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Dreams and dreaming among the elderly: An overview

Taylor & Francis
Aging & Mental Health
Authors:
  • C.G. Jung Institute Küsnacht (ZH)

Abstract

This paper reviews past and current research into the dreams and dreaming of people over 65 years of age. Recent studies have shown, for example, that frequency of dream recall declines with age in both men and women, but that the main decrease occurs in early middle age and is thus unlikely to be connected with aging effects.The results of studies having to do with dream tone, active/passive stance and typical dream themes are less conclusive.This paper also surveys the attitudes toward dreams one encounters among the elderly, the temporal references in their dreams and the use of dreams in the psychotherapy of aged and aging persons and concludes by considering the dreams of those at the end of their life.
... 72,132 Consequently, the simple relationship between aging and dream recall decline has been confuted by different studies reporting a reduction in the number of dreams remembered from around 20-38 years. 72,132,133 Anyway, these results are not ever confirmed, considering a recent longitudinal study showing that dream recall rates remain stable within 3 years in 75% of the participants included in an extensive online investigation (two groups of 2872 and 2929 persons). 143 Anyway, these results do not completely exclude an interpretation in terms of declined cognitive performance. ...
... Considering the paucity of studies aimed to evaluate the neural correlates of dream recall in elderly, we can only hypothesize these changes are associated to the general reduction of dream recall frequency, as reported throughout 8 Mangiaruga et al retrospective questionnaires. 72,[131][132][133][134] Some authors suggested the observed age-dependent delay in circadian rhythms could be an influencing factor on dream recall. 32,53,72,135,138 In this regard, Antrobus et al 53 observed that a delay of 3 hours in sleep onset leads to longer and more vivid dream report, compared to a control group with normal sleep schedule, specifically at the end of the night. ...
... 141 Collecting dream report immediately upon awakening may partly overpass this problem. 132,133 In this context, the actual finding of a reduced dream recall frequency in elderly people after provoked awakenings, as compared to younger subjects, 131,142 gives strength to this interpretation in terms of age-related cognitive decline. Moreover, the motivational explanation 139,140 can be interpreted in the context of a training-related gain in performance: focusing on the task of reporting dream could promote a substantial increase in salience of dream content, with a parallel improvement in memory for dreams. ...
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Brain and sleep maturation covary across different stages of life. At the same time, dream generation and dream recall are intrinsically dependent on the development of neural systems. The aim of this paper is to review the existing studies about dreaming in infancy, adulthood, and the elderly stage of life, assessing whether dream mentation may reflect changes of the underlying cerebral activity and cognitive processes. It should be mentioned that some evidence from childhood investigations, albeit still weak and contrasting, revealed a certain correlation between cognitive skills and specific features of dream reports. In this respect, infantile amnesia, confabulatory reports, dream-reality discerning, and limitation in language production and emotional comprehension should be considered as important confounding factors. Differently, growing evidence in adults suggests that the neurophysiological mechanisms underlying the encoding and retrieval of episodic memories may remain the same across different states of consciousness. More directly, some studies on adults point to shared neural mechanisms between waking cognition and corresponding dream features. A general decline in the dream recall frequency is commonly reported in the elderly, and it is explained in terms of a diminished interest in dreaming and in its emotional salience. Although empirical evidence is not yet available, an alternative hypothesis associates this reduction to an age-related cognitive decline. The state of the art of the existing knowledge is partially due to the variety of methods used to investigate dream experience. Very few studies in elderly and no investigations in childhood have been performed to understand whether dream recall is related to specific electrophysiological pattern at different ages. Most of all, the lack of longitudinal psychophysiological studies seems to be the main issue. As a main message, we suggest that future longitudinal studies should collect dream reports upon awakening from different sleep states and include neurobiological measures with cognitive performances.
... However, only males showed a sex difference favoring them in the 10-19 age group. Nevertheless, a review by Funkhouser et al. (1999) on dream studies in older adults and the elderly suggested that the decline in DRF is most pronounced in middle age, rather than being solely related to the effects of aging. ...
