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Understanding Fables in First and Second Languages
Abstract
Children’s understanding of narrative fables was examined. Students learning two languages (Spanish and English) and monolingual English students in kindergarten through fifth/sixth grades were presented with modified versions of Aesop’s fables. Three tasks, each of which assessed somewhat different aspects of comprehension, were used: retelling the fables, responding to questions about the motives of the fable characters, and extracting a lesson from the fable. Bilingual program participants included students whose primary language is Spanish and students whose primary language is English. All three comprehension tasks provided evidence for transfer of prior knowledge across first and second language inputs. There was also a direct, positive relationship between performance in the first and in the second language. Comparisons with the monolingual students indicated that there was no difference in the developmental course of fable understanding. Discussion focuses on implications for instructional practices and language proficiency assessment.
... Participants—Participants were 79 typically-developing third graders (41 females, 38 males; mean age = 8.66 years) and 53 fifth graders (26 females, 27 males, mean age = 10.70 years) from two urban elementary schools serving primarily middle class students. We selected third and fifth grade students because the third graders were old enough to comprehend the study tasks and the fifth graders had reached the age in which the majority of children typically can generalize a theme from a text (Goldman et al., 1984). To represent the higher end of theme comprehension, we also recruited 36 college students (24 females, 12 males, mean age = 21.83 ...
... Certainly the poorer performance of the children relative to the college students and young and middle-aged adults, and the third graders relative to the fifth graders, concurs with other research. Children of these ages are still developing their reading comprehension skills (Goldman et al., 1984) for both types of stories, and have only just begun to amass the experience needed for handling moral and prudential issues. As for the older adults, despite the life experience they may have at their disposal, their performance on the multiple-choice and reading comprehension tasks relative to theme generation suggests that aging may negatively influence responses on these types of tasks. ...
... Theme extraction depends on experience, including specific knowledge required for interpreting story events, and the cognitive capability to hold in mind all the critical events of a story. Among children, influences include not only basic reading comprehension skills (Goldman, Reyes, & Varnhagen, 1984), but also exposure to literature (Lehr, 1988), level of achievement (Vauras, Kinnunen, Kuusela, 1994), distractibility (McKenna & Ossoff, 1998), and moral development (Narvaez et al., 1999). In particular, Narvaez and colleagues (Narvaez et al., 1998; Narvaez et al., 1999) demonstrated that children do not necessarily understand the theme of a moral story the way adults do. ...
The authors tested 3 hypotheses about the relation of moral comprehension to prudential comprehension by contrasting comprehension of themes in moral stories with comprehension of themes in prudential stories among third-grade, fifth-grade, and college students (n = 168) in Study 1, and among college students, young and middle-aged adults, and older adults (n = 96) in Study 2. In both studies, all groups were statistically significantly better at moral theme comprehension than prudential theme comprehension, suggesting that moral comprehension may develop prior to prudential comprehension. In Study 2, all groups performed equally on moral theme generation whereas both adult groups were significantly better than college students on prudential theme generation. Overall, the findings of these studies provide modest evidence that moral and prudential comprehension each develop separately, and that the latter may develop more slowly.
... Despite the progress identified between school grades, many children struggled to understand the moral lesson. Goldman, Reyes, and Varnhagen (1984) investigated bilingual and monolingual children, from Early Childhood Education to the sixth grade of Elementary School. Three tasks were given: retelling the presented fables, answering questions about the characters' intentions, and to identify the moral lesson. ...
... This distancing refers to the need to distance oneself from what is literally presented in the text, and the generality to the notion that it is necessary to extract recommendations that can be applied to situations other than the one narrated in the text. These notions are also emphasized by Goldman et al. (1984), and by Pelletier and Beatty (2015) when they mention that young children tend to respond within the context of the narrative, while the older ones respond in a decontextualized way. ...
The aim of this study was to research children's understanding of fables from a developmental perspective, seeking to identify the difficulties in relation to the moral lesson. Eighty children in the 1st and 3rd grades of Elementary School were individually asked to answer questions about a fable presented in audio format. One of the questions referred to the moral lesson. The answers to this question were analyzed qualitatively through a system of categories that expresses how children develop their understanding of the moral lesson. The data showed that the children of the 3rd grade performed better than those of the 1st grade. However, for both groups, the difficulty in understanding the moral lesson was relevant. The progression identified in the understanding of the moral lesson seems to be associated with the notion of detachment and generality in relation to what is conveyed in the text.
... One of the most fundamental assumptions underlying the efficiency of bilingual instruction is that skills and knowledge learned in L1 transfer to L2 (Goldman et al., 1984;Malakoff, 1988). Thus, a child learning about velocity in Spanish, for example, should be able to transfer this knowledge to English without having to relearn the concepts, as long as the relevant vocabulary (in The Impact of Bilinguality on the Learning of EFL 297 L2) is available. ...
... The notion of transfer of skills is supported by research in cognitive science where attempts are made to look for representational schemas for complex narratives in two languages. For example, Goldman et al. (1984) showed that bilingual children employ similar comprehension strategies when listening to Aesop's fables in two languages, providing indirect evidence that higher-order cognitive processes manifest themselves regardless of the specific language. Malakoff (1988) also found similarity in performance on analogical reasoning in French-English bilingual children in Switzerland. ...
... • Young children (kindergarten and the early grades) tend toward a very literal interpretation of stories, and their attempts to state story themes tend to be stated specifically within the story context (Lehr, 1988;Walker & Lombrozo, 2017). This is true even for highly didactic television shows aimed at young children (Mares & Acosta, 2008;McKenna & Ossoff, 1998) and for fables (Goldman, Reyes, & Varnhagen, 1984;D. F. Johnson & Goldman, 1987;Pelletier & Beatty, 2015;Walker & Lombrozo, 2017). ...
... • There appears to be rapid, but not necessarily consistent, growth in children's ability to infer general themes during the middle grades. Older children (around ages 8-10 years) are much more likely than younger children to spontaneously report the major themes of a children's television show (McKenna & Ossoff, 1998) or to extract moral lessons from fables (Chia, 1995;Goldman et al., 1984;D. F. Johnson & Goldman, 1987;Lehr, 1988). ...
