Illubabor. Virtually
every household in one way or another uses them, directly or indirectly (Table 4).
Table 4: Wetland uses in Illubabor
Use Estimated proportion of
households
Social/ceremonial use of reeds (including urban dwellers) 100%
Medicinal plants 100%
Thatching reeds for house construction 85%
Thatching reeds for granary roofing >50%
Domestic water from springs 50%
Dry season grazing >30%
Water for livestock >30%
Temporary crop-guarding huts of reeds 30%
Cultivation 10%
Craft materials 5%
Other minor uses include establishing coffee and tree nurseries on wetland fringes, clay
collection for making pottery and use of bark from wetland trees for making ropes. In
addition, some wetland plants, such as ‘enna’ (Aeschynomene schimperi), are used as
animal feed, while others are used for human food, such as palm trees (Triestemma
auritanum) (Hailu and Abbot; 1998, Hailu, 1999).
Environmental monitoring was undertaken in eight wetlands, focusing on hydrology,
biodiversity and pedology. The characteristics of the eight wetlands studied are
summarised in Table 5.
3 A ‘kebele’ is the smallest Ethiopian administrative unit, and comprises a number of households.

Wetlands of Ethiopia
40
Hydrology
The EWRP hydrological monitoring programme consisted of weekly measurements of
ground water levels using dipwells located throughout the wetland study sites, weekly
measurements of water chemistry (pH and electrical conductivity) and monthly
measurements of nitrate and phosphate concentrations. Water chemistry was measured
at the source and outlet of the wetlands. Hydraulic conductivity was also studied to
explore the rate at which water flowed through the wetland soils.
Table 5. Study sites and their development stages (Source: Dixon, 1997)
Wetland Category Description
Chebere Pristine (little human
interference) No drainage or crop cultivation on site, natural
vegetation, reed harvesting available.
Wangenye and
Kowna Chatu Partially cultivated Some areas undergoing drainage and cultivation,
natural vegetation present.
Bake Chora, Dizi
and Supe Fully cultivated Whole wetland drained and cultivated
Hurumu Degraded Previously cultivated and drained but now mostly
abandoned. Characteristic grassland with
occasional natural vegetation.
Tulube Rehabilitated Previously cultivated and drained but exhibiting
original natural vegetation
The water table in the wetlands is influenced by rainfall, development or management.
The water table levels in the wetlands declined steadily from the wettest period in July
and August, through to April. With increasing rainfall in April/May, the water table
level rose rapidly to its average wet season level within a short period of time (Conway
and Dixon, 1999). Less disturbed wetlands possessed generally higher and more
uniform water table levels, whilst disturbed wetlands had lower and more variable water
tables. The disturbed sites exhibited much greater dispersion in their range of values
over the years and possessed lower absolute water table levels than undisturbed sites. In
addition, on no occasion in the disturbed sites did the mean weekly water table level rise
above the surface (Conway and Dixon, 2000).
Hydraulic conductivity was higher in less disturbed sites and water levels recovered
instantly when water was removed from a dipwell by suction. In significantly changed
or modified wetlands, hydraulic conductivity was low (Conway and Dixon, 2000).
In terms of water pH and electrical conductivity, no significant variation was recorded
between disturbed and natural wetlands. Temporal variations in pH values were,
however, observed with values declining between May and November.
The study of nitrate and phosphate concentrations in the wetland sites revealed higher
phosphate values than nitrate values. There was no significant difference in the
concentration of either nitrate or phosphate between modified and non-modified
wetlands (Conway and Dixon, 2000).