... Despite Funkhouser et al. (1999), there is a lack of scientific studies that thoroughly investigate dream-related aspects in older individuals. Due to the challenges associated with advanced age, such as difficulties with participation or medication requirements due to afflictions, the elderly and aged adults have been relatively unexplored in terms of advancing our understanding of human dreams. ...
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The relationship between the level of anxiety and emotions in dreams is a subject that has been fairly studied, particularly in young adults. However, there exists a limited body of research on this subject among older adults. This study examines the relationship between trait anxiety levels, emotions in dreams, dream recall frequency (DRF), and potential gender differences within older adults. A total of 22 participants (nine men and 13 women) were recruited from the seniors group at Complutense University of Madrid (Mage = 64.9 years). Each participant initially completed the trait subscale of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI-T) questionnaire and also maintained a dream diary for 2 weeks, providing assessments of the valence, arousal, and intensity of each of the basic emotions experienced in dreams. Results showed a modest correlation between the average STAI-T and sadness in dreams and a significant correlation between the level of fear and that of emotional arousal, but only in the women group. No additional gender distinctions were identified. Furthermore, it was observed that recalled dreams tended to exhibit a neutral valence and moderate arousal and there was a reduced level of anxiety and a lower DRF in comparison to the results obtained in studies involving young adults. The findings suggest that DRF in older adults is not correlated with anxiety levels.
... Taking into account the relation between EEG rhythms and dream experience (10,16,17), these sleep changes could affect DR. Some evidences point in this direction, since a general reduction in dream recall frequency (DRF), as evaluated by retrospective questionnaires, has been found in older adults (18)(19)(20)(21)(22). However, this finding has been confuted by a longitudinal study (23) and a decrease of DRF has also been found in middle-adulthood (28-38 years) (19,20). ...
... Albeit we did not collect the DRF for several days, the DR rate of our older sample did not differ from the DR rate of younger subjects, in contrast with the findings of a general reduction in dreaming in elderly people (18)(19)(20)(21)(22). In this respect, we have to consider that the participants were instructed before the goodnight to consider any distinct mental activity occurring during sleep as a dream and this procedure could increase the attention on their dreams. ...
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Several findings underlined that the electrophysiological (EEG) background of the last segment of sleep before awakenings may predict the presence/absence of dream recall (DR) in young subjects. However, little is known about the EEG correlates of DR in elderly people. Only an investigation found differences between recall and non-recall conditions during NREM sleep EEG in older adults, while—surprisingly—no EEG predictor of DR was found for what concerns REM sleep. Considering REM sleep as a privileged scenario to produce mental sleep activity related to cognitive processes, our study aimed to investigate whether specific EEG topography and frequency changes during REM sleep in elderly people may predict a subsequent recall of mental sleep activity. Twenty-one healthy older volunteers (mean age 69.2 ± 6.07 SD) and 20 young adults (mean age 23.4 ± 2.76 SD) were recorded for one night from 19 scalp derivations. Dreams were collected upon morning awakenings from REM sleep. EEG signals of the last 5 min were analyzed by the Better OSCillation algorithm to detect the peaks of oscillatory activity in both groups. Statistical comparisons revealed that older as well as young individuals recall their dream experience when the last segment of REM sleep is characterized by frontal theta oscillations. No Recall (Recall vs. Non-Recall) × Age (Young vs. Older) interaction was found. This result replicated the previous evidence in healthy young subjects, as shown in within- and between-subjects design. The findings are completely original for older individuals, demonstrating that theta oscillations are crucial for the retrieval of dreaming also in this population. Furthermore, our results did not confirm a greater presence of the theta activity in healthy aging. Conversely, we found a greater amount of rhythmic theta and alpha activity in young than older participants. It is worth noting that the theta oscillations detected are related to cognitive functioning. We emphasize the notion that the oscillatory theta activity should be distinguished from the non-rhythmic theta activity identified in relation to other phenomena such as (a) sleepiness and hypoarousal conditions during the waking state and (b) cortical slowing, considered as an EEG alteration in clinical samples.