One of the major goals of the English Language Arts is to teach students to read, understand, and write narratives. This report examines the ways in which the skills that support narrative develop during the school years, outlines a model of narrative as a “key practice” in which the ability to model social situations supports narrative understanding, and feeds into the ability to use stories to reflect about stories and the classes of social situations they represent. Narrative is important precisely because it helps people develop their understanding of the social world and reason about their place in it. Assessments of narrative reading and writing need to take this broader construct into account.
... Accumulating research points to differing degrees of cross-linguistic interdependence for phonological awareness, alphabetic knowledge, cognate vocabulary, oral language, spelling, word reading, fluency, and comprehension (Genesee, Geva, Dressler & Kamil, 2008;. Of particular importance to this study, a growing body of research points to the predictive relationship between L1 retelling skills and future English retelling or narrative ability (Goldman, Reyes & Varnhagen, 1984;Squires, 2014;Uccelli & Paez, 2007). Research on cross-linguistic relationships has been largely correlational, providing little clarity as to whether the relationship in performance across languages is attributed to more general underlying learning capacities or whether skill development in one language accelerates skill development in the other. ...
... Research on cross-linguistic relationships has been largely correlational, providing little clarity as to whether the relationship in performance across languages is attributed to more general underlying learning capacities or whether skill development in one language accelerates skill development in the other. However, tentative evidence pointing to the transfer of skill learning between languages is provided by studies where a) a language comprehension skill is fostered through intervention in one language but growth is observed in both languages Farver, Lonigan & Eppe, 2009) and b) the L2 language development of recent immigrants with native language ability or bilingually educated students surpasses ELLs who have had more access to L2 instruction (Cummins, 2000;Goldman et al., 1984;Gutierrez-Clellen, Simon-Cerejido & Sweet, 2012). ...
Teachers working with young ELLs at risk for literacy underachievement lack research-based practices to maximize the use of picture book read-alouds to accelerate language comprehension outcomes. This study investigated the effects of 8-22 weeks of small group, bilingual repeated read-aloud and retelling intervention, the parallel read-aloud intervention, on Vietnamese ELL kindergarteners’ retelling skills, focusing on the use of story grammar elements and language complexity and productivity. The study was conducted using a multiple-baseline single subject design with 5 subjects. Students’ growth in the overall quality of narrative retelling was assessed weekly using the Test of Narrative Retell (TNR) and their growth in language complexity was simultaneously assessed by transcribing the weekly retell samples to calculate scores for number of diverse words (NDW) and mean length of utterance (MLU) using the Systematic Analysis of Language Transcripts (SALT) software. The results supported a moderate intervention effect for overall retelling scores on the TNR and for NDW, which were maintained across most subjects after four weeks without intervention. The major implications of this study relate to differentiating instruction for young ELLs with low English oral proficiency by offering bilingual, repeated read-aloud interventions and using progress monitoring assessments to accelerate their growth with language comprehension in English.
... Researchers who have studied Spanish/English bilingual children between the ages of 8 and 13 found that these children often use code-switching and paraphrased translating (putting what they have read in English into their own words in Spanish) to make sense out of English text (Garda, 1998; Jimenez eta!., 1996). A number of researchers have reported that Spanish/English bilingual children demonstrate enhanced comprehension of English text when they are allowed to use Spanish to retell or explain what they have read in English (Garda, 1991, 1998; Goldman eta!., 1984; Jimenez et a!, 1996). ...
... have noted that because vocabulary is such an important issue for English Language Learners, teachers need to give this domain considerably more attention than they normally would in an all-English setting (Anderson & Roit, 1996; Gersten &Jimenez, 1994). Finally, numerous researchers have noted the importance of allowing English Language Learners to use their native language to respond to and discuss English text, even when the language of instruction or assessment is English (Battle, 1993; Carger, 199 3; Garda, 1991; Goldman eta!., 1984; Reyes, 1991; Saville-Troike, 1984). ...
... Research on bilingual literacy has shown that learners understand the relationship between their L1 and L2 (Goldman, Reyes, & Varnhagen;Edelsky, 1982;Rubin & Carlan, 2005). Goldman, Reyes, and Varnhagen (1984) demonstrated that learners transferred L1 comprehension skills to their reading comprehension in L2. ...
... Research on bilingual literacy has shown that learners understand the relationship between their L1 and L2 (Goldman, Reyes, & Varnhagen;Edelsky, 1982;Rubin & Carlan, 2005). Goldman, Reyes, and Varnhagen (1984) demonstrated that learners transferred L1 comprehension skills to their reading comprehension in L2. Edelsky (1982) showed that bilingual students transferred writing strategies across two languages. ...
The erasure of Latino/a adolescents' multiliteracies in school settings affects both their views of education and their entry into the community outside of school. Framed by literacy-as-social-practices perspectives and communities of practice theory, this case study explored what happened when a group of 13 Latino/a adolescents and their Latina teacher engaged in a six-week play production in an after-school program and performed the play for parents. It examined the relationship between the participants' discourse practices and their performance, and determined how they validated their performances. Data collected included observations, interviews, students' written reflective responses, a fieldwork journal, and a DVD of the performance.
Data were analyzed using Discourse Analysis (Gee, 2005), three characteristics of multimodal literacy adapted from three features Cowan (2003) used to analyze Latino visual discourse, and Grounded Theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Strauss & Corbin, 1990). The findings revealed a complex performance community mediated by a set of discourse practices and tools, including a script and a video. The video's history, traced to a former 7th grade after-school group, and the participants' social practices framed their interactions. The findings revealed the discourse practice of playing around was constructed in relationship with the teacher's expectations and became an intractable binary. After one actor assessed the situation as hopeless because of the teacher's involvement in the construction of the discourses, she "left" the play and constructed herself through a new critical discourse, and imagined an easier and more equitable discourse.
Another discourse juxtaposed Discourses of immigration, recognizing them as speaking to one another across history. Although the methodology was adequate for answering the research questions, it was inadequate for reaching findings on how the performances created effects for both the actors and audience. Both pedagogical and methodological errors were the result of how the visual world of print shaped our thought, extending the visual into the social world, separating it from the other senses. The actors drew from elements of the six modes of meaning to create a system of multimodal design in their performance text, and although they validated their final performance in reflective responses, they invalidated their rehearsal performances. Elements of their Discourse model serve as a blueprint for a Design for Performance Learning.
