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The Relation Between Brand-name Linguistic Characteristics and Brand-name Memory
Abstract
Copytesting results from a commercial copytesting firm were used to assessthe relation between the presence of linguistic features in brand names and memory for those names. Brand names in the ads being tested ( n = 480) were coded on 23 linguistic properties, of which 11 occurred with sufficient frequency to be retained for analysis. Regression analyses tested for the association between linguistic properties of the brand names and brand-name memory as a function ofbrand-name familiarity,controlling forexecutionalvariables.Resultsrevealed thatthree linguistic variableswerepositively related to brand-name memory (semantic appositeness, paranomasia, initial plosives), but only for less familiar brands. Two linguistic variablesshowed main effectsfor brand-name memory: unusual spelling (positive) and blending (negative). However, the effects for unusual spelling and blending were also qualified by the same interaction with familiarity: The effects were stronger for less familiar brands than they were for more familiar brands. These results are interpreted within Craik and Lockhart's (1972) depth of processing framework and implications for the naming of brands are discussed.
... non-possessive) brand name leads to greater brand preferences for less familiar brands. In doing so, we extend prior work that shows the impact of linguistic cues in brand names (e.g., phonetic symbolism [Yorkston & Menon, 2004]; semantic appositeness [Lowrey et al., 2003]; personal pronouns [Kachersky & Palermo, 2013]) on preferences for less familiar brands, where consumers have not yet formed attitudes toward the brand. ...
... Our third contribution is to identify several theoretically and managerially relevant moderators: consumers' familiarity with a brand, consumers' desire to relinquish control, cocreation context, and brand longevity. First, we demonstrate that the effect occurs for consumers less familiar with a brand because these consumers are more likely to rely on heuristics in forming their brand impressions (Lowrey et al., 2003). Second, our core effect applies only for consumers high in desire to relinquish control due to their preference to give control over their life situations to others (Gebhardt & Brosschot, 2002). ...
... In contrast, the positive effect of brand-name possessiveness should manifest among consumers who are less familiar with the brand because such consumers have not yet developed well-established brand associations (e.g., toward such brands as Jon Robert's Salon, Emily's Place Coffee Shoppe, Lidia's Marinara). This is because consumers with low prior brand familiarity tend to rely on heuristics and are influenced by subtle cues, including linguistic structures (Alba & Hutchinson, 1987;Lowrey et al., 2003). Indeed, linguistic variations in brand names (such as phonetic symbolism [Yorkston & Menon, 2004]; semantic appositeness [Lowrey et al., 2003]) play the most prominent role in impacting preferences of consumers less familiar with the brand. ...
Marketers frequently use individual names as part of their brand-naming strategy. This research investigates how the use of a possessive (indicated by an apostrophe -s) versus non-possessive form in a brand name (Mrs. Smith’s vs. Mrs. Smith) affects consumer brand preferences and choice for less familiar brands. Building on the theory of possessions, this work demonstrates that consumers infer a brand as being under control of an owner implied in a possessive brand name. Eight studies using real-world data and field and lab experiments show that this inference results in enhanced brand purchase intentions and money spent on a brand’s product. This research also establishes that the focal effect occurs for consumers less familiar with the brand and for those with high desire to relinquish control. The core effect reverses in co-creation contexts because this process enhances consumers’ own desire for control and thus conflicts with the inferred sense of an owner’s control over the brand. Additionally, the current work shows that the positive effect of brand-name possessiveness applies only when no brand longevity information is mentioned; the effect is attenuated when brand longevity is communicated, because older brands are generally seen as largely in control of their performance. Beyond informing theory on the effects of a possessive form in brand names, the findings aid marketers in identifying specific marketplace outcomes for possessive-form brand-naming strategies.
... Brand name is one of the most powerful assets of any brand. Consultants use four types of linguistic devices to create memorable brand names (Lowrey, Shrum, & Dubitsky, 2003; McNeel, 2017) -phonetic (e.g., repetition of sounds as in Coca-Cola), semantic (e.g., the name 'Lights out' for sleeping pills is suggestive of a good night's sleep), morphological (e.g., compound words such as 'Nutri-grain', 'Jelly-Belly') and orthographic (e.g., misspelled or vowel-less words such as BLVD ice cream) (McNeel, 2017). While discussion on the semantic, phonetic, and morphological linguistic practice is out of the scope of this paper, research on the orthographic methods, has often emphasized the importance of vowels in brand names (Lowrey et al., 2003;McNeel, 2017;Whissell, 2001). ...