... As of yet, there are also very few studies on dream recall in older adults. There are some reports of a general reduction in dream recall frequency, as evaluated by retrospective questionnaires (Funkhouser, Hirsbrunner, Cornu, & Bahro, 1999;Giambra, Jung, & Grodsky, 1996;Nielsen, 2012;Waterman, 1991;Zanasi, De Peris, Caporali, & Siracusano, 2005), although this finding has not been confirmed by a recent longitudinal study (Schredl & G€ oritz, 2015). A decrease of dream recall frequency has also been reported in middle adulthood (28-38 years) (Giambra et al., 1996;Nielsen, 2012). ...
... Further research is required to determine whether it is a specific lockdown region or a low-risk region that effects this theme, however, this common theme corresponded relatively well to the existing literature of dream themes of elderly. Elderly people dreamed that someone who had died was still around, along with sadness (Belicki et al., 2003;Coolidge & Fish, 1984;Funkhouser et al., 1999). From a perspective of Jungian psychology, COVID-19 is a collective shadow cast upon the human race, and the traumatic events experienced by each individual will be activated by this collective shadow, however, dreams can provide a transitional space to connect the sad past and unpredictable future (Bryon, 2021). ...
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This study aimed at investigating the dream themes of Chinese elderly people during COVID-19 and its relationship with death anxiety. In this study, 264 participants from four cities in different regions of China were interviewed through one-on-one interviews. Nielsen's Typical Dream Questionnaire (TDQ) and Death Anxiety Scale (DAS) were also administered. The dream recall rate of the elderly was 48.48%; there were differences in TDQ35 and TDQ1 between the experimental group (EG) and control group (CG); the most common emotion in elderly people's dreams was fear; TDQ21 (flood) and TDQ28 (see Yourself Die) were two higher frequent dream themes in the high death anxiety group. The results support the dream continuity hypothesis and threat simulation theory (TST), dreams may help coping with death anxiety, and future research directions are also suggested.
... An increase in dream recall (and in nightmares, single-variable analyses) was more likely to be reported by older adolescents. This is consistent with other findings: whereas dream recall frequency decreases with advancing age in adults (Funkhouser et al., 1999;Guénole et al., 2010;Nielsen, 2012;Schredl and Göritz, 2015;Mangiaruga et al., 2018), an increase during adolescence was found (Nielsen, 2012). Unfortunately, we did not assess the dream recall frequency in our sample. ...
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According to the continuity hypothesis of dreaming and contemporary psychodynamic approaches, dreams reflect waking life. The aim of the present study was to explore the relationship between the COVID-19 pandemic and dreaming in adolescents. A cross-sectional survey was conducted in Italy, Romania and Croatia involving 2,105 secondary school students (69% girls, mean age 15.6 ± 2.1 years; 31% boys, mean age 15.1 ± 2.2 years; mean age of whole sample 15.4 ± 2.1 years). No substantial differences between countries were found. Thirty-one percent of the participants reported heightened dream recall, 18% noticed an increase in nightmares during the lockdown, and 15% of the provided dreams (n = 498) included pandemic-related content. The results indicate that subjective emotional reactions to lockdown had a significantly higher correlation to dreaming than objective distress (i.e., illness or death of a close one because of COVID-19). These findings suggest that attention to dreams should be included in preventive programs for adolescents with pandemic-related stress.
... The transition from middle age to old age suggests that archetypal imagery brought by dreams may be symbolized and integrated into the person's conscious life (Moody, 2011;Sawin et al., 2014). There is evidence that the dream content of older adults frequently refers to their early lives (Zanasi et al., 2005) and that older people who pay attention to their dreams seem to have improved dream recall (Funkhouser et al., 1999). ...
