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A Guide to Methodology Procedures for Measuring Subjective Impressions in Lighting
Abstract
A major objective of IERI Project 92 has been the development of a research methodology for studying psychological and related subjective effects of illumination. In this sense, the study has made note of two aspects of human behavior that might be influenced, to some extent, by spatial illumination: (1) the effect of light on subject impression and attitude; and (2) the effect of light on performance and overt behavior. The former effects (subjective impressions) appear to involve a recognition of cues or patterns—and these can be studied by scaling procedures. The latter effects (overt behavior, such as seat or path selection, posture, social behavior, participation in activities, etc.) sometimes involve actions taken in response to the cues and patterns—and these can be studied by mapping procedures. This report will focus specifically on scaling procedures for studying subjective impressions. The intention is to propose a somewhat standardized series of test procedures—so that work by various researchers can be compared, and otherwise contribute to a common base of knowledge and information on the subject.
... Die analyse dieser 34 skalierungen führte zur Bestimmung der relevanten Kategorien der impression einer szene nach flynn[22] (s. tabelle 6).flynn[22] führte eine multidimensionale analyse der visuellen skalierungen durch, um die lichttechnischen eigenschaften zur Beurteilung der Ähnlichkeit und der Differenzen zu etablieren und fand die folgenden drei grundlegenden Merkmale heraus:Zur Mitte der 1980er Jahre führte die arbeitsgruppe von rowlands und Loe umfangreiche experimente mit 18 Lichtsituationen in einem Büroraum durch[23] und ermittelte für die Wahrnehmung des raumes zwei Dimensionen, »Helligkeit« und »Interessantheitsgrad«. ...
... Die analyse dieser 34 skalierungen führte zur Bestimmung der relevanten Kategorien der impression einer szene nach flynn[22] (s. tabelle 6).flynn[22] führte eine multidimensionale analyse der visuellen skalierungen durch, um die lichttechnischen eigenschaften zur Beurteilung der Ähnlichkeit und der Differenzen zu etablieren und fand die folgenden drei grundlegenden Merkmale heraus:Zur Mitte der 1980er Jahre führte die arbeitsgruppe von rowlands und Loe umfangreiche experimente mit 18 Lichtsituationen in einem Büroraum durch[23] und ermittelte für die Wahrnehmung des raumes zwei Dimensionen, »Helligkeit« und »Interessantheitsgrad«. Letzteres hing mit dem Vorhandensein der inhomogenität der Lichtverteilungen im raum zusammen. ...
... Letzteres hing mit dem Vorhandensein der inhomogenität der Lichtverteilungen im raum zusammen. Diese ergebnisse sind somit ein teil der drei Komponenten von flynn[22]. Die helligkeit und die Lichtverteilung (gleichmäßig/ungleichmäßig) sind die Kernmerkmale dieser beiden renommierten forschungsgruppen der damaligen Zeit. in 1998 führten Veitch und newsham experimente zur Beurteilung der raumerscheinung mit 292 testpersonen und mit neun Lichtsystemen anhand von 27 semantischen skalierungen durch[24]. als wichtigste Merkmale zur Beschreibung des eindrucks über die raumerscheinung erfolgten die sog. ...
Während sich die Ingenieure in der Gebäude- und Lichtindustrie mit lichttechnischen Systemen beschäftigen, setzen sich die Lichtforschung und Neurowissenschaft zunehmend mit der experimentellen Ermittlung der optimalen lichttechnischen Kenngrößen sowie mit physio-psychologischen Aspekten der Beleuchtung auseinander. Im Rahmen eines dreiteiligen Fachbeitrags gehen die Autoren der TU Darmstadt auf verschiedene Kriterien der Lichtqualität ein und stellen eine einheitliche und wissenschaftlich begründete Darstellung der optimalen Licht und Farbwerte für die humanzentrierte Innenraumbeleuchtung vor.
... Along with physical management of objective factors in outdoor lit environments, the human perception and reactions to the environmental lighting need to be also considered from a human-centric design perspective [25,26]. Flynn et al. [27] published a research report on the Illuminating Engineering Research Institute (IERI) Project 92, providing procedures for evaluating the subjective impression in lighting. According to their suggestion, two aspects of human behaviors should be answered in the effects on spatial illumination: the light effects on subject impression and attitude, as well as on performances and overt behaviors. ...
... Various lighting research focused on outdoor lighting environments has assessed different subjective aspects of lit environments, including perceived quality [27], visual comfort [28,29], and psychological impression [27,29]. Flynn et al. [27] listed several rating scales that have been discovered to discern between lighted spaces in measuring perceived qualities referring to visual clarity, spaciousness, evaluative responses, social prominence, complexity, spatial modifiers, etc. Shikakura and Kikuchi [30] classified the subjective impression of outdoor lighting into three groups: brightness, comfort, and uniformity. ...
... Various lighting research focused on outdoor lighting environments has assessed different subjective aspects of lit environments, including perceived quality [27], visual comfort [28,29], and psychological impression [27,29]. Flynn et al. [27] listed several rating scales that have been discovered to discern between lighted spaces in measuring perceived qualities referring to visual clarity, spaciousness, evaluative responses, social prominence, complexity, spatial modifiers, etc. Shikakura and Kikuchi [30] classified the subjective impression of outdoor lighting into three groups: brightness, comfort, and uniformity. ...
Green areas and parks are increasingly important in improving citizens’ physical and mental recovery. Lighting systems play a considerable role in affecting city park life and activities along with people’s moods and behavior in the evening and at night. Immersive virtual reality laboratory experiments may support urban and lighting research by providing information on the combination of lighting setup and visual context of existing or new urban parks. Gaze behaviors obtained from eye-tracking recordings and self-reported measurements using the perceived outdoor lighting quality questionnaire were used to determine the factors affecting human perception, comfort, and cognitive load, as the overall illuminance levels of the scene and correlated color temperature changes. Results pointed out that overall illuminance level and CCT significantly affect the perceived strength and comfort qualities of lighting with a dominance of the first compared with the latter when subjects were free to explore the lit environment. Low CCT and intermediate or high overall illuminance levels can improve the sense of accessibility as well as minimize the cognitive load.
... Seven articles concerning daylight involved multiple spatial functions, such as school, gallery and pavilion. Classrooms were investigated by four articles [33][34][35][36].Conference rooms [31,37,38] and stores [29,39,40] were both examined by three articles. Other spatial functions, including living rooms [41,42], concert halls [43,44] or study rooms [45], were explored by only two or one articles. ...
... Besides fixed CRI ratios, multiple CRI ratios were only compared in five papers. [29] eight designs of lighting distributions with or without luminaires in the renderings [41] three luminaire types (LED, fluorescent and halogen luminaires) x luminance vales (16 cd/m 2 , 33 cd/m 2 and 67 cd/m 2 ) x two CCT (2500 K and 5500 K) [38] six degree of focused lighting patterns [42] direct/indirect lighting of 400 lx downlight and 300 lx uplight, along with direct lighting of 700 lx downlight [57] a direct system, a direct/indirect system, a completely indirect system [58] four proportion of uplight of 0%, 12%, 23% and 60% [59] varying proportions of uplight and downlight at a ten-percent-interval from 0% to 100% Design themes [3,4] base case, best practice, best practice with switching control and dimming control [18] base case, partition washer, an angle-arm desk light, workstationspecific dimmable direct or indirect design [31,37] Overhead downlighting, peripheral wall lighting, overhead diffuse, overhead downlighting & end walls, overhead diffuse & high intensity, overhead downlighting & peripheral & overhead diffuse [45] three lighting arrangement (general lighting, wall washing and cove lighting) x two Eh (320 lx and 500 lx) [39] downlights, wall-washing and accent lighting, accent and grazing lighting, accent lighting and projection [43,44] interim lighting design, interim plus design, all lighting design and rig lighting design [46] three fixture types (fluorescent, halogens with a beam angle of 12 o and 24 o , respectively) x seven lighting arrangements ...
... Flynn and colleagues initially expanded the boundary of lighting evaluations from visual comfort to lighting impressions. Their study has confirmed the effect of artificial lights on psychological aspect and the practicability of this measurable procedure [31,37]. Consequently, a questionnaire that utilizes single or paired adjectives for participants to rate adjective degrees has become a commonly used data collection method. ...