... Consultants use four types of linguistic devices to create memorable brand names (Lowrey, Shrum, & Dubitsky, 2003; McNeel, 2017) -phonetic (e.g., repetition of sounds as in Coca-Cola), semantic (e.g., the name 'Lights out' for sleeping pills is suggestive of a good night's sleep), morphological (e.g., compound words such as 'Nutri-grain', 'Jelly-Belly') and orthographic (e.g., misspelled or vowel-less words such as BLVD ice cream) (McNeel, 2017). While discussion on the semantic, phonetic, and morphological linguistic practice is out of the scope of this paper, research on the orthographic methods, has often emphasized the importance of vowels in brand names (Lowrey et al., 2003;McNeel, 2017;Whissell, 2001). ...
... It is likely that the vowel-less (or unusually spelled) brand names (e.g., Srsly) attract attention and are considered informal/casual, and therefore enhance a brand's recall (and at the same time save space/characters in the social media platforms). However, there is evidence to suggest that such names increase the cognitive effort and inhibit fluency (Lowrey et al., 2003;McNeel, 2017;Pogacar, Shrum, & Lowrey, 2018), leading to undesirable outcomes (e.g., negative brand image, dislike) and a reduced cross-modal congruency (McNeel, 2017;Pogacar et al., 2018). Not only brands, even people who have unconventionally spelled names [e.g., Diane (conventional) vs. Dyan (unconventional)] are perceived to be less ethical, less popular, less funny, and less successful (Mehrabian & Piercy, 1993). ...
In recent years, a new trend has emerged where a growing number of firms have
started using brand names without the vowels (e.g., Tumblr, Qzzr). However, to date research has not investigated how consumers evaluate such brand names. The current study aimed to explore the perception of vowel-less brand names among consumers. Across two studies, participants evaluated fictitious brand names of food products with and without the vowels (e.g., Ringner vs. Rngnr) on a number of attributes. Study 1 investigated the brand personality traits and Study 2 tested the fictitious brand names on traits specific to food brands (e.g., taste, healthfulness). The results of Study 1 demonstrate that brands with vowel-less (vs. voweled) names are perceived as more rugged whereas those with voweled (vs. vowel-less) brand names are perceived as more sincere, competent and sophisticated. The results of Study 2 demonstrate that food brands with vowel-less (vs. voweled) brand names are rated significantly lower in attributes of taste expectation, quality, expensiveness, willingness-to-pay, and healthfulness. Together, these findings reveal how the new trend of vowel-less brand names may influence consumers, especially in the context of food brands.
... It is a complex task that needs to be addressed with much consideration as choosing the "right" name may have a substantial effect on marketing related variables of recall, preference, and inference. (Preziosi & Coane, 2017;Lowrey, Shrum & Dubitsky, 2003). Any brand name is a form of linguistically coded marketing communication and as such is typically expected to deliver a twofold result: to carry on some salient information about the product and to trigger recall (Preziosi & Coane, 2017). ...
Background: The present study was designed to investigate the use of sound symbolic mappings in fictitious brand names. Sound symbolic mappings refer to the existence of a nonarbitrary relationship between individual sounds and associations of different attributes and concepts. Given that sounds have inherent meaning in them, brand names in line with the established symbolic effects could communicate tailored messages that are congruent with consumer expectations of a product. Purpose: As perceived congruency between a product and its label is highly desirable in marketing, the study sets out to test the noted effects in brand names. It was aimed to confirm the strength of sound symbolic effects through greater preference for names with a symbolic fit with the product. Study design/methodology/approach: Two product categories were chosen, and a set of fictitious brand names were created. The names differed only on the sounds purported to convey targeted symbolic associations of salient product characteristics. The participants were presented with a forced choice task consisting of paired name samples and a stated product category for each pair. Finding/conclusions: The results confirmed the presence of sound symbolic effects as participants favoured the names with embedded symbolism. This leads to a conclusion that sound symbolism may be used to affect consumer choices based on brand name preference. Limitations/future research: Even though the study included only two products and used forced choice tasks limited on name pairs, the findings clearly imply the potential of sound symbolic mappings in creating efficient brand names. Broadening the research to other products and the service sector would surely deliver intriguing results.