The Design proposes that Latino/a adolescents take responsibility for their learning by producing sharable digital artifacts in after-school performance communities, which might prove to be contexts in which Latino/a adolescents' multiliteracies are validated rather than erased.
... The results showed no difference between the bilinguals and monolinguals in standardised tests of English comprehension and grammar performance. One of the most fundamental assumptions underlying the efficiency of bilingual instruction is that skills and knowledge learned in L1 transfer to L2 (Goldman et al., 1984; Malakoff, 1988). Thus, a child learning about velocity in Spanish, for example, should be able to transfer this knowledge to English without having to relearn the concepts, as long as the relevant vocabulary (in L2) is available. ...
... The notion of transfer of skills is supported by research in cognitive science where attempts are made to look for representational schemas for complex narratives in two languages. For example, Goldman et al. (1984) showed that bilingual children employ similar comprehension strategies when listening to Aesop's fables in two languages, providing indirect evidence that higher-order cognitive processes manifest themselves regardless of the specific language. Malakoff (1988) also found similarity in performance on analogical reasoning in French–English bilingual children in Switzerland. ...
This study aimed at comparing the performance of two bilingual groups of EFL students with that of a monolingual group on a controlled productive ability vocabu-lary test. Altogether 30 Turkish-Persian bilinguals, 30 Armenian-Persian bilinguals, and 30 Persian monolinguals participated in the study. The subjects in all three groups were homogenoeous in terms of age (17–18 years old), sex (they were all female), nationality (they were all Iranian), and level of instruction (intermediate). The results of the data analyses showed that native speakers of Turkish and Armen-ian who speak Persian as their second language performed better in the English vocabulary test than the Persian monolingual learners of English. This can be attri-buted to the positive effect of the subjects' bilinguality on their third language vocabulary achievement. The study also revealed that in the area of vocabulary pro-duction and achievement the Armenian-Persian bilinguals who had learned their first and second languages both academically and orally were more successful than the Turkish-Persian bilinguals who had learned their first language only orally. The results are interpreted to have implications for EFL methodologists and syllabus designers.
... Parent-child interactions are also critical in determining how much children will learn from media. Children younger than nine tend to focus on the concrete elements of a story and miss the bigger picture such as the moral of the story (Goldman et al., 1984). While children can understand broader messages contained in media, they require adult scaffolding to do so effectively (e.g., Mares & Acosta, 2010). ...
We present three studies examining death in children’s animated films. Study 1 is a content analysis of 49 films. We found that death is often portrayed in films, but many deaths occurred off-screen. Deaths were mostly portrayed in a biologically accurate manner, but some films portrayed biological misconceptions. Study 2 (n = 433) reports on parents’ attitudes and parent-child conversations about death in films. Children’s questions about death in animated films were similar to their questions about death more generally. Animated films may provide a context for parent-child conversations about death, as parents often watched these films with their children. However, it appeared that few parents took advantage of this opportunity to talk about death with their children.
... In their quantitative research, Proctor, August, and Snow (2010) affirmed that L1 vocabulary knowledge predicts L2 comprehension awareness, enhancing the writing competencies of Spanish bilingual learners. First language (L1) word knowledge frees the cognitive energy that might construct meanings in print (Goldman, Reyes, & Varnhagen, 1984;Mancilla-Martínez, & Lesaux, 2010;Nakamoto, Lindsey, & Manis, 2008). ...
Due to the growing focus on English learners' independence in composition classes, Peer Assessment has recently received the lion's share of attention. The use of Peer Assessment differs in various schools as different teaching styles of teachers and curriculum goals. This study investigated ESL college students' perceptions regarding these factors that could direct their use of Peer Assessment in their college writing classes. Comparisons of correlations between the different factors reported in the literature, such as gender, first language, first language writing, second language writing, and Peer Assessment preferences. Identifying these correlations could direct educators and curriculum designers to build their school's curricula around Peer Assessment as an instructional method to enhance 21st-century skills such as collaboration, cooperation, and negotiation.
This quantitative study investigates ESL students' perceptions regarding the factors (gender/ first language/ first language writing learning styles/ Second language writing learning styles), directing their satisfaction with Asynchronous Peer Assessment in terms of their learning styles in composition classes. This study is built on the research conducted by Huang (2015) entitled "The influence of learning styles on Chinese students" attitudes toward peer feedback: developing a survey tool for peer feedback training."
Statistical findings obtained from this research indicate that ESL students' learning styles of their writing in both first language and English as a second language might impact their perceptions of using Peer Assessment. Specifically, these statistical findings indicate that interpersonal learning styles of first language writing and the role of discussion before writing in English could direct students’ perceptions of using Peer Assessment. Furthermore, students' preferences for receiving Peer Assessment in different language areas such as quality of ideas, the flow of ideas, mechanics, grammar, and vocabulary could influence their perceptions of receiving and delivering a quality Peer Assessment.
The significant contribution of this dissertation is addressing ESL students’ perceptions of the factors that could influence their perceptions of using Peer Assessment as an instructional approach in writing classes in terms of their learning styles. It could provide writing teachers and curriculum designers, and developers with some insightful perspectives to build on the writing theory and collaborative learning and teaching of writing. The dissertation contributions highlight how theory and practice should be.
... In fact, the research base that rejects the idea that time spent on Spanish is an unproductive support while learning English is substantial and even facilitates the process (Cummins 1984a). Hakuta and Gould (1987) identified numerous studies that confirmed that learning is one's native language transfers to English language learning as well as learning in the content areas (Cummins 1981(Cummins , 1984bGenesee et al. 1977;Genesee 1979;Goldman et al. 1984;Lambert and Tucker 1972;Stern et al. 1976;Swain 1978). ...