Indoor lighting quality influences both physical and psychological aspects. Although reviews concerning lighting psychical influences continue being updated, few reviews concerning lighting psychological influences are in the literature. This paper presents a comprehensive and thorough analysis of 64 articles (1973–July 2022) regarding both artificial lighting and daylighting influences on subjective responses to lighting impressions and mood states. First, this review categorizes the methods adopted by these selected studies for collecting subjective data and identifies the lighting design parameters and measures used in these studies. Second, this review analyzes the findings on the following four aspects: 1) artificial lighting effects; 2) daylighting effects; 3) non-design variables, and 4) insignificant effects. Among the reviewed studies, there is a lack of consensus on lighting effects upon subjective lighting impressions and mood states in two aspects: significant or insignificant lighting effects as well as positive or negative influences. In addition to individual differences and experiment design, image-based simulations and sample size are two factors that require extra considerations in lighting research.
... As a research initiative to link light, human perception with the spatial quality, Flynn et. al., 1979, found that psychological procedures for rating subjective impressions and experiences can be applied usefully in lighting research and supports the theory that the experience of lighted space is, to some extent, a measurable experience. Furthermore, the findings tend to sustain the idea that lighting can be discussed and measured as a ...
... al., 1979, found that psychological procedures for rating subjective impressions and experiences can be applied usefully in lighting research and supports the theory that the experience of lighted space is, to some extent, a measurable experience. Furthermore, the findings tend to sustain the idea that lighting can be discussed and measured as a vehicle that alters the information content of the visual field and we may now be able to document how this intervention affects impressions and sensations of well-being (Flynn, et al., 1979). In this study, Flynn introduced the use of semantic differential scales to gather subjective assessments of daylight quality in terms of visual clarity, spaciousness, evaluation, relaxation, social prominence, complexity, modifying influence, and spatial modifiers (Flynn, et al., 1979). ...
... Furthermore, the findings tend to sustain the idea that lighting can be discussed and measured as a vehicle that alters the information content of the visual field and we may now be able to document how this intervention affects impressions and sensations of well-being (Flynn, et al., 1979). In this study, Flynn introduced the use of semantic differential scales to gather subjective assessments of daylight quality in terms of visual clarity, spaciousness, evaluation, relaxation, social prominence, complexity, modifying influence, and spatial modifiers (Flynn, et al., 1979). ...
Visual perception of space is influenced by the composition and behaviour of light. Daylight as a natural element creates different atmospheres in the same space through its variation of intensity, colour, and direction. It creates dynamic shadow patterns, fluctuating brightness, and contrast levels. Although the capacity to create variation - therefore contrast, is an important characteristic of daylight - it is often neglected in research, where comfort and visual performance take prominence. This is a research initiative to explore the effect of daylight variation on spatial quality and human perception. The research adopts a two-step process, where, digital images are first mapped to generate contrast diagrams, and secondly, the generated digital images form the basis for a survey utilising a seven-point semantic differential scale, to explore the relationship between daylight variability and human perception. The temporal variation of daylight is explored by diagramming spaces at selected times of the day and year. The scope of the study is limited to selected residential spaces as case studies and focuses on the manner of integrating daylight into spaces. Results show that the level of contrast correlates to the perception of ‘low contrast – high contrast’, ‘unvaried – varied’, ‘calming – exciting’, for the observer.
... That is why wide progress is seen in the research field of interiors, ambiance, services, qualities, images and behavioral intensions in different retail settings. It is also necessary for the restaurant environment [3,4,5] to increase sales and profits [6,7] by enhancing the interiors. With all the other factors of services and interiors, lighting individually plays a significant role in a dining establishment. ...
... Flynn was a twentieth-century lighting pioneer and researcher who focused on the psychological effects of lighting. Perceptional and emotional attributes which have been considered basic guidelines to measure lighting quality (Martin & Hemer, 2000), were developed by Flynn and followed and amended by Mehrabian and Russel (1974) to Arora and Singer (2006) and others [5,9] These studies have found that people's moods, emotions, productivity, and alertness are influenced by the lighting in their space. There are some contrasting studies such as some conclude the low level of light is preferred and others say bright light contributes to be preferred by people. ...
... The spotlights also centralized a table itself and highlighted table features e.g. spreadsheet, napkins, cutlery then food served [14] and the persons themselves to each other sitting on the table [5]. Both restaurants were differentiated from each other by choosing different esthetical lighting fixtures. ...
Mostly the restaurants open in evenings so the factor of lighting is very important to work on. In this study
two moderate upscale restaurants, named Lahore View Restaurant (R1) and Jasmine Restaurant (R2)are selected which
owned and designed by a single person, having similar interior, finishes, furniture, and menu.
The study aims to implement the comprehensive lighting and to use standards set for lighting in the restaurants. The study
also emphasizes to assess the impact of lighting standards on a restaurant's profit through the change in patron turnover
rate (PTOR). The previous lighting is verified according to the plan and needs of the people. The two aesthetical light
plans are implemented by the use of decorative lighting fixtures in the selected restaurants. One aesthetical light plan,
named Contemporary Light plan (CLP) is used in Lahore View Restaurant (R1) in which spotlights are combined with
rope lights. The other aesthetical light plan, named Traditional Light Plan (TLP) is used in Jasmine Restaurant (R2),
which consisted of spotlights and chandeliers. Results show that there is a significant difference in lighting before
variation and after variation regarding PTOR in the restaurants. Mean several patrons after variation (Mean=0.92,
SD=0.55) is much more than the Mean number of patrons before variation in lighting (Mean=0.27, SD=0.22). The value
of the t-test between previous lighting and designed lighting is 6.9 which also concludes that PTOR is increased when new
lighting plans are implemented. The use of lighting fixtures such as rope lighting and chandeliers significantly impact on
patrons' number to visit the restaurants. The study concluded that there is a significant positive relationship between
verified lighting plans and PTOR.
Key Words: Aesthetical, Moderate Upscale Restaurant, Patron, Turnover, Rate
... Lighting is also crucial, exclusively, in a selling environment where people come for their needs [2]. Researches [3,4,5,6] and John Flynn [6,7,8,9,10] tried to unveil the impact of interior lighting such as offices, hospitals, restaurants and also the experimentation by lighting manufacturing that how it impacts on human moods [11]. The waves coming from a place are because of light there [12] and that make to feel people about a place, situation or celebration [12]. ...
... But lighting is not given much importance in restaurants of Pakistan as an influencing aspect. The researcher tried to become part of the lighting field by trying to track the passage of Flynn, the primary investigator of light in a natural setting [7,8,9,10] and his fellow researchers [2,10,14,15,16]. Many researchers such as Ciani, Durak, Olgunturk, Yener, Guvenc, Gurcinar, Flynn, Hendrick, Spencer, Martyniuk, Kotler, Zaltman [7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 17, 18,] performed experiments with lighting but in the controlled environment. ...
... But lighting is not given much importance in restaurants of Pakistan as an influencing aspect. The researcher tried to become part of the lighting field by trying to track the passage of Flynn, the primary investigator of light in a natural setting [7,8,9,10] and his fellow researchers [2,10,14,15,16]. Many researchers such as Ciani, Durak, Olgunturk, Yener, Guvenc, Gurcinar, Flynn, Hendrick, Spencer, Martyniuk, Kotler, Zaltman [7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 17, 18,] performed experiments with lighting but in the controlled environment. ...
Urgency of assembling necessities of life, today human stood in the race of grasping things which raised the
demand for ready services like the food at the table. Beyond that he also wishes for pleasure and relaxation, dining in
restaurants is getting pace to get all above. The race also increased experimentation to expand the restaurants’ facilities,
workforce, building style, interior, dining arrangements, aesthetics, etc. but lighting is considered mainly for general or
decorative purposes. The researcher took the initiative to analyze the impact of change in lighting on customers ‘emotions in a
real situation. The previously used energy savers are altered with spotlights in two chosen upscale restaurants named Lahore
View restaurant with rope lights and Jasmine restaurant with chandeliers. The customers considered new Lighting more
focused, warm, bright, clear, concentrated, comfortable, pleasant, relaxed, satisfied, happy and excited than the previous
lighting in both restaurants. This concludes that both new lightings were considered accepted, on the bases of customers’
emotions.
