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Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management, vol. XXXI, no. 4 (fall 2011), pp. 397–409.
© 2011 PSE National Educational Foundation. All rights reserved.
ISSN 0885-3134 / 2011 $9.50 + 0.00.
DOI 10.2753/PSS0885-3134310403
One of the most troubling aspects of the sales position is the
high level of stress that it often entails. As a result, stress has
been one of the most heavily researched constructs in the
professional selling literature (Bhuian, Menguc, and Borsboom
2005; Sager 1994; Shepherd and Fine 1994; Strutton and
Lumpkin 1993). It is broadly accepted that while in limited
amounts stress may enhance performance, the unrelenting
stress inherent in sales and other client-centered occupations
can lead to a host of negative physical and psychological
outcomes, including hypertension, arteriosclerosis, and job
burnout (Boyd and Gumpert 1983; Maslach 1982).
Since the term “job burnout” was coined in the early 1970s,
it has become a cultural catchphrase representing almost any
negative reaction to work-related stress. However, a widely
accepted definition of burnout has emerged as a “syndrome
or emotional exhaustion and cynicism that occurs frequently
among individuals who do people work of some kind”
(Maslach and Jackson 1981, p. 99). Further, a tri-component
view has emerged with burnout, often termed the “burnout
syndrome,” consisting of (1) emotional exhaustion, (2) deper-
sonalization, and (3) feeling of reduced personal accomplish-
ment (Maslach and Jackson 1981; Worley et al. 2008).
Job burnout is a particularly troubling condition as it has
been related to a host of organizational problems ranging from
increased absenteeism and turnover to decreased productiv-
ity and organizational commitment (Cordes and Dougherty
1993; Thomas and Lankau 2009). Perhaps because of these
concerns, job-related burnout has received considerable
research attention over the past two decades in fields rang-
ing from health care to teaching (for examples, see Cordes
and Dougherty 1993; Lee and Ashforth 1996; Maslach and
Jackson 1982; Schwab, Jackson, and Schuler 1986; Thomas
and Lankau 2009). This research has suggested that, while
burnout can occur in any field, workers in client-centered
fields are most susceptible.
Given the fact that personal selling is one of the most
client-centered professions, it is surprising to note that little
research has focused on this construct in the sales literature.
Further, the sales research examining burnout has tended to
focus on specific aspects of the burnout syndrome, primarily
emotional exhaustion (Babakus et al. 1999; Boles, Johnston,
and Hair 1997; Lewin and Sager 2008). One notable excep-
tion, Lewin and Sager (2007), investigated the entire burnout
syndrome with a single-company industrial sales force from
the chemical supply industry. The findings of this study of-
fered several insights into understanding burnout in personal
selling. Perhaps the most notable finding in the Lewin and
Sager study was the fact that their results suggested that the
burnout syndrome followed a unique nonsequential process
inconsistent with research in other fields. This was a very
thought-provoking finding, as understanding the process in
which burnout unfolds is critical to understanding the burnout
construct and successfully indentifying and treating burnout
as it emerges in the workforce (Thomas and Lankau 2009).
AN INVESTIGATION OF THE JOB BURNOUT SYNDROME
IN PERSONAL SELLING
C. David Shepherd, Armen Tashchian, and Rick E. Ridnour
Job burnout has been described as a syndrome of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and a feeling of reduced
personal accomplishment that frequently occurs among individuals who do client-centered work of some kind such as
selling. Burnout is a particularly troubling condition as it has been related to a host of organizational problems ranging
from increased turnover to decreased job satisfaction and performance. Burnout has been well documented and studied
in several client-centered positions such as nursing and teaching, but it has received little attention in the sales literature.
This paper builds on previous research by shedding light on the sequential steps in the burnout process in personal selling
while empirically testing a model of burnout in the professional selling position.
C. David Shepherd (Ph.D., University of Tennessee), Professor of
Marketing, College of Business Administration, Georgia Southern
University, dshepherd@georgiasouthern.edu.
Armen Tashchian (Ph.D., University of Texas at Austin), Professor
of Marketing, Coles College of Business, Kennesaw State Univer-
sity, and Visiting Professor of Marketing, American University of
Armenia, atashchi@kennesaw.edu.
Rick E. Ridnour (Ph.D., Iowa State University), Professor of Mar-
keting, College of Business, Northern Illinois University, ridnour@
niu.edu.
The authors thank James S. Boles, JPSSM Editor, and the anony-
mous reviewers for the contribution they made to this paper through
their helpful comments and suggestions.