This study examined the effects of instruction in English on reading achievement in Spanish for students in grades one through six in a private, bilingual school in Mexico City. Intensive professional development and coaching for teachers supported the implementation of an evidence--based teaching practices model that included progress monitoring and intervention for all students. Results supported the hypothesis that English achievement would not negatively affect achievement in Spanish. A U.S.-MEXICO COLLABORATION TO IMPROVE READING 3 Educational Climate It is an unfortunate economic reality that children who attend the public schools in Mexico are from families that cannot afford even a modest tuition to attend a private school. This situation has created a multiple tier system of private schools that cater to families in various ranges of income and social status. Most of these private schools present themselves as bilingual schools with English as the typical second language. However, the commitment to achieving dual language proficiency varies dramatically from school to school. Programs range from schools with a 30--minute period of English instruction to those that conduct their entire program in English. The overriding concern for schools is that the Mexican National Examination is administered in Spanish and schools are evaluated on this standard. This represents a governmental disconnect with the fact that a large number of families want their children to achieve in Spanish but also want them to be proficient in English. The challenge to a private, bilingual school is how to accomplish one goal without compromising the other. A U.S.-MEXICO COLLABORATION TO IMPROVE READING 4 The School and their Mission The Redlands School: An American Mexican Project, was an international collaboration to develop a model of best teaching practices for bilingual and inclusive education. Supporting projects in the United States, Mexico, Chile, and Honduras helped develop the model. Data for student achievement in both the assessment of reading achievement in English and Spanish and Mexican National Examination in Spanish and content areas validated the model. The school focused on English and Spanish language
... Dette henger sammen med at elever som er strategiske lesere på ett språk, sannsynligvis også blir strategiske lesere på et annet språk. Leseforståelsesstrategier er ferdigheter som i liten grad er språkspesifikke, og de kan dermed lettere benyttes på tvers av språkene (Goldman, Reyes, & Varnhagen, 1984). Det samme ser ut til å gjelde for skriving på første og andrespråket Lanauze & Snow, 1989). ...
I en kort litteraturgjennomgang fokuserer denne artikkelen på hvilke faktorer som ser ut til å ha betydning for minoritetsspråklige elevers skoleprestasjoner. Med utgangspunkt i norsk og internasjonal forskning vil tre temaer bli vektlagt; 1) hvordan sosioøkonomisk status og det å være minoritet i et nytt land er vevet inn i sammenhenger mellom elevenes språklige og kulturelle bakgrunn på den ene siden og skoleprestasjoner på den andre siden; 2) hva vi vet om betydningen av elevenes kunnskaper på første- og andrespråket for deres skoleprestasjoner; og 3) om graden av kontinuitet eller diskontinuitet i elevenes erfaringer i hjem og skole kan bidra til å forklare forskjeller i skoleprestasjoner. Til slutt diskuteres ulike opplæringsmodeller. Studiene strekker seg fra førskolealderen til videregående skole.
... Intriguingly, despite the fact that children's reports of their attitudes or intended behaviors do change based on these kinds of interventions, they have great difficulty reporting explicitly on what moral lesson a story is trying to teach (e.g., Goldman, Reyes, & Varnhagen, 1984;Johnson & Goldman, 1987;Mares & Acosta, 2008;Narvaez, 2001Narvaez, , 2002Narvaez, Bentley, Gleason, & Samuels, 1998;Narvaez, Gleason, Mitchell, & Bentley, 1999;Smith, 2014). This body of work finds that children younger than 10 tend to report narrow, highly specific lessons, like ''do not eat candy" (for a Berenstain Bears story about the importance of healthy eating) or ''be nice to three-legged dogs" (for a Clifford the Big Red Dog story about tolerance to people with disabilities). ...
... Both novices and experts attend to issues of plot and character; even young children pay attention to what characters do and why, as well as to the "so what" or coda of narratives (Goldman, Reyes, & Varnhagen, 1984;Stein & Glenn, 1979;Trabasso & van Den Broek, 1985). The attention to the "so what" of stories suggests that both novice and expert readers seek to figure out what stories tell them about themselves as readers, about people, and about the world. ...
This article presents a framework and methodology for designing learning goals targeted at what students need to know and be able to do in order to attain high levels of literacy and achievement in three disciplinary areas—literature, science, and history. For each discipline, a team of researchers, teachers, and specialists in that discipline engaged in conceptual meta-analysis of theory and research on the reading, reasoning, and inquiry practices exhibited by disciplinary experts as contrasted with novices. Each team identified discipline-specific clusters of types of knowledge. Across teams, the clusters for each discipline were grouped into 5 higher order categories of core constructs: (a) epistemology; (b) inquiry practices/strategies of reasoning; (c) overarching concepts, themes, and frameworks; (d) forms of information representation/types of texts; and (e) discourse and language structures. The substance of the clusters gave rise to discipline-specific goals and tasks involved in reading across multiple texts, as well as reading, reasoning, and argumentation practices tailored to discipline-specific criteria for evidence-based knowledge claims. The framework of constructs and processes provides a valuable tool for researchers and classroom teachers' (re)conceptualizations of literacy and argumentation learning goals in their specific disciplines. 2016
... Further studies have elucidated the supportive relationship between L1 and L2 reading comprehension (Goldman, Reyes, & Varnhagen, 1984;Proctor et al., 2006). For example, Goldman and colleagues (1984) examined Spanish-English bilinguals', English-Spanish bilinguals', and monolingual English speakers' reading comprehension by asking them to retell, respond to comprehension questions about, and extract the lesson from a given set of fables. ...
We investigated the relationship between Chichewa (L1) and English (L2) literacies in Malawi. Through our use of hierarchical linear modeling, we found that cross-language literacy transfer between Chichewa and English did occur, but that the pattern and the strength of the relationships varied depending on the literacy domain (i.e., reading or writing) and grade level. Our work has implications for students, teachers, and policy makers in countries like Malawi, where the language of the former colonial power is the official language (L2) of the country and students must be prepared to participate within a globalized society.
... When children start school, academic learning in their first language can transfer readily to English (Cummins, 1981;Cummins, Swain, Nakajima, Handscombe, Green, & Tran, 1984;Genesee, Polich, & Stanley, 1977;Goldman, Reyes, & Varnhagen, 1984;Stern, Swain, & McLean, 1976). ...
... Teachers can explicitly point out to students the similarities in the process of reading both languages. Further, when ELs are allowed-even encouraged-to use their first or dominant language to demonstrate understanding of texts in English, they are better able to express their understanding of the text in English (Goldman, Reyes, & Varnhagen, 1984). ...
Schools are becoming increasingly diversified; however, training and professional development related to working with English language learners (ELs), especially in the area of English reading, is limited. In this article, we identify three “Big Ideas” of effective and collaborative practices that promote English reading achievement for EL students: (a) foster academic English at all stages of second-language acquisition by explicitly teaching vocabulary, emphasizing cross-linguistic transfer strategies, and supporting ongoing oral language development; (b) adopt a schoolwide collaborative approach to conduct frequent formative reading assessments and use the data to drive instruction by providing accommodations that promote English reading; and (c) implement a variety of grouping strategies to deliver reading instruction within a welcoming and sensitive learning climate. In addition, we discuss how school professionals may proactively instruct ELs and collaborate within a multidisciplinary framework to improve the English reading ability of students who are simultaneously learning the English language.