Keywords restaurant, lighting, customers, emotions, upscale restaurants
... The light can distinguish the place to have a unique experience than in any other place. The pioneer of the light research, Flynn, Hendrick, Spencer, Martyniuk, investigated the impact of light on customer feelings and attitude so that light will play a role as an ambient attribute [30][31] [32]. ...
... Ayaz [6], Farooq and Ahmed [7], Farooq et al [8] Flynn et. Al [32] and [33] also concluded the similar results which supported the study that ambient light also positively impacts on customers' feelings, behavior and gratification. These results suggest that Shalimar restaurants must stress more on light levels in the interiors. ...
This study introduces an investigation into the effect of ambience on customer's gratification at the restaurants where numerous regular alterations in color, layout, light, aroma, cooling temperature, décor etc. are being done. Restaurateurs' goal is always to generate income for which they do alterations in their buildings' interiors. Relationship between customer gratification and three ambiences' features color, light and cooling is observed in two restaurants, named, Lahore View and Jasmine restaurants situated in Shalimar Tower Hotel, Lahore. A sample of 354 customers from these two restaurants was taken. The correlation coefficient between the income and dine in frequency was found to be highly significant leading to the conclusion that as income increases the dining frequency also increased. Associations between customer's satisfaction and demographic feature like income and gender were also studied, which were found statistically insignificant. To analyze the impact of ambient color, light and cooling on customer's gratification, a binary logistic regression model is applied with color, light and cooling factors as predictors. The regression was found to be highly significant with significant model parameters leading to the conclusion that color, cooling and lightning improvements can help in increasing customer's satisfaction which will eventually lead to the increase revenue generation.
... The light can distinguish the place to have a unique experience than in any other place. The pioneer of the light research, Flynn, Hendrick, Spencer, Martyniuk, investigated the impact of light on customer feelings and attitude so that light will play a role as an ambient attribute [30][31] [32]. ...
... Ayaz [6], Farooq and Ahmed [7], Farooq et al [8] Flynn et. Al [32] and [33] also concluded the similar results which supported the study that ambient light also positively impacts on customers' feelings, behavior and gratification. These results suggest that Shalimar restaurants must stress more on light levels in the interiors. ...
... In the 1960s and 1970s researchers in lighting design such as (Boyce, 1973), , (Jay, 1967), (Marsden, 1969) and John Flynn (1973Flynn ( ) (1978Flynn ( ) (1979 sought to understand the effects of lighting on spaces such as offices, hospitals and even manufacturing lighting laboratories that how it influences peoples' perceptions and emotions. ...
... Previous researches proved that non uniformity raise relaxation (Rea, 1993) (Kaufman & Christensen, 1987) (Kaufman & Haynes, 1981 (Flynn, Spencer, Martyniuk, & Hendrick, 1973) (Flynn, Hendrick, Spencer, & Martyniuk, 1979) but the results of the study showed that relaxation raised to 1.03 according to mean scale score in uni- form arrangement of fixtures. This was a new finding as the lighting fixtures were arranged in uniform horizontal panels in the restaurant. ...
... Subjective impressions of the space can be studied by semantic scale rating [39], and thus participants were asked to evaluate on a 1-5 rating scale a set of parameters that describe lighting qualities in space [37]: ...
Although there is a documented preference for daylighting over artificial electric lighting indoors, there are comparatively few investigations of behaviour and perception in indoor day-lit spaces at high latitudes during winter. We report a pilot study designed to examine the effects of static artificial lighting conditions (ALC) and dynamic daylighting conditions (DLC) on the behaviour and perception of two groups of participants. Each group (n = 9 for ALC and n = 8 for DLC) experienced one of the two conditions for three consecutive days, from sunrise to sunset. The main results of this study show the following: indoor light exposure in February in Stockholm can be maintained over 1000 lx only with daylight for most of the working day, a value similar to outdoor workers’ exposure in Scandinavia; these values can be over the recommended Melanopic Equivalent Daylight Illuminance threshold; and this exposure reduces sleepiness and increases amount of activity compared to a static artificial lighting condition. Mood and feeling of time passing are also affected, but we do not exactly know by which variable, either personal or group dynamics, view or variation of the lighting exposure. The small sample size does not support inferential statistics; however, these significant effects might be large enough to be of importance in practice. From a sustainability point of view, daylighting can benefit energy saving strategies and well-being, even in the Scandinavian winter.
... In the absence of limitations on open-ended questions regarding places, respondents answered them with various activities and impressions in indoor and outdoor places. In contrast, previous studies produced a distinctive visual impression on indoor (Flynn et al. 1979) The three images of attractive urban lighting align with the theoretical model of destination branding, which is very important to identify and differentiate tourist destinations from others (Qu, Kim, and Im 2011). Destination branding is the concept of destination image where components such as cognitive and affective images play an essential role in building and influencing the overall image of the destination image (Baloglu and McCleary 1999). ...
In recent decades places that use attractive urban lighting to attract visitors have emerged. This shows a shift in lighting, giving the impression of a place, nocturnal image, and attracting attention. The purpose of this paper is to explore places, activities, and impressions of attractive urban lighting to see its potential in improving city visuals at night. The data was collected through an online questionnaire distributed by a non-random snowball sampling method from 126 respondents. The analysis was carried out in stages, starting with content analysis and continued with correspondence analysis and hierarchical clustering. The results showed that places with attractive urban lighting could be grouped into seven categories of place, ten categories of activity, six categories of impression. Three models are formed from these themes, namely cognitive image, unique images, and affective image, which will form an overall image of attractive urban lighting as the new destination branding.
... Light not only facilitates visibility of a task; it contributes in other ways to the visual quality-esthetics-of the space. Flynn (1977) and Flynn et al. (1979) did key studies showing that light also must be seen as a form of communication, evoking a perceptual response. Light communicates subjective impressions of the environment and also provides suggestions for behaviors. ...
The developments that make entire nations (rather than just a few individuals) rich are the pivotal developments of history. These developments have occurred both in the larger social structure and within the area of economic development (standard of living).
The foundations of technological society are the following historical developments: specialization of labor; energy from machines; standardization and interchangeable parts; use of machines; mass production and mass consumption; the assembly line; computers
and computer networks. More recently, international trade has become an integral part of our modern culture.
... Environmental appraisal models aim to measure a subjective impression of an environment. Flynn's studies have been pioneering to assess the effects of light on subjective impressions of a place (Flynn, Hendrick, Spencer, & Martyniuk, 1979;Flynn et al., 1973). These studies investigated the subjective appraisal and response of six lighting configurations in interior settings using a multi-dimensional rating scale. ...
North West Europe (NWE) faces a great challenge to cut 80% of greenhouse gas emissions by 2050. To reach this target by 2050, energy efficiency is one of the main instruments defined in the Climate and Energy Roadmap of NWE (Notenboom, 2012). Energy efficiency in cities is one of the biggest challenges for the municipalities that have been struggling recently. According to European Commission (2013), standard public lighting is one of the largest consumption items for municipalities, covering up to 60% of total electricity consumption. Thus, most of the municipalities have been seeking lighting solutions for public spaces considering the environmental, economic, and social impact of lighting. As pointed out by Den Ouden and colleagues (2012), new lighting technologies have been creating a revolution in the lighting industry and urban lighting has been benefiting from this innovation. With the possibilities that LED offers and the integration of smart sensors, new solutions for urban lighting are emerging to reduce energy use by dimming down the streetlights at the right time and place, which is recognized as smart urban lighting. For instance, smart lighting systems can manipulate lighting parameters such as light level that react to external input such as the presence of a pedestrian or cyclist. For this reason, the Smart-Space Project aims to facilitate the uptake of smart urban lighting in small and mid-size municipalities to reduce energy use and CO2 emission while ensuring safety and livability throughout NWE. The Smart-Space Project brings together end-users (cities/citizens) and innovation stakeholders (research institutes, SMEs, enterprises) from the Netherlands, Belgium, France, and Ireland to develop an interoperable smart lighting platform. One of the main goals of the Smart-Space Project is to demonstrate the impact of smart lighting on energy consumption and CO2 reduction while enhancing the safety and livability of public spaces at four pilot cities (Smart Space Project). Thus, the social impact of the project needs to be investigated through the evaluation and monitoring of user experience (UX) at four pilot sites. However, there is not a validated UX evaluation method to be used for smart urban lighting yet. The goal of this PDEng project is to design a toolbox to support municipalities in the evaluation and monitoring of citizen's perspective. This toolbox is entitled the User eXperience Evaluation (UXE) Toolbox. The UXE Toolbox presents 25 tools in five categories (i.e., self-report technique, measuring body signals, information and communication technologies, statistics of official documents, and site observations) to measure 23 sub-parameters under seven parameters (i.e., acceptance, visual performance, visual comfort, perceived safety, attractiveness, liveliness, and safety) in three dimensions (i.e., attitude, perception, and behavior). It provides an excel-based tool, guidelines, and demo cases. Guidelines help municipalities to find relevant parameters and choose suitable tools. Demo cases show how the guidelines work over the use cases co-created within the Smart Space Project.