398 Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management
The purpose of the current paper is to enhance our
knowledge of burnout in the sales profession. Perhaps most
important, we build on the Lewin and Sager research (2007)
by testing the appropriateness of the traditional sequential
model of the burnout process, termed the “Maslach model,”
in professional selling using a cross-industry sample of sales-
people. In the pages that follow, we (1) begin by reviewing
the existing burnout literature, and (2) empirically test the
Maslach model of burnout in a cross-industry sample. Finally,
research priorities and managerial implications of this research
are presented.
LITERATURE REVIEW
The term “burnout” was coined in 1974 by Herbert Freuden-
berger to describe a collection of traits he had observed in
coworkers while working as a psychoanalyst in a clinic in
New York in the 1960s. The traits Freudenberger used to
describe burnout included cynicism, negativism, inflexibil-
ity, unhappiness, and boredom. Since Freudenberger’s initial
work, a considerable stream of research has focused on burn-
out in helping professions such as social work, nursing, law
enforcement, and teaching (for examples, see Edelwich and
Brodsky 1980; Fong 1993; Gaines and Jermier 1983; Leiter
1988). In the earlier stages of this work, several definitions
of burnout emerged, including (1) to fail, wear out; (2) a
loss of commitment for work, an estrangement from clients,
coworkers, and agency; (3) a response to the chronic stress
of making it to the top; and (4) a syndrome of inappropriate
attitudes toward clients and toward self, often associated with
uncomfortable physical and emotional symptoms (Cordes
and Dougherty 1993). However, as previously mentioned, an
accepted definition has emerged that delineates burnout as a
syndrome of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and a
reduced sense of personal accomplishment occurring among
individuals who work with people in some capacity (Iwanicki
and Schwab 1981; Malakh-Pines, Aronson, and Kafry 1981;
Maslach 1982; Maslach and Jackson 1981).
As the definition indicates, job burnout should not be
viewed as a unitary concept (Cordes and Dougherty 1993).
Instead, empirical evidence indicates that emotional ex-
haustion, depersonalization, and reduced sense of personal
accomplishment should be viewed as three distinct compo-
nents of burnout (Iwanicki and Schwab 1981; Maslach and
Jackson 1981). Emotional exhaustion refers to feelings of
being emotionally overextended and drained by contact with
other people (Leiter 1988). Maslach described emotional ex-
haustion as a feeling of being used up, a feeling that is at the
heart of the burnout syndrome (Maslach 1982). Traits such
as apathy and cynicism, as well as feelings of helplessness, are
seen as hallmarks of emotional exhaustion (Caputo 1991).
Depersonalization refers to an unfeeling and callous response
toward the people who are usually the recipients of one’s ser-
vice or care (Leiter 1988). Depersonalization is characterized
by a shift in attitude from a positive and caring attitude to a
negative and uncaring attitude toward others (Caputo 1991).
Reduced sense of personal accomplishment refers to a decline
in one’s feeling of competence and successful achievement in
one’s career (Leiter 1988).
The relationship between, or the sequencing of onset of,
the three components of the burnout syndrome (emotional
exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced sense of personal
accomplishment) has been debated in the literature. For ex-
ample, one view of the burnout syndrome, often termed the
“Golembiewski model” (Golembiewski 1989; Golembiewski
and Munzenrider 1981), presents the burnout process be-
ginning with depersonalization, which in turn leads to a
feeling of reduced personal accomplishment, which leads to
emotional exhaustion. However, the generally accepted view
of the burnout process, the “Maslach model,” has emotional
exhaustion as the first step in the burnout syndrome, followed
by depersonalization, which leads to decreased personal ac-
complishment (Maslach and Jackson 1982; see also Boles,
Johnston, and Hair 1997; Leiter 1988). Empirical support
for this conceptualization was shown in Leiter’s (1988) study
in the field of health care, as well as other studies (Leiter and
Maslach 1988; Leiter and Meechan 1986). While the ordering
of burnout components may seem trivial at first glance, from
both a practitioner and academic perspective, understanding
this process is very important. For example, identification of
early warning signs of burnout allows intervention efforts to
be directed toward individuals in the early stages of the onset
of burnout. The generally accepted conceptualization of the
burnout process, the Maslach model, suggests that attitudes
and behaviors indicating emotional exhaustion should signal
the onset of burnout and trigger intervention efforts.
Work-Related Antecedents of Burnout
As the definition indicates, burnout is seen as an outcome
of work-related stress. It appears as a result of the chronic
stress that is inherent in certain occupations. Work-related
variables shown to lead to high levels of chronic stress, and
therefore increase the risk of burnout, include a high degree
of interpersonal interaction, a continuous heavy workload,
role conflict, and role ambiguity (Malakh-Pines and Aronson
1988)—characteristics commonly seen in the professional
selling positions.