... Interestingly, for college-age ESL learners in one study (Carrell, 1991), native Spanish reading ability accounted for more variance in English reading than did English oral proficiency. Second, knowledge used to guide comprehension in native-language reading was also used in ESL reading (Carrell, 1984a;Goldman, Reyes, & Varnhagen, 1984;Langer et al., 1990). Third, knowledge of Spanish vocabulary and idioms transferred to ESL reading ( Garcia & Nagy, 1993;Irujo, 1986;Jimenez et al., 1991;Nagy et al., 1992). ...
An integrative review of United States research on English-as-a-second-language (ESL) learners’ cognitive reading processes suggested that, on the whole, ESL readers recognized cognate vocabulary fairly well, monitored their comprehension and used many metacognitive strategies, used schema and prior knowledge to affect comprehension and recall, and were affected differently by different types of text structures. In the main, where United States ESL readers’ processes appeared to be used differently from those of native English readers, the differences were in speed and depressed activation of selected processes. Significantly, overall, the findings from the studies suggested a relatively good fit to preexisting reading theories and views generally thought to describe native-language readers. However, the quantitative differences between processes of ESL readers and those of native English readers indicated that the preexisting theories and views might need to be revisited and elaborated to address a subset of factors special to ESL learners.
... For English language learners, questions may be provided in students' dominant language; likewise for responses (cf. Goldman, Reyes, & Varnhagen, 1984). Whether responses to open-ended questions AERA06GIS_paper4.doc ...
... After reviewing the most frequently reported programs the authors speculated that many of the educational programs model relationally aggressive behavior as a way to frame friendship conflicts ( Ostrov et al., 2006). The reconciliation among the friends occurs at the end of the programs and given research that suggests that young children have difficulty understanding plots and connecting content across a program (Bryant & Anderson, 1983) and given that young children often focus and retell specific components of the story rather than the overall general principle (Goldman, Reyes & Varnhagen, 1984), the authors posited that young children are not attending to the overall educational lesson, but are instead learning and in turn modeling the relationally aggressive behaviors ( Ostrov et al., 2006). ...
Preschool-aged children (M = 42.44 months-old, SD = 8.02) participated in a short-term longitudinal study investigating the effect of educational media exposure on social development (i.e., aggression and prosocial behavior) using multiple informants and methods. As predicted, educational media exposure significantly predicted increases in both observed and teacher reported relational aggression across time. Follow-up analyses showed that educational media exposure also significantly predicted increases in parent reported relational aggression across more than a two year period. Results replicate and extend prior research that has demonstrated links between educational media exposure and relational aggression, but not physical aggression, during early childhood.
... Also at the level of complex narratives, one can demonstrate transfer based on common representational schemas. Goldman, Reyes, and Varnhagen (1984) showed that bilingual children employed similar comprehension strategies when listening to Aesop's Fables in two languages, providing indirect evidence that higher-order cognitive processes manifest themselves regardless of language. A number of studies have consistently documented positive relationships between bilingual students' first-and second-language literacy skills, clearly supporting the theoretical notion of linguistic interdependence (Fitzgerald, 1995). ...
Students speaking a language at home, which is different from the instructional at home, often face serious literacy problems
in their additional language. This article examines the various factors involved in these difficulties and proposes some procedures
for determining whether the reading problems are primarily due to linguistic factors, sociocultural factors, or specific learning
problems such as dyslexia. The discussion of linguistic factors includes a closer examination of the concept of language proficiency.
Dimensions of individual differences in the ability of second language (L2) acquisition are specified. Particular emphasis
is given to the role of verbal working memory in L2 acquisition and to neuropsychological aspects. A popular target for recent
research has been the orthographic structure of the language, and a general assumption has been that transparent orthographies,
such as Italian or Finnish, are easier for a learner to deal with than deep orthographies. The methodological problems involved
in the study of this issue are discussed. Some recent large-scale comparative surveys of reading literacy have not been able
to demonstrate the impact of orthographic structures, as other, more powerful explanations of achievement variations have
masked the possibly small orthographic effects. These explanatory factors are to a large extent related to social and cultural
conditions in homes, communities, and schools. A tentative model is proposed where the various factors involved in L2 reading
are specified, providing guidelines for assessment strategies.
... When testing rules for summarizing texts, Brown et al. (1981) found that the most difficult task for novices was adding information, as is required in constructing a theme, rather than just repeating or modifying existing sentences. Goldman et al. (1984) studied the comprehension of fables among children from ages 5 to 12. Children were generally unable to extract a theme until about age 10 (grade four). In sum, theme extraction is a difficult task for children, especially for expository texts and unrealistic fiction; children are generally unsuccessful until the fourth grade (ages 9-10). ...
The assumption of traditional character educators that children build moral literacy from reading or hearing moral stories is challenged based on research findings. First, research in text comprehension indicates that readers do not understand texts the same way due to differences in reading skill and background knowledge. Second, moral comprehension research indicates that moral arguments are understood differently based on differences in moral schema development. Third, moral texts (e.g., that contain embedded moral reasoning) are understood and distorted differently by readers with different moral schemas. Fourth, children do not extract moral story themes as intended by the writer.
Inferencing is defined as 'the act of deriving logical conclusions from premises known or assumed to be true', and it is one of the most important processes necessary for successful comprehension during reading. This volume features contributions by distinguished researchers in cognitive psychology, educational psychology, and neuroscience on topics central to our understanding of the inferential process during reading. The chapters cover aspects of inferencing that range from the fundamental bottom up processes that form the basis for an inference to occur, to the more strategic processes that transpire when a reader is engaged in literary understanding of a text. Basic activation mechanisms, word-level inferencing, methodological considerations, inference validation, causal inferencing, emotion, development of inferences processes as a skill, embodiment, contributions from neuroscience, and applications to naturalistic text are all covered as well as expository text, online learning materials, and literary immersion.