... Flynn is considered as the a pioneer in the field of studying interior lighting psychology, see (Flynn et al.,1973;Flynn,1977;Spencer,1977 andFlynn et al.,1979). He was the first to study lighting's impact on human cognition, mood, impression, and behavior. ...
ABSTRACT:The process of interior design is effectively linked with the functionand aesthetics of the space. It is also the way of turning space from a mereexpression of material and masses into living objects through which thespace user lives the story of feeling for the art of interior design.There are factors which affect the individual’s peace and comfort; theseinclude the psychological effects of light regulation, the features of thematerial, and the choice of colors (warm or cold). Because of the im-portance of illumination and colors and their vital effect in developinginterior space and controlling the psychological and physiological com-fort of the space user, this paper has been prepared to explore the roleof utilizing light and colors in interior design of Living Rooms (in Cai-ro-Egypt) in order to support and develop the design process aimingto provide psychological, environmental and visual comfort inside thespace.The model aims to set criteria for providing illumination, both naturaland artificial and also colors, together with setting bases for the interiordesign of different spaces within the living room. A descriptive analyt-ical approach is implemented through a thorough study of colors andlighting and their effective relationship within the space of living room.Fifty prospective dwellers participated in a survey using virtual realityenvironments that presented required design bases for selected colorsand lighting groups in living rooms. The aim was to measure the physi-ological and psychological effect of the selection of colors and lightingon man.
... It also has an impact on cognitive function, perceptual skills, understanding, and decision-making ability, all of which are likely to affect productivity (Lok et al., 2018;Soto Magan & Andersen, 2019). Changing the lighting in a workplace can affect workers in three ways: by altering visual capacity (Rea & Ouellette, 1991), by altering visual comfort (Wilbom & Carlsson, 1987), and by changing the perception of the conditions (Flynn et al., 1979).Visual ability has a major influence on task performance. The impact of visual comfort on mood can have an impact on health and well-being. ...
... Our biorhythms are in tune with the natural changes of light (Wetterberg 2014), marked by the alternation of day and night, light and darkness, wakefulness and sleep. According to its intensity and spectral composition, light determines our colour perception of the objects and surfaces within a space and also is able to induce specific emotional states, performances, and behaviours and activate specific cognitive skills within the perceiver (Flynn 1977;Flynn et al. 1979;Boyce 2014). ...
This article discusses the phenomenon of luminescence in the production and visualization of images from an art-practice standpoint. The theoretical argument is developed through an analysis of artistic work that explores, inserts, expands, articulates, and interrogates the internal contradictions of UV light and the transitivity of light-sensitive materials in installation contexts. This investigation explores complexities in the encounter of antagonistic concepts: the threshold phenomena between materiality and immateriality, visibility and invisibility, light and darkness, disclosure and concealment. It aims to articulate a new perspective on contemporary debates on physiological, psychological, and environmental effects of light and darkness, articulated through aesthetic experience and artistic practice. Methods for engaging in the sensation of light and darkness will be introduced and how it unfolds as experiential qualities within installation projects will be considered.
... The naming of the principal factors depends on factor loading. Highly loaded factors indicate the nature and possible name of the principal factor [47]. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was carried out to investigate the impact of different illumination levels on the appearance of paintings exhibited under CW LED lighting. ...
Light plays a crucial role for display of paintings in any exhibition. Lack of proper illumination makes the displays ineffective to the exhibition visitors. Earlier studies have argued that viewers’ preference for illumination level is usually higher than recommended level. However, these studies were based on general room illumination and viewers’ preferred illumination level for viewing paintings has not been considered. Therefore, in this study, an experiment has been designed (questionnaire on semantic differential scale, N = 30) to understand viewers’ preferred illumination level for viewing water and oil medium paintings. The findings from the experimental result are depicting that viewers prefer higher illumination level (100 lux for water-based paintings and 150 lux for oil-based paintings) than the recommended for both mediums of paintings. Also, the result is supporting that viewers’ preference for illumination level is not significantly effected by the medium of painting.
... One of the first attempts to investigate the effects of lighting on human subjective impression was conducted by Flynn et al. [4,5]. According to their studies it was suggested that peripheral and nonuniform lighting generated a pleasant and relaxing impression when compared to overhead and uniform lighting on an 'evaluative' factor. ...
This study investigated whether positive human emotion can be set as a goal through the lighting design process. The study first used a model of emotion – the circumplex model of affect – to characterise four different emotion states (liveliness, relaxation, tense and gloom). Second, five professional lighting designers were recruited and were asked to devise the concepts of each lively and relaxing workspace lit environment. A total of fifteen lighting scenarios with the intention to explore the four emotion states were configured and their emotional effect was investigated through a controlled experiment via a self-reported questionnaire with 42 participants (within-subject design). The results indicate that positive emotions of liveliness can be cued under two lighting settings and that of relaxation under three lighting settings of varying colour temperatures and light distribution. There was also a promising link between perceived atmosphere and human emotion, indicating that atmosphere could be a predictor for human emotion.
... Subjective assessment of how spatial luminance is experienced in urban space has been examined through different methods. Test subjects' experience of lighting scenarios can be assessed in a lab setting [10,23,36,37] through the use of models or visual fields in models [8,13,18,19,21,25] or simulations [29,31], in a field study/real-site tests [8,9,16,22,24] or by arranging tours with test participants to visit existing lit spaces, to evaluate the lighting [38]. For this study, we choose to set up a lab experiment to explore the findings from the preliminary field study [3] and to be able to manipulate intensity levels and ratios between light levels in two defined light zones in a controlled environment. ...
In this paper, we investigate how intensity of light in a space and ratios between light a space and in its surroundings affect perception of the atmosphere of the space, experience of co-presence and perception of the surrounding context. A preliminary field study in urban public transportation waiting areas showed, through observations and interviews, that the intensity of light influenced how participants experienced the waiting area and its urban surroundings. In this lab experiment, we investigate the perceived qualities of light levels in a controlled environment and thereby inform future field tests of light intensity and ratios in complex urban contexts. The lab setting consisted of two light zones that simulated 1) a public transportation waiting area and 2) the surrounding urban context. We surveyed thirty participants on their perceptions of six lighting scenarios with different light intensities and ratios and asked them to respond to questionnaires based on a semantic differential scale. Non-parametric data from the questionnaires were statistically analyzed. Luminance data were documented in high dynamic range (HDR) photos and luminance maps to document the light perceived by the human eye. Results revealed that participants perceived the atmosphere in the simulated waiting area as relaxed and private when luminance intensity was low. Furthermore, they perceived the lighting as harmonious and less glaring when luminance ratios between the waiting area and the surroundings were low. However, results also showed that higher intensity lighting in the surroundings increased object visibility but did not indicate that contrast influenced visibility.
... The second group assessed the illumination of the same lighting situations on the basis of the virtual visualizations generated in the Lightscape software and presented on a 19-inch computer monitor. Ten impressions between these groups were compared with the use of seven-point semantic scales, following the methodology used in [26]. The results suggested that "such images could reliably represent certain aspects of the lighting conditions in real spaces. ...
This article compares the brightness and uniformity perception of virtual corridor displayed on computer screens and under different surrounding conditions, between two groups of respondents. The computer simulations of 10 lighting scenarios in the empty corridor, diverse in terms of luminance distribution and lighting power density, were developed. The visual assessment of the lighting effects was carried out on the basis of surveys. The respondents assessed the brightness and uniformity of each plane and entire corridor for each scenario, using semantic differential scaling. Each person from the first group individually made their evaluations on the same computer screen placed in the experimental box. Each person from the second group made the assessments on different computer screens, and all respondents from this group made the evaluations in the computer room at the same time. A high convergence of the results between the groups was found in the assessments of brightness and uniformity perception for consecutive lighting situations. In 93.75% of cases, the same perception in brightness and uniformity between the group means was achieved. A high convergence of the results between the groups in the assessment of brightness and uniformity perception for the same lighting situations was also demonstrated.