The belief that chronic stress can be created by high levels
of personal interaction is not new. As early as 1964, Kahn et
al. suggested that frequent contacts beyond the boundaries of
the worker’s department and beyond the boundaries of the
organization, especially with the need to provide innovative
and creative solutions (as seen in the sales profession), can lead
Fall 2011 399
to high levels of work-related stress. Cordes and Dougherty
(1993) added that the potential for job burnout appears great-
est for careers that (1) require significant direct client contact
and (2) are client dependent. In fact, in the same article,
Cordes and Dougherty list sales representatives as one of the
professions they predict to be high burnout positions. Perhaps
Malakh-Pines, Aronson, and Kafry (1981) put it best when
they simply stated that burnout would be greatest in careers
that are client centered.
Throughout the burnout literature, role conflict and role
ambiguity are the two primary stressors that result from deal-
ing with others. Role conflict arises when those with a vested
interest in how well the individual performs (e.g., supervisors,
clients, coworkers, family members) make conflicting demands
(Walker, Churchill, and Ford 1975). Role ambiguity arises
when one does not clearly understand the expectations of one’s
role. Role ambiguity may arise from lack of understanding of
how to accomplish a specific task, what others expect out of
the individual, or how the individual will be evaluated. Stud-
ies of teacher trainees, first-year teachers (Fimian and Blanton
1987), and human service professionals (Brookings et al. 1985)
have found positive correlations between both role conflict
and role ambiguity and all three components of the burnout
syndrome. In several other studies, positive relationships have
been found between role conflict and ambiguity and specific
components of the burnout syndrome. For example, in other
studies of burnout in teaching, Schwab and Iwanicki (1982)
and Schwab, Jackson, and Schuler (1986) found a positive
correlation between role conflict and depersonalization and
positive correlations between role ambiguity and reduced sense
of personal accomplishment. Jackson, Turner, and Brief (1987)
found the same link between role conflict and emotional
exhaustion and depersonalization in a study of public service
lawyers, and Leiter and Maslach (1988) found a positive
correlation between role conflict and emotional exhaustion
in nursing. In a more recent study of health-care workers,
Thomas and Lankau (2009) found a positive relationship
between role stress and burnout.
While the presence of role conflict and role ambiguity as
characteristics of sales jobs is well documented in the sales and
marketing literature (Behrman and Perreault 1984; Goolsby
1992; Shepherd and Fine 1994), only a handful have inves-
tigated any aspect of the burnout syndrome. Singh, Goolsby,
and Rhoads’s 1994 study was one of the first marketing studies
to address the burnout construct. Their focus was job burnout
in customer service telephone personnel. The results of their
study indicated the existence of a positive relationship between
role conflict and emotional exhaustion and depersonalization,
as well as a positive relationship between role ambiguity and
each of the three facets of burnout.
In the sales literature, a handful of studies have investigated
aspects of the burnout syndrome. For example, in a study
conducted with a cross-industry sample of 103 salespeople,
Sand and Miyazaki (2000) found that support, both within
and outside the organization, has the potential to lower the
incidence of burnout. However, their study did not explore
any aspects of the traditionally accepted components of the
burnout syndrome (emotional exhaustion, depersonalization,
and reduced personal accomplishment). Two other studies
(Babakus et al. 1999; Boles, Johnston, and Hair 1997) focused
exclusively on the emotional exhaustion component of burn-
out. A significant positive relationship was found between role
conflict and emotional exhaustion in both studies, while role
ambiguity was related to emotional exhaustion in just one of
the two studies (Babakus et al. 1999). Two other studies in
the sales literature have gone beyond emotional exhaustion
and investigated the entire burnout syndrome. The first,
an exploratory study conducted with a small sample taken
from a single company in the chemical industry, did find a
significant positive relationship between burnout and both
role conflict and role ambiguity (Shepherd and Tashchian
1999). The second study (Lewin and Sager 2007), again us-
ing a single company sample of chemical salespeople, found
a positive relationship between two stress-related constructs
(role overload and job tension) and emotional exhaustion and
a significant negative relationship between role ambiguity
and reduced personal accomplishment. Importantly, Lewin
and Sager (2007) posited an alternative nonsequential model
of the burnout syndrome. In conflict with both the Golem-
biewski and Maslach conceptualizations, Lewin and Sager’s
model of burnout in the selling profession presents feelings of
reduced personal accomplishment as the onset of the burnout
process. These feelings of reduced personal accomplishment
are then directly related to both depersonalization and emo-
tional exhaustion. In addition, the Lewin and Sager model
incorporates a direct relationship between depersonalization
and emotional exhaustion.