Evidence abounds that the humanities and social sciences are well equipped to hasten hypothesis generation; but their advantages are often underdetermined. Such may be the case consequent to the fact that their facilitative devices are not directly observable. While mathematical algorithms and scientific theorematic principles can provide structural templates to discern and record cause-effect relations, measuring and stimulating reasoning, the meanings which they convey may alone be insufficient to incite inquiry. Their adherence to a single correct response/method often stifles insight, as well as foresight. Nonetheless, the implicit meanings conveyed via literary genres (particularly narratives) can bring interpreters to a higher logical level—to assert revisionary hypotheses. In short, the abstract semantic character of mathematical expressions does not encourage revisionary reasoning, because its meanings are not specific enough to relate cause to effect, particularly within a retroductive framework (independent of whether the surprising consequence is foregrounded or backgrounded). Conversely, storylines which rely upon pragmatic skills may more effectively foster inferential reasoning, since they situationalize specific changes in states and attitudes of the characters in particular contexts—thereby encouraging foresight not insight alone. As such, interpreters look ahead to anticipate potential effects in subsequent contexts. Furthermore, while the natural sciences may supply indexical and relational information, the semantic content is often rather opaque, making it difficult to determine where to apply the algorithm. This is especially the case for less experienced interpreters, given the disconnect between knowledge of an algorithm and its appropriate use in actual problems/life events. The present inquiry argues that exposure to narratives and narrator attitudes naturally raise interpreters’ dialectic competencies, especially early in ontogeny. The claim here is that narratives are so influential to hatching novel inferences. Because narratives lay out episodic schemata, they require listeners to assume another’s role, a shift which heightens awareness from the less idiosyncratic accounts to what does, can, and what might happen to an objective other.
Two meta-analyses of the early research on prosocial effects of TV viewing suggest the possibility for positive effects, but also reveal a lack of systematic research into how best to achieve desired outcomes. Since then, the question has gained more social relevance because of a renewed international interest in using television to reduce prejudice and foster prosocial interactions, and because of the proliferation of programs in the United States that purport to teach socioemotional lessons. Research by Narvaez and others on comprehension of written texts suggests that there are important cognitive and moral schema developments that affect how children process moral messages. It is a central argument of the chapter that the same issues of interpretation and misinterpretation arise with prosocial television content. The latter part of the chapter focuses on the challenges of using TV as a tool for promoting inclusive attitudes, and a series of recommendations about how to increase the probability of positive outcomes.
Although storybooks are often used as pedagogical tools for conveying moral lessons to children, the ability to spontaneously extract "the moral" of a story develops relatively late. Instead, children tend to represent stories at a concrete level - one that highlights surface features and understates more abstract themes. Here we examine the role of explanation in 5- and 6-year-old children's developing ability to learn the moral of a story. Two experiments demonstrate that, relative to a control condition, prompts to explain aspects of a story facilitate children's ability to override salient surface features, abstract the underlying moral, and generalize that moral to novel contexts. In some cases, generating an explanation is more effective than being explicitly told the moral of the story, as in a more traditional pedagogical exchange. These findings have implications for moral comprehension, the role of explanation in learning, and the development of abstract reasoning in early childhood.
We gratefully acknowledge the important contributions to our thinking about literary interpretation made by members of the Project READI Literature Team, in particular Carol Lee, Sarah Levine, and Joseph Magliano. Other members of the Literature Team include ourselves, Stephen Briner, Jessica Chambers, Rick Coppolla, Julia Emig, Angela Fortune, MariAnne George, Allison Hall, Courtney Milligan, Teresa Sosa, and Mary Pat Sullivan. Project READI (Reading, Evidence, Argumentation in Disciplinary Instruction) is a multi-institution collaboration to improve complex comprehension of multiple forms of text in literature, history, and science. It is supported by the Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education, through Grant R305F100007 to University of Illinois at Chicago. The opinions expressed are those of the authors and do not represent views of the Institute or the U.S. Department of Education. In this chapter we address the kinds of inferences that are made when people read literary texts. Literary texts may include a variety of genres, including narratives, science fiction, folk tales, fables, poetry, songs, and historical fiction. Distinctions between literary and “nonliterary” texts may seem obvious. Indeed, there is general consensus that literary texts afford a displacement of meaning (Scholes, 1977, cited in Levine, 2013) or “duplicity of code.” Schraw (1997) characterized literary texts as “narratives that are richly symbolic and include both an interpretable surface meaning and one or more coherent subtexts (i.e., implicit thematic interpretations that run parallel to the explicit surface-level meaning of the text)” (p. 436). In fact, clear distinctions are difficult to make, partly because such distinctions depend upon assumptions about whether meaning is “in the text,” “in the author,” “in the reader,” in the “transaction between reader and text” (Rosenblatt, 1978; 1994), or in the interaction of reader, text, and task, situated in a social and cognitive context (RAND Report, 2002).
The issue of the effects of bilingualism on cognitive development has attracted different viewpoints. Some believe that bilinguals are superior to their monolingual counterparts simply because they have access to two different language systems. On the other hand, there are scholars who believe that bilingualism can impose negative effects on the cognitive development and intelligence in general. This study aimed at comparing linguistic intelligence of Iranian bilinguals and monolinguals regarding their gender. The participants were chosen from the university students, between the ages of 20 up to 30 years old, male and female. There were 100 monolingual (Persian) and bilingual (Persian and Turkish) EFL learners participating in the study. They were administered MIDAS test, and the results were analyzed through SPSS computer program. The findings reveal that there is a significant difference between female bilinguals and monolinguals linguistic intelligence. However the male participants revealed no difference regarding their linguistic intelligence. The results are interpreted to have implications for language class methodologies and syllabus designers, and can be considered as a support to the idea of promoting bilingual education.
Recent evidence suggests that second/foreign language learning and cognitive functions mutually affect each other. In pursuit of an earlier study which asserted the superiority of advanced foreign language learners over beginners in divergent thinking abilities, the present study examined another important cognitive function, i.e., metacognitive awareness in the same participants, that is, two groups of advanced English as a foreign language (EFL) learners and beginners through Schraw and Dennison’s Metacognitive Awareness Inventory. The results revealed that there was no significant difference between the two groups on this measure. However, the correlation analysis showed that the two cognitive functions, i.e., creativity and metacognitive awareness, significantly correlated with each other either in advanced English as a foreign language learners or beginners. The significance of this correlation in language learning programs is further discussed.