... One of these is spatial contrast, which is the result of how (artificial) light is distributed in a space, creating a pattern of relative light and darkness. A pattern with great variation is considered high-contrasting or nonuniform-also referred to as "dramatic", whereas a pattern with little variation is considered low-contrasting or uniform-also referred to as "plain" (Flynn et al., 1973(Flynn et al., , 1977(Flynn et al., , 1979Govén et al., 2011;Boyce, 2014). ...
A range of artificial lighting characteristics have been found to influence our visual and cognitive capabilities, mood, motivation and/or (social) behaviour—all affecting how we (academically) perform. One such influential characteristic is spatial contrast, or the way light is distributed in space causing a pattern of light and darkness. This study looks at if and how spatial contrast influences pupil behaviour, and specifically their ability to concentrate. We first explored whether variances in pupil noise, physical activity and mood, which have been found to affect concentration, occur when exposed to either a high or a low spatial contrast in their learning environment. Preliminary data from field experiments in a primary school indicates towards decreased noise levels and improved environmental satisfaction when a high spatial contrast condition is present. This implies improved environmental circumstances to concentrate. Further research to confirm this assumption will be undertaken.
... Secondly, the impact of colour and lighting on the elicitation of spaciousness and complexity was not taken into account. Numerous studies have demonstrated the impact of colour on subjective impressions of interior environments (Flynn et al., 1979;Yildirim et al., 2011). ...
Isovist analysis has been typically applied for the study of human perception in indoor built-up spaces. Albeit predominantly in 2D, recent works have explored isovist techniques in 3D. However, 3D applications of isovist analysis simply extrapolate the assumptions of its 2D counterpart, without questioning whether these assumptions remain valid in 3D. They do not: because human perception is embodied, the perception of vertical space differs from the perception of horizontal space. We present a user study demonstrating that an embodied 3D isovist that accounts for this phenomenon (formalised based on the notion of spatial artefacts) predicts human perception of space more accurately than the generic volumetric 3D isovist, specifically with respect to spaciousness and complexity. We suggest that the embodied 3D isovist should be used for 3D analyses in which human perception is of key interest.
... Lighting determines the efficiency of visual activities [12,13] and regulates circadian-featured life processes [14,15]. It can also affect the perception of lit spaces and objects [16,17], and determine feelings, emotions, moods, and behavior [18,19]. It is also associated with the aesthetic reception of illuminated places [20,21]. ...
The common use of electric lighting in interiors has led to the need to search for user- and environmentally-friendly solutions. In this research, the impact of the luminaires and room parameters on the selected parameters of general lighting in interiors was assessed. To achieve the objective of this work, a computer simulation and statistical analysis of results were conducted. The illuminance uniformity on work plane, ceiling and wall relative illuminances, utilance, and normalized power density of lighting installations for 432 situations were analyzed in detail. The scenarios were varied in terms of room size, reflectance, lighting class, luminaire downward luminous intensity distribution, and layout. The lighting class was a factor having the highest impact on ceiling and wall illumination, utilance, and power. It was also shown that the impact of lighting class on ceiling illumination, utilance and power, was different in interiors of various sizes. The impact of reflectances and luminaire layouts on the analyzed parameters was significantly lower. The results also demonstrated that the use of different lighting classes gave the possibility of reducing the power of general lighting in interiors at a level of 30% on average. Based on the results, a classification of energy efficiency in general lighting in interiors was also proposed. Understanding the correlations between the lighting system used and the effects achieved is helpful in obtaining comfortable and efficient lighting solutions in interiors.
... Light conditions at the workplace have their impact also on health, well-being and behavior of the personnel exposed to it. Changing the luminous conditions in office can affect office workers by changing the visual capability [13], visual comfort [14], and perception of the conditions [15]. Visual capability can influence task performance greatly [16]. ...
The concept of interactive visible light communications (iVLC) is introduced and discussed in this paper.
iVLC exploits a matrix of solid-state light luminaries in multiple ways, namely providing lighting and wireless communications as well as supporting visual signaling and interaction. Every individual element of the light matrix can be exploited in multiple domains, i.e., space, time, color, intensity and data. As a result, the lighting infrastructure works a flexible platform that can be exploited in wide range of applications and use cases.
The paper discusses attractive applications of iVLC, particularly in the school of the future, health-care and office spaces. Multiple classroom tasks can be supported by iVLC, including orchestration of activities, feedback between students and teachers, dynamic grouping, etc.
... Two adjacent areas of luminance, such as a focal object and its background, can be quantified with a luminance contrast ratio. Drawing from John E. Flynn's work on the psychology of lighting (Flynn, 1973(Flynn, , 1979, Steffy ranks luminance contrasts in terms of their 'attraction power'. For example, a 2:1 focal-tobackground ratio is considered to have 'negligible' attraction power, with the effect of providing a 'barely recognizable focal' whereas a 10:1 ratio would have 'marginal' attraction power setting a 'minimum meaningful focal.' Creation of a 'strong significant centerpiece' effect, the contrast between the focal luminance and its background could approach 100:1. ...
How architects measure light is changing. Human perception of light is ostensibly the reason why spaces are illuminated, yet primary lighting guidelines used by architects measure how much light is falling on a surface, not the distribution of light to the human eye (Cuttle 2011). Recent lighting research related to human visual perception introduces new ideas that, while they challenge the status quo of lighting practice, build on decades of respected prior research. In this paper's case in point, researchers are developing new methodologies and tools to study luminance distribution in built environments (Inanici & Navvab 2006). The concept of studying luminance, or perceived light, instead of only illuminance has long been established in texts by leading lighting designers and researchers (Lam 1977, Boyce 2003, Steffy 2008). This paper aims to provide information on luminance distribution as a factor of emerging importance in the design of quality illuminated environments. To this end, it reviews the use of illuminance and luminance metrics in contemporary architectural lighting practice and research contexts, exposing the objective and subjective aspects of light that these terms measure. It finds that new tools that analyze luminance data from high dynamic range photography and digital simulation models are joined by new lighting knowledge dissemination platforms, together breaking down barriers that prevent architects from designing with luminance concepts. Examination of these research and knowledge tools reveals a shift to a cross-disciplinary, user-centered approach to architectural lighting where realities of human visual perception and surrounding physical contexts enjoy renewed attention.
... The reason for considering the distribution of light as an important element here is based on the findings from the past literature. Several studies such as 'Flynn et al. (1979) and Loe et al. (1994) suggested that lighting distribution in the field of view influences human subjective impression of a space. The use of dynamic lighting was chosen as to see whether the smart technology can be embedded in the lighting design, which was also stated in the design brief document. ...
This thesis starts by questioning the efficiency of the current basis of lighting design practice on modern workspaces. The study argues the importance of shifting the basis of guidance from the types of spaces, and activities into human psychological states in the Introduction. Both visual perceptions of the space and human emotion states are theoretically examined as a potential basis for lighting design practice. As a result, the human emotion state, ‘affect’, from the concept of the circumplex model of affect has been chosen as a better exploratory tool. Human ‘affect’ states of ‘lively’ and ‘relaxing’ were hypothesized mental states that people could benefit from in the workspace. A detailed field study, which consisted of two separate phases, was carried out to test the hypothesis. In the first phase of the field study, a group of lighting designers was invited to devise a set of lighting design concepts that explore activation and pleasantness in the circumplex model of affect with the use of smart control of lighting. Then, the thesis investigated the design elements of the lighting settings as well as their photometric and colorimetric characteristics. The result indicated that although the design elements showed particular groupings, such characteristics were not effectively expressed using the current photometric and colorimetric variables. In the second phase of the field study, 15 lighting settings in a controlled interior environment were set up based on the results of the first phase. A group of participants were invited to assess the settings by rating of their visual perceptions of the space and their emotion state. The results indicated that the settings inspired by the designers effectively affect human emotion states while providing high quality visual perceptions of the space. However, the two dimensions of human emotion, activation and pleasantness, did not provide, in detail, a statement of human emotion. Therefore, the thesis has proposed a new indicator that involved four different zones, defined by the two dimensions as an effective tool of measuring human emotional experiences from lighting. In conclusion, the thesis successfully explores the possibilities of an emotion-based lighting design approach and explains their impacts by the field experiment as well as developing and investigating the effectiveness of a new indicator of human affect. The work described in this thesis would work as a fundamental but crucial step to promote human well-being in workspaces by fulfilling various human needs and the potentials of smart lighting technologies.