Article
Objective To synthesize evidence related to aspects of the development of older adults in qualitative studies that have analytical psychology as a reference. Methods we conducted a systematic review of qualitative findings following a meta-aggregation approach. Bibliographic databases PsycINFO, Pubmed (Medline), Web of Science, Scopus and LILACS were searched. Original research articles that fitted our selection criteria were selected. Two reviewers independently appraised the quality of the included studies, extracted the data, and aggregated it into a set of synthesized findings. Results five studies fulfilled the inclusion criteria. Our meta-aggregation identified six synthesized findings: i) accessing the unconscious of older people with dementia; ii) contacting past experiences and emotions; iii) working with dreams; iv) facing mortality; v) individuation process in old age and vi) particularities of psychotherapeutic work with older people. Conclusions older adults benefit from Jungian-based psychotherapeutic interventions. Those techniques may help them cope with the developmental challenges of aging and enhance their well-being. Jungian thinking may contribute to a positive understanding of aging among mental-health professionals.
... On the one hand, this reduction may be associated with cognitive deterioration and difficulties in the storage and recall of dream materials [19][20][21][22]; on the other hand, it may be related to the loss of interest in one's own mental sleep activity (i.e., dream salience) during older age [19,23,24]. However, this issue has been extensively debated since the drop in DR rate was found already during middle age [21,25], and no differences occurred between middle-aged and older adults [26]. ...
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Several findings support the activation hypothesis, positing that cortical arousal promotes dream recall (DR). However, most studies have been carried out on young participants, while the electrophysiological (EEG) correlates of DR in older people are still mostly unknown. We aimed to test the activation hypothesis on 20 elders, focusing on the Non-Rapid Eye Movement (NREM) sleep stage. All the subjects underwent polysomnography, and a dream report was collected upon their awakening from NREM sleep. Nine subjects were recallers (RECs) and 11 were non-RECs (NRECs). The delta and beta EEG activity of the last 5 min and the total NREM sleep was calculated by Fast Fourier Transform. Statistical comparisons (RECs vs. NRECs) revealed no differences in the last 5 min of sleep. Significant differences were found in the total NREM sleep: the RECs showed lower delta power over the parietal areas than the NRECs. Consistently, statistical comparisons on the activation index (delta/beta power) revealed that RECs showed a higher level of arousal in the fronto-temporal and parieto-occipital regions than NRECs. Both visual vividness and dream length are positively related to the level of activation. Overall, our results are consistent with the view that dreaming and the storage of oneiric contents depend on the level of arousal during sleep, highlighting a crucial role of the temporo-parietal-occipital zone.
... However, other studies showed that this age-related reduction in dream recall seems already reduced in first and middle adulthood [64,204,208], and no differences occurred between middle-aged and older adults [64,209]. Hence, other explanations are necessary to clarify the relationship between aging and dreaming. ...
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Sleep significantly changes across the lifespan, and several studies underline its crucial role in cognitive functioning. Similarly, mental activity during sleep tends to covary with age. This review aims to analyze the characteristics of dreaming and disturbing dreams at different age brackets. On the one hand, dreams may be considered an expression of brain maturation and cognitive development, showing relations with memory and visuo-spatial abilities. Some investigations reveal that specific electrophysiological patterns, such as frontal theta oscillations, underlie dreams during sleep, as well as episodic memories in the waking state, both in young and older adults. On the other hand, considering the role of dreaming in emotional processing and regulation, the available literature suggests that mental sleep activity could have a beneficial role when stressful events occur at different age ranges. We highlight that nightmares and bad dreams might represent an attempt to cope the adverse events, and the degrees of cognitive-brain maturation could impact on these mechanisms across the lifespan. Future investigations are necessary to clarify these relations. Clinical protocols could be designed to improve cognitive functioning and emotional regulation by modifying the dream contents or the ability to recall/non-recall them.
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