... Second, we deepen understanding around language and consumer behavior. Researchers have long been interested in this area (Lowrey and Shrum 2007;Lowrey, Shrum, and Dubitsky 2003), and recent work has begun to explore novel and exciting directions (Pogacar, Shrum, and Lowrey 2018), including gender (DeFranza, Mishra, and Mishra 2020;Mishra et al. 2019;Pogacar et al. 2021). We contribute to this emerging work, showcasing how natural language tools can deepen insight. ...
Cultural items like songs have an important impact in creating and reinforcing stereotypes, biases, and discrimination. But the actual nature of such items is often less transparent. Take songs, for example. Are lyrics biased against women? And how have any such biases changed over time? Natural language processing of a quarter of a million songs over 50 years quantifies misogyny. Women are less likely to be associated with desirable traits (i.e., competence), and while this bias has decreased, it persists. Ancillary analyses further suggest that song lyrics may help drive shifts in societal stereotypes towards women, and that lyrical shifts are driven by male artists (as female artists were less biased to begin with). Overall, these results shed light on cultural evolution, subtle measures of bias and discrimination, and how natural language processing and machine learning can provide deeper insight into stereotypes and cultural change.
... In subsidiary analyses following those on memory, phonetic features were found to influence memory such that Pole 1 phonemes were retrieved at three times the rate of Pole 2 phonemes. This finding may seem to contradict previous results asserting that plosives increase memorability (Lowrey et al., 2003). However, considering that Pole 1 (resp., Pole 2) also includes front vowels (resp., back vowels) in addition to fricatives (resp., plosives), the present finding, together with previous literature, suggests that vowels or voiceless/voiced distinction may play a more significant role in enhancing brand memory than do fricative/plosive distinction. ...
A growing body of research testifies that humans naturally deduce certain images from auditory cues as they do from visual cues. In the context of branding, this paper bridges two streams of research to reveal how the interplay between the auditory and visual images embedded in brand identities influences consumer response. Study participants were exposed to brand logotypes whose brand name and typography either agree or disagree in the images they convey. The results revealed that audiovisual image congruence in brand identity leads to increased brand appeal and quality perception as well as memory. In addition, the effect of auditory images and that of visual images were found to equally influence associative mappings such that neither dominates the other. These findings provide an evidential ground to reason and further explore how business enterprises may effectively communicate their brand images through multisensory channels by providing guidance in the intuitive decision-making process involved in brand naming and visual identity development.
The present paper discusses the role of linguistics in marketing while communicating the brand story framed as a marketing content. Since the very primary origination of marketing, linguistics has taken a hand-in-hand approach with marketing leading to pre-defined gains of its strategic objectives. The paper attempts to display branding in creating a unique name and image for a product in the consumers’ mind, to showcase the heavy reliance of branding on language with its implicitly strategic influence on the customer’s perception, memory, attitudes and behaviour. In today’s global markets, in which companies seek to reach geographically and culturally distant groups of consumers, brand-naming processes require even greater attention than in the past.
This research aims at analyzing word-formation processes in Phayao Learning City brand names. There are 44 names found under the Phayao Learning City project. Morphological processes of word-formation of Plag (2003) andYule (2006) were applied to analyze the data. Frequency and percentage were calculated upon word-formation processes of the brand names. Then the explanation of word-formation processes was described. The results showed that the most used word-formation process is compounding for 54.55%,and mixed-method, sound analogy, abbreviation,and vowel adding were found respectively. It was also revealed that sound analogy
CONNEXION Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 11(1), Article ID: 255696doi: 10.14456/connexion.2022.1and vowel adding were not in the word-formation of Plag (2003) andYule (2006). It was principally confirmed that word-formation processes in Phayao Learning City brand names is unquestionably reflects social and cultural of Phayao learning city area.