... A reproducibility crisis is prevalent in most scientific displines, [106][107][108][109][110] and lighting is no exception (see Uttley 111 for a review). Many well-known findings could not be replicated, such as Kruithof's curve 112 (reviewed by Fotios 113 ) and the results of Flyn et al., 114 questioned by Veitch. 115 To overcome the reproducibility crisis and improve the scientific value of lighting research, a forthcoming special issue in Leukos provides numerous options. ...
Lighting Research & Technology (LRT) is an influential journal in the field of light and lighting dating back to 1969. To celebrate its 50th birthday, the current study explored its bibliometric characteristics and mapped the bibliographic information graphically through VOSviewer software. This analysis found that the number of papers has steadily increased during recent years. The most productive and cited country was the United Kingdom. The most productive and cited institution was Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. The most prolific author was Steve Fotios and the most cited author was Mark Rea. The journal most cited together with LRT was Leukos. LRT has become more and more international and interdisciplinary over the last five decades. Suggestions for the development of LRT are provided. Develpoments over the last 50 years have turned LRT into one of leading journals in the light and lighting field, one which has a bright future.
... Penilaian persepsi ruang openness dan spaciousness digunakan untuk mendeteksi interaksi antara warna ruang dengan pengalaman ruang diolah dari penelitian Franz (2006). List kata persepsi penilaian untuk mengukur impresi subjektif tentang pencahayaan diolah dari penelitian Flynn et al (1979). Didapat 36 kata sifat yang berlawanan, kemudian dirancang dan dibagi kedalam 9 kategori persepsi spasial. ...
p class="Abstract"> The research focused on the Virtual Reality in order to represent spatial perception. The research object was a Virtual Reality simulation of Main Chapel at The Church of Light. There was 9 spatial perception category to describe Main Chapel at The Church of Light that founded from literature study. The research used a virtual reality simulation and a semantic differential questionnaire. There are 40 students joined the research. They divided into 2 groups of architectural background groups and non-architectural background groups. They join the virtual reality simulation then tested with a semantic differential questionnaire. The research concluded with the effectiveness of Virtual Reality. The spatial perception of the main chapel at The Church o f Light can be represented using Virtual Reality simulation. According to 7 spatial perception category that is represented, Virtual Reality can be categorized as an effective medium to representing spatial perception . Moreover, anal yze results to6 pairs word that relate to 2 perception category that not in accordance with the literature study, specifically to the darkness and detail of the object. This could happen because of a lack of quality in Virtual Reality simulation product. The lack that produced from the low contrast effect and unmatched material reflection or miss match with the real condition.
Keywords : Spatial Perception, Main Chapel Of The Church of Light Virtual Reality Simulation, Semantic Differential. </p
... Given that similarity, the lists of perceptual attributes devised by Beranek 55 and Barron 56 served as a basis for the selection of the subjective attributes studied. The selection was, however, made with reference to the classic visual language used by Flynn 25,57 and Flynn et al. 24,58,59 To make a rational and systematic selection, three steps were followed: (i) identify relevant acoustics vocabularies; (ii) translate the vocabularies into visual language; and (iii) justify the selection by referring to the design principles of stage lighting. ...
This paper presents experimental approaches for evaluating concert lighting from the viewpoints of audience members and performers in Cambridge King's College Chapel. We develop image zoning and abstraction techniques to quantify and interpret photometric data acquired under four different electric lighting conditions. Assessed by 78 participants, these lighting scenarios are compared across six different viewing positions using a set of structured questionnaires. Ordered logistic regression modelling shows that the ratios and functions describing uniformity, brightness and light patterns are common explanatory variables for predicting perceived visual clarity, visual uniformity, brightness and spatial intimacy. Uniformity-related attributes are observed to be among the strongest variables for all these perceived qualities, except for visual clarity, which is better explained by acuity-related measures. These experimental results confirm the applicability of our approaches, highlighting the importance of combining multiple methods and integrating complex architectural situations into the process of understanding luminous appearance.
... In lighting research, semantic differential scales are widely used in subjective evaluation. 35,36 In this study, the perceptual attributes, emotional attributes and overall satisfaction ratings all used this evaluation method, and seven-point semantic differential scales (from À3 to 3) were used. Moreover, by using the adjective pairs shown in Table 3, the subjects expressed their impressions of the scenes and lighting environments. ...
In the study of lighting, as the construction of a physical test room is costly and time-consuming, researchers have been actively looking for alternative media to present physical environments. Virtual reality, photo and video are the most commonly used approaches in the lighting community, and they have all been used by researchers around the world. Most such studies have been conducted without discussing what gives the subjects a better sense of realism, presence, etc., and which type of media is closer to the ideal, the physical lighting environment. In this paper, we aim to select the optimal alternative media that can present physical lighting environments. We compare a human’s subjective feeling towards a physical lighting environment and three alternative reproduction technologies, namely, virtual reality reproduction, video reproduction and photographic reproduction. We also discuss the feasibility of using virtual reality in representing lighting environments. The selection of the most optimal media is based on the perceptual attributes of lighted space, and the findings are only related to these criteria. The main results of this study are the following:
(a) The order of the overall presentation-ability of the media is physical space > virtual reality reproductions > video reproductions > photo reproductions.
(b) In terms of subjective rating, virtual reality lighting environments are rated closest to the physical lighting environments, and the order of the approximate coefficient of the media is physical space (1) > VR reproductions (0.886) > video reproductions (0.752) > photo reproductions (0.679).
(c) Virtual reality can present lighting attributes of open/close, diffuse/glaring, bright/dim and noisy/quiet consistent with the physical environment.
(d) Human subjects are most satisfied with VR reproductions.
... However, visual comfort can be influenced by other aspects of lighting (e.g., flicker), and in a field setting this question may not be specific to glare. Flynn et al. (1979) provide a series of semantic differential scales to evaluate user impressions resulting from a series of lighting scenarios. Descriptive prompts such as "clarity," "order," "spaciousness," "relaxation," and "privacy" are rated by occupants to characterize their affective response to the environment. ...
Lighting is an important component of indoor environmental quality that can affect occupant satisfaction, well-being and productivity. Lighting quality is a broad abstract concept and this has implications for its assessment. Subjective evaluations of lighting are an important complement to objective photometric information; however, there is limited existing guidance for the selection of such measures. We review and highlight the advantages and limitations associated with measures of general lighting quality and discomfort glare. Existing measures of lighting quality have broad coverage of individual lighting features but do not always clearly form cohesive scales measuring an underlying construct. Questions used in experimental glare research focus narrowly on glare severity, with ambiguous response rating scales. There is a need for the development of reliable and valid tools to assess lighting quality and its components, with clearly defined definitions and constructs, and explicit reporting of psychometric scale properties. The development of rigorous self-report tools will improve the understanding and design of quality lighting environments.
... Relationship between human activities and lights is a widely studied topic in perceptual sciences [5,13,15]. Recently, it was shown by [41] that light intensifies people's perception. It triggers emotional system leading to intensified effective reactions. ...
Lighting design in indoor environments is of primary importance for at least two reasons: 1) people should perceive an adequate light; 2) an effective lighting design means consistent energy saving. We present the Invisible Light Switch (ILS) to address both aspects. ILS dynamically adjusts the room illumination level to save energy while maintaining constant the light level perception of the users. So the energy saving is invisible to them. Our proposed ILS leverages a radiosity model to estimate the light level which is perceived by a person within an indoor environment, taking into account the person position and her/his viewing frustum (head pose). ILS may therefore dim those luminaires, which are not seen by the user, resulting in an effective energy saving, especially in large open offices (where light may otherwise be ON everywhere for a single person). To quantify the system performance, we have collected a new dataset where people wear luxmeter devices while working in office rooms. The luxmeters measure the amount of light (in Lux) reaching the people gaze, which we consider a proxy to their illumination level perception. Our initial results are promising: in a room with 8 LED luminaires, the energy consumption in a day may be reduced from 18585 to 6206 watts with ILS (currently needing 1560 watts for operations). While doing so, the drop in perceived lighting decreases by just 200 lux, a value considered negligible when the original illumination level is above 1200 lux, as is normally the case in offices.