Wetlands research in south-western Ethiopia
41
Pedology
Major pedology activities undertaken included surveys of the soil variations within the
wetlands, between the wetlands and uplands, laboratory analysis of soil samples and
indigenous knowledge assessment through PRA discussions in all core sites.
The dominant wetland soils of central Illubabor were identified as umbric gleysols,
gleyic luvisols and gleyic alisols (Asmamaw, 1998; Belay, 1999; Solomon, 1998;
Yizelkal, 1998). These soils had formed on alluvial sediments that were derived from
basaltic rocks on the adjacent slopes. The soil profiles were generally marked by abrupt
horizon boundaries and sharply contrasting colours. Almost all the soils described in the
wetlands had matrices that were free of stones confirming the alluvial origin of the
parent materials. The texture of the soil fraction was generally clay, although the soils
also included a considerable presence of silt. The better-drained wetland soils generally
developed vertic properties during the dry seasons, when cracks opened up to 3 cm wide
and the fissures extended to depths of 60 cm, suggesting the presence of smectite clay.
All of the wetland soils were salt-free and their reactions were strongly to very strongly
acidic. Organic carbon and nitrogen content was generally high, but showed a
considerable decline with cultivation. The available phosphorous in these soils was
mostly very low. The nutrient storing and exchanging capacity of the soils ranged from
very high to high levels apparently because of their variable content of semectite and
kaolinite clay minerals.
The local farmers referred to wet soils as ‘cheffe’ after the local name for the
predominant type of wetland vegetation. They also identified two cheffe sub-units on
the basis of depth - a shallow (less than a cubit) and a deep (greater than a cubit). They
also identified two soil horizons within each one of these soil sub-units - the ‘guracha’
(‘dark’) layer constituting the topsoil, and the ‘daleti’ (‘grey’) constituting the sub soil.
Farmers invariably agreed that the sub-soil was inferior in quality and productivity
when compared to the top soil. They also reported that, with cultivation, the dark colour
of the topsoil usually changed in time to a greyish shade reflecting fertility loss. They
noted that such a change in soil quality was usually followed by a change to the types of
weeds that grew on cultivated wetlands. They also pointed out, however, that loss in
productivity of wetland soils did not proceed very far because the soils were constantly
rejuvenated by the inflow of fertile materials from the super-adjacent slopes (Belay,
1999).
Newly drained and cultivated wetlands were invariably rich in organic matter. In time,
these soils lost their organic matter content with subsequent loss of productivity and
quality. Farmers also burnt weeds and crop residue prior to cultivation, although in the
long-term this leads to a decline in organic matter. After cultivation, the only other
change to soil properties identified was an increase in bulk density.
Biodiversity
Vegetation sampling was undertaken in the core study wetlands during the dry and wet
seasons. Further sampling was conducted outside the study wetlands in Bure, Bedele
and Ale Didu woredas. Samples were collected following a moisture gradient transect
using both purposive and random sampling. A total of 19 transects and 185 quadrat
samples were placed and information gathered. In each sample plot, all vascular plant

Wetlands of Ethiopia
42
species were recorded and the percentage aerial cover and abundance of each species
estimated. Further biomass sampling was undertaken in smaller quadrats (1m2) for the
identification of communities in core study sites.
A bird species survey was undertaken in core wetland sites and both wetland and non-
wetland dependent bird species recorded. Habitat classification of the seven study
wetlands was also undertaken. Using PRA techniques, local indigenous knowledge on
the use and classification of wetland vegetation was investigated.
The inventory of the wetland plants yielded ninety-five species of plant. Ninety of these
were identified and the rest are pending identification. Ninety-three of the species were
emergent macrophytes, one a submerged plant (Ottelia ulvifolia) and another, still
pending identification, was a floating, leafed plant. All plants collected from the study
sites were classified into wetland-dependent, wetland-associated and non-wetland
species. There were twenty-seven wetland-dependent fifty-one wetland-associated
seven non-wetland dependent species (Woldu and Kumelachew, 1999; Woldu and
Yeshitela, this volume).
Seventy-two species of vascular plants, belonging to twenty-eight families, were
registered in the seven core wetlands studied in the end-of-wet season sampling. The
families Poaceae and Cyperaceae had the highest number of species. In contrast, forty-
four species of vascular plants belonging to twenty-two families were recorded from the
five core sites studied during the dry season (Woldu, 2000).
In the wet and dry seasons, six community groups were identified. The study revealed
that in relatively pristine wetlands, various wetland-dependent plants with a higher
potential for water tolerance dominated. With long-term drainage and cultivation, non-
wetland species started to invade the wetland. Plant species unable to withstand this
competition usually disappeared. General increases to plant diversity reduced the
diversity of wetland plant species, replacing them with more common meadow grasses
and weeds common to cultivated areas.
The effect of grazing and biomass harvesting on habitats and plant species was not as
drastic as cultivation, with a gradual shift in species composition. The biodiversity study
indicated, however, that those wetlands grazed for a long period of time tended to be
more similar to degraded and drained wetlands than to pristine ones.
A total of ninety-two species of birds from forty families were recorded for all sites. Out
of the total forty-eight Afrotropical birds in Ethiopia, seventeen (35.4%) species were
recorded from the study sites. There were also three endemic and five near-endemic bird
species (Taddesse, 1999).
Farm decision-making and socio-economic processes
PRAs surveys were used to identify key issues in all study areas. During the two
working seasons of the project, 78 PRA sessions, involving more than 1,000 farmers,
were undertaken. The PRA surveys explored farmers’ perceptions of wetland use and
management. Particular emphasis was placed on local systems of wetland management
and the institutional arrangements and management capacity of local communities.
A conventional questionnaire survey involving 1,120 farm households explored key
issues needing quantitative data. The data gathered using the survey was analysed and