Lewin and Sager (2007) list their sampling frame, a single
firm selling chemical products, as a limitation of the general-
izability of their conceptualization of burnout to other sales
situations. As a result, they call for future research to test their
proposed sequencing in different sales settings and organiza-
tions. The authors also call for research investigating the
sequencing of the burnout components in a larger model of
salesperson burnout, including appropriate outcome variables,
such as job satisfaction. Following these recommendations
in the current research, a process model of burnout is tested.
As previously discussed, understanding the sequencing of
the burnout components is important to understanding and
managerial intervention. To that end, an expanded process
model of burnout is tested with a cross-industry sample of
salespeople using the Maslach model, as it is the generally
accepted conceptualization of burnout, with a cross-industry
sample of salespeople. Consistent with past research, a
400 Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management
significant positive relationship between role conflict and the
burnout syndrome is expected, as well as a positive relation-
ship between role conflict and each of the three components
of burnout: emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and a
reduced sense of personal accomplishment. In addition, a
significant positive relationship between role ambiguity and
the burnout syndrome and each of the three components of
burnout is expected. However, it has been suggested that the
salesperson’s role ambiguity can stem from a host of factors
ranging from his or her company to his or her family (Singh
and Rhoads 1991). Since it has been stressed throughout the
literature that burnout is associated with client interaction
(Cordes and Doughterty 1993), the research focus is narrowed
to customer-oriented role ambiguity and its relationship with
burnout. Hence, the first two series of research hypotheses:
Hypothesis 1: In personal selling, a positive relationship
exists between burnout and role conflict.
(a) In personal selling, a positive relationship exists
between emotional exhaustion and role conflict.
(b) In personal selling, a positive relationship exists
between depersonalization and role conflict.
(c) In personal selling, a positive relationship exists be-
tween a reduced sense of personal accomplishment and
role conflict.
Hypothesis 2: In personal selling, a positive relationship
exists between burnout and role ambiguity.
(a) In personal selling, a positive relationship exists
between emotional exhaustion and customer-oriented
role ambiguity.
(b) In personal selling, a positive relationship exists
between depersonalization and customer-oriented role
ambiguity.
(c) In personal selling, a positive relationship exists be-
tween a reduced sense of personal accomplishment and
customer-oriented role ambiguity.
Consequences of Burnout
Burnout has been shown to have physical and emotional, in-
terpersonal, attitudinal, and behavioral consequences (Cordes
and Dougherty 1993). Physical and emotional consequences
include decreases in feelings of self-esteem, depression, irrita-
bility, helplessness, and anxiety, as well as fatigue, insomnia,
headaches, and gastrointestinal disturbances (Cordes and
Dougherty 1993; Jackson and Maslach 1982). Interpersonal
consequences include negative effects on one’s relationships
with family and friends. For example, research with police
officers has indicated a positive relationship between burnout
and withdrawal from friends and a reduction in socializing
(Jackson and Maslach 1982). Attitudinal consequences seen
in the burnout literature include a decrease in job satisfac-
tion (Maslach 1982; Maslach and Jackson 1985; Wolpin,
Burke, and Greenglass 1991) and organizational commitment
( Jackson, Turner, and Brief 1987; Leiter and Maslach 1988).
Finally, behavioral consequences seen in previous research
include increases in turnover (Schwab, Jackson, and Schuler
1986) and absenteeism (Firth and Britton 1989), and decreases
in performance (Singh, Goolsby, and Rhoads 1994).
The burnout-related marketing literature has tended to
focus on attitudinal consequences of burnout, of which job
satisfaction is perhaps the most noted. Of course, job satisfac-
tion is an important construct, as it has long been associated
with higher organizational performance (Hunt, Chonko, and
Wood 1985). In the marketing literature, Singh, Goolsby,
and Rhoads’s (1994) results indicate that each of the three
components of burnout has a deleterious effect on the job
satisfaction of customer service personnel. In the sales lit-
erature, Babakus et al. (1999) found a negative relationship
between emotional exhaustion and job satisfaction, and in
their exploratory study, Shepherd and Tashchian (1999) found
a significant negative relationship between burnout and job
satisfaction. Consistent with these results, the following set
of hypotheses are offered:
Hypothesis 3: In personal selling, a negative relationship
exists between burnout and job satisfaction.
(a) In personal selling, a negative relationship exists
between emotional exhaustion and job satisfaction.