... There are a number of examples of this within lighting research. Veitch (2001) highlighted the example of guidelines for the lighting of internal spaces (Rea and IESNA 1993;see DiLaura et al. [2011] for newest edition) being based on evidence from one unreplicated study with methodological limitations (Flynn et al. 1979). Work by Kruithof published in 1941 identified combinations of illuminance and correlated color temperature that supposedly produced pleasing visual conditions for interior lighting. ...
The reporting of accurate and appropriate conclusions is an essential aspect of scientific research, and failure in this endeavor can threaten the progress of cumulative knowledge. This is highlighted by the current reproducibility crisis, and this crisis disproportionately affects fields that use behavioral research methods, as in much lighting research. A sample of general and topic-specific lighting research papers was reviewed for information about sample sizes and statistical reporting. This highlighted that lighting research is generally underpowered and, given median sample sizes, is unlikely to be able to reveal small effects. Lighting research most commonly uses parametric statistical tests, but assessment of test assumptions is rarely carried out. This risks the inappropriate use of statistical tests, potentially leading to type I and type II errors. Lighting research papers also rarely report measures of effect size, and this can hamper cumulative science and power analyses required to determine appropriate sample sizes for future research studies. Addressing the issues raised in this article related to sample sizes, statistical test assumptions, and reporting of effect sizes can improve the evidential value of lighting research.
... The impressions of a socially inclusive environment can be guided by the spatial distribution of light which carry both environmental information and social meanings to which people react in consistent ways. Lighting can influence the experience of the space regarding orientation, mood, wellbeing and social interaction (Flynn et al., 1973;1979). By changing the lighting conditions (spatial distribution, lighting levels, colour temperature), people can perceive an alteration of the space (Flynn, 1977;Flynn and Spencer, 1977): in particular, the impression of publicness derives by higher lighting levels with a more uniform distribution from overhead lighting fixtures meanwhile the impression of relaxation, from warm and nonuniform wall-lighting distribution with lower levels (Flynn, 1988). ...
The studies about the social effects of lighting describe lighting as an
important social means and an agent that can influence people emotional,
behavioural and social experiences despite cultural, social and individual
differences. A cross–cultural analysis of studies about lighting report that
higher lighting levels induce greater arousal, activating louder conversations
or a more general communication meanwhile a domestic environment with
low lighting levels influences more relaxed and intimate disclosure. Certain
lighting atmospheres are appraised as more hospitable for people, while
some patterns of lighting distributions can affect people proxemics.
In this paper, we investigate the active role of lighting in setting the social
relationships between people by providing a theoretical framework based on
an extensive literature review and by presenting the results of several
designed lighting probes. From the user confrontation through qualitative
and quantitative analysis, we reflect on the sociality of lighting that act for
social intimacy/inclusion or social exclusion, with a subtle agency on people.
... Previous studies showed that lighting can influence mood (Boubekri et al., 1991;Je;Flynn, Hendrick, Spencer, & Martyniuk, 1979;Knez, 1995), and that fractal patterns were more visually preferred (Spehar et al., 2015;Taylor et al., 2011Taylor et al., , 2017a. Our experiments expand empirical evidence regarding projected fractal light patterns and their applicability to explain preference to light and indoor space interactions. ...
The visual patterns of fractal stimuli on a computer screen and the brightness patterns of light projected onto room
surfaces have independently been shown to influence human perceptual responses. It is not clear, however, what
effect would result if the same fractal patterns were projected as light patterns on room surfaces. This paper reports on
the results of three studies investigating visual interest, visual preference, and mood responses elicited by varying
complexities of fractal light patterns projected on walls and floors of an interior space. The results suggest that fractal
light patterns of medium to medium-high complexity (quantified by the fractal dimension D=1.5-1.7) were significantly
more visually interesting than other patterns. Crucially, viewing distance did not significantly influence visual interest or
visual preference. Based on these studies, the use of medium to medium-high complexity fractal light patterns in
interior spaces may be useful for enhancing occupants’ visual interest and mood.
... More generally, traditional subjective measures of sensory phenomena [14] can provide some guidance, as can rigorous psychophysical methods for estimating thresholds and just noticeable differences [15]. ...
This study aims to culture (i.e., to cultivate and propagate) well-being via lighting installations that employ slow design, which promotes well-being by encouraging actions at the right time and right speed, helping users understand and reflect on their actions. The study involves three key ideas: first, establish the critical role of slow design in culturing well-being by deriving a framework for designing meaningful lighting installations; second, connect this framework to the physical characteristics of lighting installations by examining how meaningful interactions with these characteristics culture well-being; third, investigate how lighting installations culture well-being via the application of this framework. Lighting installations designed as part of the International Association of Lighting Designers' Light Workshops Series are qualitatively examined as case studies. The findings indicate that slow design indeed has the potential to culture well-being by strengthening the psychological attachment with lighting installations when applied with consideration.
With the need to increase total revenues, airports have begun to use commercial retail. A well-designed airport may provide great service to clients and consumers and increase their satisfaction and in turn their spending behaviours. Since there is suggestive evidence that there might be cultural associations of white, purple or black with different emotional loadings to these colours across cultures, the present study investigated passengers’ preferences for architectural design characteristics of an airport in a new cultural setting. Discrete choice modelling was used to measure the passengers’ preferences for 10 interior design characteristics of the passenger terminal using 3D renderings. Data on 435 passengers were collected at Mehrabad International Airport, which also included passengers’ emotions. Passengers in the terminal hall preferred a curved and transparent ceiling, material in warm colours, cool lighting, with low width and low height, greenery and without any decorations. When compared to other studies, it may well be that passenger preferences for lighting and certain colour schemes reflect geographical or cultural differences. For other interior design characteristics, preferences relating to the shape of the ceiling and the amount of daylight, as well as the presence of greenery, may well be reflections of passengers’ restorative needs.
Daylighting environments within higher educational buildings play an important role in students’ vision health and learning efficiency. Effective daylighting predictors can help architects and designers to create pleasant daylighting environments. This field study investigates the performance of commonly applied daylighting predictors in Nanjing. Illuminance and luminance data are measured on site. A hundred and thirteen subjective responses to visual comfort and lighting impressions are collected through an online survey. A lighting impression model composed by the affection component, the stimulation component, and the distribution component is suggested. According to the data analysis, general daylighting predictors present comparable performance to customized daylighting predictors with regard to estimations of subjective assessments. The four general daylighting predictors, horizontal illuminance, vertical illuminance, mean luminance of an entire scene, and mean luminance of the horizontal 40° band, are recommended to effectively predict individual probability of reporting daylight sufficiency, desiring to adjust lighting levels, and reporting degrees of daylighting stimulations.
Research in daylighting and electric lighting focuses on the physical quantity of light, physiological response to the physical stimuli, and the resulting visual perception. This chapter starts with an overview of the measurement and simulation-based research approaches used in understanding and quantifying the lighting availability and variability in the luminous environment. Field and laboratory measurements are discussed along with computational techniques. The rest of the chapter focuses on psychophysical research methods that aim to quantify the human physiological and psychological responses to the quantity and distribution of light.
This study evaluates daylight performance in an art museum in İstanbul, Turkey to analyse the effects of daylight design features on visitors’ satisfaction in art museums. The study is based on users’ data obtained through a survey and daylight simulation achieved by Autodesk 3D’s Max 2014. A three-part questionnaire was conducted with 100 participants in overcast- and clear-sky conditions to rate visitors’ satisfaction with the museum and their importance level of daylight design issues in museums. The museum’s daylight illuminance data were measured on a scaled model by a computer simulation program. The statistical results and simulation renderings show that daylight design is a multi-parameter task. There are statistically significant correlations between visual comfort and visitor satisfaction. The study finds two essential daylight considerations for a practical guide to promote healthy and effective daylight use in museums: (i) that certain design aspects in a museum, such as location, window size and window distance from partitions or displays, are important regardless of weather conditions and that (ii) glare prevention from openings such as windows and skylights is also a crucial aspect in visual comfort.