Wetlands research in south-western Ethiopia
43
compared with that generated using the PRA techniques. The results from the
questionnaire survey and the PRA sessions were found to be complementary in most
cases.
The major findings in this study are divided into two categories. The first reveals the
socio-economic determinants that influence wetland use, while the second relates to
local institutions, institutional arrangements and the managerial capacity of local
communities.
According to the local farmers, wetland cultivation in the region started during the era
of Dejazmach Geneme (1911-1918), principally to ensure food availability in the
traditionally grain-deficit summer months. Key informants reported that in those days,
peasant death from starvation was common in the summer months and it was this
problem that prompted Dejazmach Geneme to order the beginning of wetland
cultivation. Coupled with this, coffee production started in the zone at about the same
time, thereby making it necessary to expand cultivation to wetlands as more and more
upslope land was taken for coffee (Solomon, 1999). Approximately 20% of the total
wetlands in Illubabor have been cultivated each year between 1986 and 1998 (Hailu,
1998). The latest information from the Zonal Agricultural Office indicates that
approximately 7,100 ha of wetland had been cultivated by 1999, representing 35% of
the total valley bottom wetland area (Illubabor Zone Department of Agriculture, 1999).
Maize is the dominant crop.
Both the PRA and questionnaire surveys determined that it was mainly the wealthier
members of the sample kebeles that engaged in wetland cultivation rather than the poor
peasants (see Wood, this volume). The economically better-off members of the
community were better able to carry out wetland cultivation, not only because they had
claimed land in the wetlands, but also because they could deploy adequate labour both
for cultivation and for crop guarding (Hailu and Abbot, 1998; Hailu, 1998; Solomon,
1999).
Four community institutions that operated in the past and, in some cases, continue to
operate, were identified using PRA tools and case studies. These included reciprocal
labour institutions, socio-cultural/traditional institutions, neo-political institutions and
indigenous community management institutions (Abbot and Hailu, 1999). Each of these
institutions had their own functions and acceptance within the local communities.
Reciprocal labour institutions identified during the assessment were called, amongst
others, ‘dado’ ‘debo’ and ‘jige’.
Socio-cultural/traditional institutions involved the ‘gada’ system, brought by Oromo
settlers from the east 150 - 200 years ago. The gada system consists of a series of
administrative systems (Abba Laga, Abba Ganda, Tulla, Shennie and Eder), each of
which had different roles within the community. At present, the gada system no longer
operates in Illubabor, but the Tulla and Eder are still popular and respected institutions
within the community.
Neo-political institutions comprised the kebele and the shennie of which the latter was
once part of the gada system. These institutions currently form part of the government
administrative system and are responsible for the day-to-day running of activities within
their jurisdiction.

Wetlands of Ethiopia
44