This study focuses on the findings of a research project that aimed at identifying the English reading comprehension strategies used by two preservice English teachers, one a successful reader and the other one a less successful reader. The participants were students of a B.Ed. undergraduate program at a public university located in the Colombian Eje Cafetero. Methodological procedures included the collection of reading data through think-aloud protocols, and analysis was based on the constant-comparative method (Glaser & Strauss, 1999).
The study reported in this article examined the first language and second language reading and writing abilities of adult ESL learners to determine the relationships across languages (L1 and L2) and across modalities (reading and writing) in the acquisition of L2 literacy skills. Specifically, we investigated relationships (a) between literacy skills in a first language and literacy development in a second language (i.e., between reading in L1 and L2, and between writing in L1 and L2), and (b) between reading and writing in L1 and L2 (i.e., between reading and writing in L1, and between reading and writing in L2). The subjects, Japanese and Chinese ESL students in academic settings, were asked to write an essay and to complete a cloze passage in both their first and second languages. The results indicate that literacy skills can transfer across languages, but that the pattern of this transfer varies for the two language groups. It also appears that reading ability transfers more easily from L1 to L2 than does writing ability, and that the relationship between reading and writing skills varies for the two language groups. These data suggest that L2 literacy development is a complex phenomenon for already literate adult second language learners involving variables such as L2 language proficiency, L1 and L2 educational experience, and cultural literacy practices that may be related to different patterns of L2 literacy acquisition.
Increased attention from the research community is necessary to better understand difficulties faced by many Latino students in English literacy acquisition (García, Pearson & Jiménez, 1994; Pallas, Natriello & McDill, 1989). Growing rates of Latino student enrollment coupled with declining levels of academic achievement demand a better integration of research and classroom practice (U. S. Census, 1990; Waggoner, 1991). This paper explores three key issues in the literacy acquisition of Latino students. They are: (a) common problems faced by second-language readers of English, (b) explicit strategies for transfer of first-language strengths to second-language literacy, and (c) the development of language-specific strategies. Recommendations for classroom practice that are grounded in the discussion of the three key issues are included in the final section.
Sixty-four kindergarteners watched a 10-minute television episode intended to promote inclusive attitudes toward people with disabilities. In the original version, a disabled character was initially feared then eventually accepted. In an edited version, the fear was removed. The majority of children in both conditions, misunderstood the intended moral lesson, and failed to generalize beyond the specifics of the plot. Among children who were randomly assigned to the original version, those who understood the characters' goals and emotions better were less likely to comprehend the intended message of tolerance; remembering the happy ending had no effect. Among those assigned to the fear-removed version, those who better understood the goals and the happy ending were more likely to comprehend the intended message.
Much attention has been focused on the importance of reading moral stories to children (e.g., W. Bennett, 1993). Although research on general discourse comprehension is flourishing, little attention has been given to how moral discourse is understood by individuals; that is, what affects an individual's comprehension of a moral text? Eighth-grade and college students read and recalled four complex moral narratives in which moral arguments at different Kohlbergian stages were embedded. Participants then took the Defining Issues Test (DIT), a measure of moral judgment development. Those with higher reasoning scores on the DIT reconstructed more high-stage moral arguments during recall, including adding high-stage moral reasoning that was not in the original text. Significant age-level differences in cumulative moral judgment concepts were also found. Prior moral knowledge affected the comprehension of complex moral narratives. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The study examines factors underlying cross-language transfer in bilingual children; the main focus is on a measure of metaphor interpretation. Subjects were Spanish-English children ranging in age from 7 to 12 years. Measures were obtained for nonverbal mental capacity, metaphor interpretation, verbal-conceptual repertoire, and linguistic proficiency in English and Spanish. Using a previously validated procedure, subjects' metaphor interpretations were scored for cognitive complexity. In both languages, metaphor score was higher in older than in younger children. Correlational analyses indicated that level of metaphor interpretation was most strongly related to cognitive-developmental variables that are interdependent across languages, that is, nonverbal mental capacity and verbal-conceptual repertoire. Variables that measure specific proficiency in a language were less strongly related to level of metaphor interpretation, and did not exhibit cross-language correlations. This pattern was clearly seen in results of exploratory factor analyses. The role of cognitive versus linguistic factors in metaphor development is discussed, as is the issue of interdependence versus independence across first and second languages.
This study examines the understanding and enactment of reading in English and Spanish of four Hispanic bilingual first-graders, whose teachers considered to be developing readers in their classroom language. Two of the children initially received formal literacy instruction in Spanish, later transitioning into English literacy instruction, while the other two children received formal literacy instruction only in English. Data were collected through classroom observations of literacy instruction; interviews with children, teachers, and parents; recordings of home reading sessions; informal reading sessions; and a dynamic reading assessment in each language. The findings indicated differences between the children—favoring the Spanish-classroom children—regarding their effectiveness at decoding and applying comprehension strategies to their English and Spanish reading, as well as their bilingual and biliterate identities. The advantages of the two Spanish-classroom children were attributed to several factors: First, their families acted on their desire for their children to become biliterate by placing them in the Spanish-classroom. Second, the children were developing strong literacy skills in Spanish, a language that they knew well, and a language with a more transparent orthographic system than English. Third, the explicitness of the strategic reading instruction they received seemed to contribute to their effective use of making connections across text and life, predicting, and evoking prior knowledge. The comparative data on the English-classroom children and Spanish-classroom children showed that the Spanish instruction the children received at home had less of an impact on their biliteracy development than the formal Spanish instruction the Spanish classroom children were provided at school.
Wuppertal, Universiẗat, Diss., 2001. Computerdatei im Fernzugriff.
An analysis of the underlying structure of simple stories is presented. It is claimed that this type of representation of stories is used to form schemata which guide encoding and retrieval. A type of tree structure containing basic units and their connections was found to be adequate to describe the structure of both single and multi-episode stories. The representation is outlined in the form of a grammar, consisting of rewrite rules defining the units and their relationships. Some transformational rules mapping underlying and surface structures are discussed. The adequacy of the analysis is first tested against Bartlett's protocols of “The War of the Ghosts.” Then a developmental study of recall is presented. It is concluded that both children and adults are sensitive to the structure of stories, although some differences were found. Finally, it is suggested that the schemata used to guide encoding and recall are related but not identical and that retrieval is dependent on the schemata operative at the time of recall.