In lighting design, the main concept is to achieve a healthy environment, which addresses energy efficiency, cost, maintenance, and quality. User-friendly lighting systems shall be adopted to architecture and interior architecture. User control over the lighting system is important, by dimming or increasing light output, by changing the colour of the light sets the inner atmosphere and affects user mood. Standards and codes on lighting shall also be evaluated by means of these topics. The paper aims to analyse how the luminous environment is affective on the perceived environment. Hence, a series of experimental studies and recent research will be evaluated in regard to understanding and designing luminous environment.
In lighting design, the main concept is to achieve a healthy environment, which addresses energy efficiency, cost, maintenance, and quality. User-friendly lighting systems shall be adopted to architecture and interior architecture. User control over the lighting system is important, by dimming or increasing light output, by changing the colour of the light sets the inner atmosphere and affects user mood. Standards and codes on lighting shall also be evaluated by means of these topics. The paper aims to analyse how the luminous environment is affective on the perceived environment. Hence, a series of experimental studies and recent research will be evaluated in regard to understanding and designing luminous environment.
Based on the research results of the subjective influence of existing lighting environment on people, this paper establishes an experimental model of LED light environment in confined space and determines the subjective evaluation index of LED light environment affecting confined space as pleasant, spacious, privacy, glare uncomfortable, clear, relaxed, spatial lighting coordination, color authenticity, three-dimensional shape, light and dark contrast. From the weight of these 10 subjective evaluation indicators, the senses of pleasure and relaxation have a greater impact on the overall satisfaction of the lighting environment. The extensional theory is used to determine the subjective comprehensive evaluation function, and its feasibility is verified. It lays a foundation for the subsequent establishment of a comprehensive evaluation method for LED light environment quality in confined space and creates conditions.
Based on the definition of light and the characteristics of indoor environment and its function settings, this paper determines the subjective evaluation index of LED light environment affecting confined space as pleasant, spacious, privacy, glare uncomfortable, clear, relaxed, spatial lighting coordination, color authenticity, three-dimensional shape, light and dark contrast. According to the actual closed space, the objective index is selected as the illumination level. Quantitative analysis of subjective evaluation indicators and objective indicator data, the relationship between subjective evaluation indicators and objective indicators were obtained by nonlinear regression analysis. The result showed that the six subjective evaluation indexes of pleasant, spacious, clear, spatial lighting coordination, three-dimensional shape and color authenticity all increase and then decrease with the increase of illumination; that the four subjective evaluation indexes of privacy, relaxed, glare uncomfortable, light and dark contrast all decreased with the increase of illumination. The relationship between the subjective comprehensive evaluation index and the objective index determined in the paper can provide a simple and practical method for the evaluation of LED light environment quality in confined space.
Çalışmada, aydınlatma türleri ve aydınlatmada temel ilkelerin açıklanması ile kurumlarda aydınlatmaya ilişkin prensipler konusunda öngörü oluşması hedeflenmiştir. Ayrıca; aydınlatmada ışık kontrolü, yansıtma oranı, ışığın iletilmesi, göz kamaşması kontrolü, ışığın renk sıcaklığı konuları açıklanarak, işyerinde aydınlatma için temel ve stratejik bilgiler verilmiştir. İşyerinde aydınlatma ile iş kazaları ve verimlilik arasındaki ilişki değerlendirilmiş, işyerinde verimliliğin artırılması ve kazaların önlenebilmesinde doğru tasarlanmış aydınlatmanın etkili olduğu, iş sağlığı ve güvenliği açısından aydınlatmada çalışan odaklı düzenlemeye dikkat edilmesi gerektiği, aydınlatma ve iş kazasına ilişkin yapılan araştırmaların yetersiz olduğu sonuçlarına varılmıştır.
Lighting designs, both daylight and artificial light, have a major effect on creating visual comfort and room atmosphere. The Parahyangan Catholic University's architectural design studio room has its limitations in providing daylight into the room, where a lot of the literatures express the importance of daylight's role to room quality. This study aims to evaluate the lighting quality in the studio and provide lighting design recommendations to improve the user's productivity and creativity. Data were collected through observation to obtain physical room data and existing lighting design. DiaLux software is used to simulate the lighting performance. User's perception about the room quality obtained through questionnaires distributed to students. The results show that despite the below-standard illumination level, respondents are still well-rated the studio lighting quality. Visual comfort perception is higher than the room atmosphere perception. The lighting techniques, illumination levels, light colors, room reflection factors, and daylighting contribution are the factors that most affect the room quality.
The objective and subjective factors influencing human-centric lighting design and their effect on the user of the lighting system are analysed with the aim of developing a user preference model. It is discussed how to apply this user preference model in the Internet of Things network structure of luminaires in order to obtain an ‘Internet of Luminaires’ for good user acceptance. The method of a visual experiment intended to elucidate these concepts and contribute to the user preference model is described. In the experiment, subjects assessed scene brightness, visual clarity, colour preference and scene preference in a real room. Modelling equations of these attributes will be shown and discussed in Part 2 of this work. © The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers 2018.
This study is an attempt to evaluate relative subjective responses to colors of “white” light that are produced by commonly available electric light sources in interior spaces at intermediate light levels. More specifically, the study considers the spatial acceptability of several high intensity discharge (HID) source colors when compared with the more common fluorescent colors.
Although light has the obvious function of providing visibility for visual task performance, the article is concerned with the reorganization and the reevaluation of lighting priorities. This presentation argues that these revised priorities should begin with the overall user well-being, the visual quality of a room, and should not be limited to task visibility and other somewhat mechanistic arguments. For example, the use of Semantic Differential (SD) Scaling and Multi-Dimensional Scaling (MDS) provides evidence that light is a factor in a visual language or cue system.
Scaled a set of adjectives, a set of nouns, and a set of verbs applying J. Kruskal's (see pa, vol. 39:145 and 3167) multidimensional scaling method to rated dissimilarities in meaning. The same sets of concepts were unidimensionally scaled on qualities closely related to the 3 most salient semantic differential (sd) factors. The clearest finding was that semantic distance associated with judgments of dissimilarity is not euclidian. The evidence strongly suggests that in forming a dissimilarity judgment, differences are suppressed on all dimensions except the 1 that maximally discriminates the members of a concept pair. The term "maximum component distance" was coined to characterize the apparently best fitting distance model. All 3 sets of dissimilarities allowed the extraction of at least 4 dimensions. The noun and adjective dimensions predicted the sd scales rather well, but no sd scale appeared to be collinear with any dissimilarity dimension. In the case of the verbs, only the good-bad sd scale showed significant correlation with the dissimilarity dimensions. (27 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A person using statistical data finds himself beset by many uncertainties. Usually, in dealing with groups which have not been studied, he wishes to use conclusions based on the study of one group. How reliable are such conclusions? On what basis shall he choose among the various available measures of average, spread, and relationship? How large a sample shall he take and what design shall he follow in selecting his cases? Answers to such questions are considered in this book from the unified point of view of the relation of sample to population. From this point of view, the statistical problems turn out to be matters of testing hypotheses, estimation, and experimental design. Persons working with statistical data often think that their interest is only in an analysis of the data at hand. In most cases, however, further reflection shows that the interest in the data at hand is due to its bearing on situations or groups other than those actually observed. The book does not presuppose any college training in mathematics and does not present mathematical derivations of formulas. At first glance it may look more mathematical than most texts intended for the non-mathematician because of its use of probability symbolism, multiple subscripts, and the expressed limits of summation. However, the reader is given careful explanation and practice exercises related to these usages. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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We describe the numerical methods required in our approach to multi-dimensional scaling. The rationale of this approach has appeared previously.
Multidimensional scaling is the problem of representingn objects geometrically byn points, so that the interpoint distances correspond in some sense to experimental dissimilarities between objects. In just what sense distances and dissimilarities should correspond has been left rather vague in most approaches, thus leaving these approaches logically incomplete. Our fundamental hypothesis is that dissimilarities and distances are monotonically related. We define a quantitative, intuitively satisfying measure of goodness of fit to this hypothesis. Our technique of multidimensional scaling is to compute that configuration of points which optimizes the goodness of fit. A practical computer program for doing the calculations is described in a companion paper.