A logo is an important part of brand image and a key visual element that has an impact on cognitive, emotional and behavioural reactions. This article examines how often tourists consciously pay attention to the logos of online travel agencies and brand name types in the context of their demographic characteristics and tourism behaviour. There were a total of 170 participants in the study. Empirical data was collected using two research techniques: a survey questionnaire and click tracking. Data analysis was carried out in two stages. In the first stage, it was assessed whether there is a relationship between the demographic characteristics and tourism behaviour of the respondents and their perception of the logos of online travel agencies. In the second stage, correspondence analysis (CA) was performed to obtain information on the relationship between the frequency with which the respondents pay attention to logos and their preferred type of logo. The study showed that the frequency with which the respondents pay attention to the logos of online travel agencies varies with their education, tourism expenditure, and the number of tourism trips they make in a year. The perception of logos as regards the type of brand name they include varies depending on the frequency of tourism trips and the preferred type of travel arrangements. This study provides important guidance on the design of logos and visual communication strategies, thus helping to facilitate the brand value creation process.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to conceptualise and provide a future research agenda for (in)congruence regarding cues between products, brands and atmospheres.
Design/methodology/approach
A semi-systematic literature review was conducted. The aim was to assess, critique and synthesise (in)congruence, which was found in the literature to be dispersed and interdisciplinary, and to propose a theoretical framework in the marketing domain.
Findings
Firstly, the review reveals that sensory and semantic cues are interrelated in products, brands and atmospheres. It illustrates that these cues are the foundation for (in)congruence. Secondly, the findings show various theoretical foundations for (in)congruence. These explain where and how congruence occurs. Lastly, a theoretical framework for (in)congruence and a future research agenda were developed to stimulate further research.
Research limitations/implications
A theoretical framework was developed to enrich the theoretical knowledge and understanding of (in)congruence in the marketing domain.
Practical implications
The review reveals that products, brands and atmospheres have spillover effects. Managers are advised to understand the semantic meaning carried by cues to foster various outcomes, to estimate the trade-offs when modifying (in)congruent cues for products, brands and atmospheres.
Originality/value
The developed theoretical framework advances and deepens the knowledge of (in)congruence in the marketing domain by moving beyond the match and fit between two entities and by revealing the underlying mechanism and its outcomes.
In 2 studies, the authors examined whether or not G. Mandler's (1982) schema congruity theory would explain students' evaluations of new products purportedly introduced by companies with established brand names that were congruent, moderately incongruent, or extremely incongruent in relationship to the product. Consistent with this theory, results showed that products associated with moderately incongruent brand names were preferred over ones that were associated with either congruent or extremely incongruent brand names. Results suggest that this finding may be mediated by students' greater elaboration of the incongruent brand name and related information and by the process of resolving incongruity.
The authors report the results of a laboratory experiment examining the effects of the meaningfulness of brand names on recall of advertising. The findings indicate that a brand name explicitly conveying a product benefit (e.g., PicturePerfect televisions) leads to higher recall of an advertised benefit claim consistent in meaning with the brand name compared with a nonsuggestive brand name (e.g., Emporium televisions). Conversely, a suggestive brand name leads to lower recall of a subsequently advertised benefit claim unrelated in product meaning (e.g., superior sound) compared with a nonsuggestive brand name. The authors discuss implications of these findings for marketers with respect to advertising strategies and the optimal use of meaningful brand names in building and managing brand equity.
Two experiments were conducted to investigate the mnemonic activity of young children and its relationships to the materials to be memorized. Thirty preschoolers were asked to remember one of the two kinds of 10-word list. The subjects who heard the 10 words in the form of onomatopoeias performed better in both free recall and recognition tasks than those who heard them in the form of ordinary common nouns, which was interpreted to indicate that an onomatopoeia might be associated with the more concrete image compared with an ordinary common noun. Another 30 children of the same age were required to arouse either an auditory or visual image of a particular referent as each word of the same 10-word list was presented, instead of being told to remember. These incidental learning conditions turned out to be superior to the intentional memory condition, suggesting that it was more effective for young children to develop some kinds of imagery of each referent than to be asked just to remember individual words.
Two experiments investigated the role of the imagery-evoking (I) value of words in the recall of the contents of a passage of connected prose. In Experiment 1, Ss studied a passage into which either high- or low-I adjectives had been inserted. They were first asked to recall the nouns and then, given the nouns, to recall the adjectives. Significantly more high-I than low-I adjectives were recalled, but the nouns qualified by high-I adjectives were no more frequently recalled than those qualified by low-I adjectives. In Experiment 2, I ratings of the nouns in the passage were obtained both in their context in the passage and independently as a list. Both sets of ratings correlated significantly with the recall of the nouns in Experiment 1, the correlation being significantly higher for the rating in context.