(b) In personal selling, a negative relationship exists
between depersonalization and job satisfaction.
(c) In personal selling, a negative relationship exists
between a reduced sense of personal accomplishment
and job satisfaction.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Sample
Data for this study were obtained by mailing questionnaires
to a sample of 2,300 salespeople from a variety of organiza-
tions throughout the United States obtained from industry
and commercial list sources. Address problems (incomplete,
no forwarding address, etc.) resulted in the return of 78
questionnaire packages. Two hundred thirty-four usable
questionnaires were returned, resulting in a response rate
of 11 percent. Major industry categories for respondents
included retail (25 percent), services (22 percent), wholesale
(13 percent), and manufacturing of consumer and industrial
goods (10 percent). With other studies using this methodol-
Fall 2011 401
ogy for data collection (e.g., see Sand and Miyazaki 2000),
it was noted that responses were from a wide range of lo-
cations across the United States, in relative proportion to
nonrespondents, and that an examination of early versus late
respondents yielded no significant differences in demographic
or response patterns.
Measures
All constructs were measured using scales in the extant lit-
erature. Burnout was measured using a modified version of
Maslach’s burnout inventory (Maslach and Jackson 1981).
The modifications to the instrument consisted of converting
the instrument to a sales environment by changing the word
“client” to “customer.” For example, the item “I can easily
understand how my clients feel about things” was changed
to “I can easily understand how my customers feel about
things.” This modification is consistent with the previous use
of the instrument in the two emotional exhaustion studies
in the sales literature. Respondents indicated how often they
experienced each of the burnout items on a seven-point scale
that ranges from “never” to “every day.” The reliability coef-
ficients for each of the three facets of burnout were emotional
exhaustion (0.915), depersonalization (0.840), and reduced
sense of personal accomplishment (0.821).
Consistent with the previous marketing literature, the
Rizzo, House, and Lirtzman (1970) eight-item instrument
was used to measure role conflict. The reliability coefficient
for the role conflict instrument was 0.805. Following a rec-
ommendation of Babakus et al. (1999), Singh and Rhoads’s
(1991) role ambiguity instrument was used to measure role
ambiguity. The decision to use the Singh and Rhoads mea-
sure instead of the widely used Rizzo, House, and Lirtzman
(1970) measure of role ambiguity hinged on the fact that
the Singh and Rhoads instrument offered an opportunity
to focus on customer-oriented role ambiguity. This seemed
particularly appropriate given the fact that burnout seems
to be greatest in client-centered occupations (Malakh-Pines,
Aronson, and Kafry 1981). The reliability coefficient for the
eight customer-oriented role ambiguity items was 0.886.
Job satisfaction was measured using a three-item scale
presented by Netemeyer et al. (1997). Two of the three
items, “I feel fairly well satisfied with my present line of
work” and “I feel a great sense of satisfaction from my line
of work,” utilized a seven-point agreement scale. The third
item, “All things considered (i.e., pay, promotion, supervi-
sion, coworkers), how satisfied are you with your present
line of work?” utilized a seven-point satisfaction scale. The
Netemeyer et al. scale was implemented, as it was originally
designed for the sales context and has displayed acceptable
reliability estimates. Cronbach’s alpha for job satisfaction was
acceptable (0.925).
Analysis
The stated hypotheses were tested by using partial least squares
structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). Conceptually,
PLS-SEM path modeling is similar to using multiple regression
analysis. The objective is to maximize the explained variance of
the endogenous latent constructs (dependent variables) versus
the covariance-based structural equation models (CB-SEM)
such as LISREL, which attempts to reproduce the theoretical
covariance matrix without focusing on explained variance
(Gefen, Straub, and Boudreau 2000; Haenlein and Kaplan
2004; Jöreskog and Sörbom 1996). While CB-SEM models
are more popular in the marketing and sales literature, they
require a more restrictive set of assumptions, including mul-
tivariate normality of data and minimum sample size and
indicators per construct. These assumptions can be relaxed
with the use of PLS-SEM, which can address a wider range
of models and has less restrictive assumptions about the data.
Furthermore, since the measurement properties of constructs
are less restrictive with PLS-SEM, constructs with fewer items
(e.g., two or three) can be used (Hair, Ringle, and Sarstedt
2011). Recent PLS-SEM methodological advancements, along
with the availability of a number of sophisticated statistical
software, have contributed to the usefulness and popularity
of this technique (Henseler and Chin 2010; Rigdon, Ringle,
and Sarstedt 2011; Ringle, Sarstedt, and Mooi 2010; Ringle,
Wende, and Will 2005).