64 Spanish-English bilingual high school students were 1st familiarized on a list composed of Spanish or English words. Next they learned a Spanish or an English list consisting of words that were the same as (or translated) or different from those in the familiarization list. Familiarization effects were uniform both between and within languages in that the amount of positive transfer obtained was the same for all groups. Data are interpreted as being supportive of the language interdependence hypothesis. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Presents the results of a community-sponsored project to develop skill in a 2nd language (French), by using it as the sole medium for instruction with 1st-graders whose native language is English. The experimental class is compared with both English and French control classes and their relative standing in audio-lingual and reading skills in both languages, mathematics, sensitivity to novel phonemic sequences, and measured intelligence at the end of the year is examined. Although the results reveal a striking progress in French and considerable transfer to English skills, the real value of the study will be evident only after a replication with other 1st-grade classes and a follow-up with the same students. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Argues that the semantic structure of texts can be described both at the local microlevel and at a more global macrolevel. A model for text comprehension based on this notion accounts for the formation of a coherent semantic text base in terms of a cyclical process constrained by limitations of working memory. Furthermore, the model includes macro-operators, whose purpose is to reduce the information in a text base to its gist—the theoretical macrostructure. These operations are under the control of a schema, which is a theoretical formulation of the comprehender's goals. The macroprocesses are predictable only when the control schema can be made explicit. On the production side, the model is concerned with the generation of recall and summarization protocols. This process is partly reproductive and partly constructive, involving the inverse operation of the macro-operators. The model is applied to a paragraph from a psychological research report, and methods for the empirical testing of the model are developed. (55 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A number of recent models of the structure of stories from the oral tradition have been couched in the form of ‘story grammars’, which describe the types of information that listeners expect to encounter in a story and the organization they tend to impose on that information. In the present paper, we argue that such analyses of story structure may complement analyses of sentence structure as a source of evidence concerning ways in which psychological processing needs constrain the form of complex serial productions. In addition, we present two major extensions of our earlier model of story structure (Mandler and Johnson 1977). First, the use of the base rules to characterize stories which consist of more than one episode is developed, and selection restrictions on the application of these rules are presented. Second, a set of transformational rules is proposed to account for meaning-preserving variations in the surface form of stories, and constraints on the nature of such rules are considered. Finally, we discuss criteria by which the observational and descriptive adequacy of models of story structure may be evaluated. We conclude that more traditional sources of evidence for evaluating grammars, such as intuitive judgments about well-formedness and constituent structure, must be supplemented with evidence based on the relation of the proposed structures to the details of psychological processing.
Two experiments tested whether 18 Spanish–English bilinguals had shared or separate semantic memory representations for their 2 languages. The experimental task employed required Ss to decide as quickly as possible whether a noun belonged in a particular category. The words in each category–instance pair could be from either the same or different languages. No effects of language condition (same–different languages) were obtained in either experiment. Strong typicality and semantic distance effects were obtained in both languages, but there was no interaction of these factors with language condition. Results support the shared semantic memory hypothesis. (French abstract) (11 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
12 Spanish-English bilinguals (8 college students, 3 housewives, and 1 physician) were asked to determine whether a string of letters formed a word in their languages. Three conditions were used: 2 conditions blocked by language and a mixed-language condition. Some of the words were cognates (i.e., words with the same spelling and meaning in the 2 languages). Results show no differences between blocked and mixed conditions; cognates were responded to with equal facility in all conditions, and there was an interaction of Cognates and Noncognates by Weak and Strong Language. Results are interpreted as supporting a direct graphemic lexical access model. (13 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Issues concerning some perceptual, attentional, and memory processes in bilinguals are reviewed and discussed with regard to language dominance and the interaction between the bilingual's language systems. The first part of the paper focuses on the speed of basic decoding and encoding operations: speed (automaticity) of processing is considered to be a major factor in language dominance. Speed of perception and rehearsal is shown to be affected by covert pronounceability of words which is typically poorer for the bilingual's weaker language. Factors causing short-time changes in the relationship between the non-balanced bilingual's languages are then considered: high information load, noise, rapid switching, and language set. Noise is thought of as enhancing language dominance by two mechanisms: the masking of inner speech, and increased arousal. The second part of the paper focuses mainly on the interaction between the bilingual's language systems. The issue of language independence/interdependence is illustrated by a task involving parallel encoding and decoding; it is shown that the input switch which is considered to be automatic can select information by language. Experiments on memory are commented on with reference to the two major models of bilingual-storage systems: the common-store hypothesis, and the separate-stores hypothesis. While most experimental data are clearly supportive of the former, it is argued that both language-specific and language-free storage takes place, depending on task demands. The problem of the retention of language-information along with item-information in verbal learning tasks is then discussed: in addition to the specific task demands (e.g., meaningfulness), retention time appears to be a decisive factor here. A model of bilingual memory storage is suggested which combines the two extreme models (i.e., the shared and the separate ones). The model assumes that working memory plays a different role with regard to the language-free and the language-specific stores respectively. Finally, some problems in the use of more than one language in the process of verbal learning are pointed out.
University of Chicago Includes bibliographies Supported by National Institute of Education grants NIE-G-77-0018 and NIE-G-79-0125. Contract no. HEW-NIE-C-400-76-0116
Sixteen 4-year-olds and sixteen 6-year-olds were shown four picture stories consisting of 15 to 18 pictures without text. The stories were well structured, consisting of two or more causally and temporally related episodes. The children were asked to describe each picture, and, after seeing all the pictures of a story, to recall the story without pictures. The pictures were either presented in their normal order or in scrambled order. The data analysis concentrated upon the comparison between the responses in the normal condition when the children were telling a story and in the scrambled condition, when they were merely responding to the pictures as such without the story context. The results showed that even the 4-year-olds, but especially the older children, were interpreting the pictures as stories in the normal condition and that their knowledge about stories, i.e., the story schema, determined the nature of their responses. Even in the scrambled condition the 6-year-olds tried to make sense of the pictures in terms of a story by making inferences, attributing thoughts and emotions to the characters, and using narrative conventions, while the 4-year-olds often reverted to a simple labeling strategy. In recall all of these trends were emphasized. Those parts of the descriptions that were best integrated into a story were recalled best, while nonintegrated descriptions tended to be forgotten.
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