Given that the present research focus is to predict the rela-
tionship between the burnout construct and job satisfaction,
PLS-SEM was chosen as the appropriate method for analysis.
This tool is well suited for exploratory research with the aim of
theory development. The total number of indicators (41) for
the 6 latent constructs in relation to the sample size of 234,
and the complex form of the initial model, were additional
motivators to use PLS-SEM versus the traditional CB-SEM
models. For the current project, SmartPLS was used for all
subsequent data analysis. SmartPLS is the most popular and
often applied PLS-SEM software (Ringle, Wende, and Will
2005).
Like traditional CB-SEM, PLS-SEM can be used to assess
the reliability and validity of the measurement model—the
relationship between the latent constructs and observed
indicators. The measurement model is typically referred to
as the “outer model.” The outer model assessment involves
examining the reliability of each construct at the indicator
level as well as the convergent and discriminant validities of
each construct. For each of the six constructs in the model,
Table 1 reports the indicator factor loadings, reliability, and
average variance extracted (AVE).
For role conflict and role ambiguity, each indicator loads
highest on its designated construct with no cross-loading of
more than 0.40. Both constructs have acceptable reliability
402 Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management
Table 1
Factor Loadings, Reliability, and Average Variance Extracted for the Burnout Model
Items
Role
Conflict
Role
Ambiguity—
Customer
Emotional
Exhaustion Depersonalization
Reduced
Personal
Accomplishment
Job
Satisfaction
Role Conflict
RC01 0.665
RC02 0.747
RC03 0.733
RC04 0.695
RC05 0.636
RC06 0.776
RC07 0.793
RC08 0.749
Role Ambiguity—
Customer
RA01 0.733
RA02 0.684
RA03 0.720
RA04 0.830
RA05 0.820
RA06 0.748
RA07 0.714
RA08 0.707
Emotional
Exhaustion
EE01 0.753 0.437
EE02 0.766 0.480
EE03 0.795 0.511 0.439
EE04 0.695 0.472
EE05 0.895 0.604 0.433 0.520
EE06 0.842 0.558 0.438 0.534
EE07 0.733 0.425
EE08 0.688 0.507
EE09 0.772 0.520 0.440
Depersonalization
DP01 0.466 0.741
DP02 0.556 0.855
DP03 0.577 0.800 0.438
DP04 0.440 0.784
DP05 0.489 0.719
Reduced Personal
Accomplishment
RPA01 0.751
RPA02 0.652
RPA03 0.610
RPA04 0.699
RPA05 0.636
RPA06 0.846 0.409
RPA07 0.871 0.527
RPA08 0.756
Job Satisfaction
JS01 0.511 0.413 0.959
JS02 0.536 0.411 0.494 0.939
JS03 0.450 0.900
Composite
Reliability
0.863 0.909 0.930 0.886 0.875 0.953
Cronbach’s Alpha 0.805 0.886 0.915 0.840 0.821 0.925
Average Variance
Extracted
0.559 0.557 0.598 0.610 0.586 0.870
Notes: Cross-loadings of less than 0.40 are set to zero. Boldface values are the factor loadings associated with each respective construct.
Fall 2011 403
measured both by the composite reliability and Cronbach’s
alpha measures.
The three facets of the burnout syndrome—emotional
exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced personal
accomplishment—also demonstrate acceptable construct
and convergent validity. Each construct has an acceptable
reliability and every indicator loads highest on the desig-
nated construct. However, it is important to note that the
factor cross-loading between the emotional exhaustion and
the depersonalization constructs is clear. At the same time,
reduced personal accomplishment does not have large cross-
loadings with either of the two burnout constructs. Finally,
the three-item job satisfaction scale has both strong reliability
and convergent validity.
While examination of cross-loadings provides some indica-
tion of discriminant validity of a construct, a stronger test is
suggested by Fornell and Larcker (1981). With this approach,
the AVE for each construct is compared with the squared la-
tent variable correlations of all other constructs. Discriminant
validity is established if the AVEs are greater than the squared
latent variable correlations. Table 2 presents the results of the
Fornell–Larcker criterion. As can be seen, in each case the
AVEs (diagonal elements) are greater than every squared latent
variable correlation (off diagonal elements), thus establishing
the discriminant validity of each of the six constructs.
After establishing the measurement properties of the
construct, the next phase was to determine the relationship
among the constructs for testing the hypotheses advanced
in this research. The structural model in PLS-SEM is com-
monly referred to as the “inner model.” The PLS-SEM path
modeling is applied in situations in which the relationship
among constructs is assumed to be unidirectional (recursive).
Furthermore, because PLS estimates do not allow a judgment
regarding their statistical significance, most PLS-SEM software
uses a bootstrapping option to calculate the approximate
standard error for each latent variable path coefficient. The
ratio of path coefficient to its standard error can be tested as
a t-value for significance.
Figure 1 displays the full burnout model in which role
conflict and role ambiguity are modeled to have a direct ef-
fect on the three components of job burnout (H1 and H2).
Similarly, emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and re-
duced personal accomplishment are modeled to impact job
satisfaction (H3). The model further posits that emotional
exhaustion has a direct effect on depersonalization, and re-
duced personal accomplishment and depersonalization also
impact reduced personal accomplishment (test of Maslach’s
burnout model).
Testing the inner model presented in Figure 1 resulted in
the latent coefficients presented in Table 3. The inner path
coefficients were computed using the bootstrapping option of
SmartPLS. As mentioned earlier, this approach estimates the
approximate standard error for each latent variable coefficient
and a corresponding t-value. Path coefficients with a t-value of
less than 1.645 were considered nonsignificant. Table 3 lists
the path coefficients of the full model. Although PLS-SEM
does not provide an overall goodness-of-fit test, the t-value for
individual latent variables can be used to test the hypotheses
and derive the final reduced form of the burnout model.
In examining the impact of role conflict on the three
dimensions of the burnout construct, it appears that role
conflict has a significant relationship with only emotional
exhaustion (RC → EE = 0.329, t = 3.156). Role conflict does
not have an effect on depersonalization (RC → DP = 0.109,
t = 1.279) or reduced personal accomplishment of the re-
spondents (RC → RPA = 0.131, t = 1.103). Similar results
were obtained with respect to role ambiguity and the burn-
out construct. Again, role ambiguity affects a salesperson’s
emotional exhaustion (RA → EE = 0.288, t = 3.00) but does
not have an impact on depersonalization or reduced sense
of personal accomplishment (RA → DP = 0.126, t = 1.477;
RA → RPA = 0.123, t = 1.042). In other words, role conflict
and role ambiguity create emotional exhaustion among sales-
people but do not directly affect their sense of depersonaliza-
tion or reduced personal accomplishment. As such, there is
only partial support for H1 and H2.
The next set of hypotheses examines the relationship
between the components of the burnout syndrome and job
satisfaction. Emotional exhaustion appears to have a direct
and significant effect on job satisfaction (EE → JS = –0.373;
t = 3.067). In other words, individuals experiencing higher
levels of emotional exhaustion will exhibit lower levels of job
satisfaction long before the effects of depersonalization and re-
duced sense of personal accomplishments take hold. Reduced
personal accomplishment is also responsible for lower levels
of job satisfaction (RPA → JS = –0.261, t = 2.916). However,
depersonalization does not appear to have an impact on a
salesperson’s job satisfaction (DP → JS = 0.087, t = 0.661).
These findings provide partial support for H3.
A final discussion with regard to Figure 1 includes examina-
tion of the relationship among the three burnout components.
There is strong support that emotional exhaustion will lead
to depersonalization (EE → DP = 0.530, t = 6.312) and that
depersonalization will lead to a reduced sense of personal
accomplishment (DP → RPA = 0.401, t = 2.704). However,
as suggested in the earlier discussion, emotional exhaustion
does not directly impact reduced personal accomplishment
(EE → RPA = 0.160, t = 1.267) and operates indirectly
through a sense of depersonalization. These findings offer
support for the Maslach burnout model in personal selling
situations (Maslach and Jackson 1981). Based on the results
of the analysis, Figure 2 presents the modified job burnout
model. The revised path coefficients are included in the second
panel of Table 2 and are depicted in Figure 2.
404 Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management
In conclusion, there is evidence that role conflict and
role ambiguity affect salesperson burnout but only through
emotional exhaustion. Furthermore, job burnout has an
impact on job satisfaction through emotional exhaustion
of the respondent and his or her sense of reduced personal
accomplishment. Finally, the burnout syndrome starts with
emotional exhaustion, which leads to depersonalization. De-
personalization, in turn, creates a sense of reduced personal
accomplishment among salespeople and is ultimately related
to job satisfaction.
DISCUSSION
Job burnout is a troubling workplace issue that has been linked
to a host of organizational problems, ranging from absenteeism
to decreased organizational commitment (Cordes and Dough-
erty 1993). While job burnout has many meanings in Western
culture, a widely accepted conceptualization of job burnout
has emerged as a multidimensional construct consisting of
three interrelated components: emotional exhaustion, deper-
sonalization, and reduced sense of personal accomplishment.
Table 2
Assessment of Discriminant Validity of Burnout Model Constructs
Role
Conflict
Role
Ambiguity
Emotional
Exhaustion Depersonalization
Reduced
Personal
Accomplishment
Job
Satisfaction
Role Conflict 0.559
Role Ambiguity 0.051 0.557
Emotional
Exhaustion
0.159 0.131 0.598
Depersonalization 0.160 0.162 0.425 0.610
Reduced Personal
Accomplishment
0.094 0.088 0.155 0.178 0.586
Job Satisfaction 0.124 0.167 0.288 0.154 0.219 0.870
Notes: Average variance extracted = diagonal elements; construct correlations = off-diagonal elements.
Figure 1
Antecedents and Consequences of Burnout Syndrome—Full Model
Fall 2011 405
Table 3
Path Coefficients of the Burnout Full and Final Models
Full Path Model Final Path Model
Path
Coefficient
Standard
Error t-Value
Path
Coefficient
Standard
Error t-Value
Role Conflict
Emotional Exhaustion 0.33 0.10 3.16 0.33 0.09 3.81
Depersonalization 0.11 0.09 1.28
Reduced Personal Accomplishment 0.13 0.12 1.10
Role Ambiguity—Customer
Emotional Exhaustion 0.29 0.10 3.00 0.29 0.09 3.34
Depersonalization 0.13 0.09 1.48
Reduced Personal Accomplishment 0.12 0.12 1.04
Emotional Exhaustion
Depersonalization 0.53 0.08 6.31 0.54 0.06 8.99
Reduced Personal Accomplishment 0.16 0.13 1.27
Job Satisfaction 0.37 0.12 3.07 0.42 0.09 4.57
Depersonalization
Reduced Personal Accomplishment 0.40 0.15 2.70 0.42 0.09 4.59
Job Satisfaction 0.09 0.13 0.66
Reduced Personal Accomplishment
Job Satisfaction 0.26 0.09 2.92 0.30 0.09 3.46
Figure 2
Antecedents and Consequences of Burnout Syndrome—Final Model
406 Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management
Further, while still a matter of some debate, the generally
accepted view is that emotional exhaustion is the first step in
the burnout syndrome, followed by depersonalization, which
leads to a reduced sense of personal accomplishment.
It has been suggested that the potential for job burnout
appears greatest for careers that are client centered, such as
personal selling (Cordes and Dougherty 1993; Malakh-Pines,
Aronson, and Kafry 1981). While few positions are more cli-
ent centered than selling, to date relatively little research has
focused on job burnout in the personal selling position. This
research contributes by proposing and testing an integrated
framework explaining job burnout in the personal selling
context. The model is grounded in the traditional view that
the job burnout is a multidimensional construct consisting of
three interrelated components: emotional exhaustion, deper-
sonalization, and reduced sense of personal accomplishment.
Further, the model tested that in the selling context, the gener-
ally accepted view that emotional exhaustion is the first step in
the burnout syndrome, followed by depersonalization, which
leads to a reduced sense of personal accomplishment. The
results of this study support this sequential view. This result is
extremely important, as any attempt of greater understanding
of the burnout process, and managerial intervention efforts,
requires the ability to identify the warning signs of burnout
as they emerge and progress within the sales setting.
In one of the early conceptualizations of job burnout,
Malakh-Pines and Aronson (1988) identified role conflict and
role ambiguity as two work-related stressors that increase the
potential for job burnout. However, research into relation-
ship role conflict and role ambiguity and job burnout or its
three components have been mixed. For example, while role
conflict was found to be related to emotional exhaustion in
sales positions in two studies (Babakus et al. 1999; Boles,
Johnston, and Hair 1997), role ambiguity was only found
to be related to emotional exhaustion in one of these studies
(Babakus et al. 1999). The current research contributed by
establishing a link between role conflict and the emotional
exhaustion component of job burnout. Further, it helped
address the confusion over the relationship between role
ambiguity and job burnout. By utilizing Singh and Rhoads’s
(1991) broadened conceptualization of role ambiguity, which
recognizes that role ambiguity can stem from many sources,
the relationship between customer-oriented role ambiguity
and job burnout was isolated and tested. The results indicate
that customer-oriented role ambiguity is positively related to
the emotional exhaustion component of job burnout.
The Boles, Johnston, and Hair (1997) study and the
Babakus et al. (1999) study also offer differing results concern-
ing the outcomes of job burnout components. For example,
the Babakus et al. (1999) study found a negative relationship
between emotional exhaustion and job satisfaction, whereas
the Boles, Johnston, and Hair (1997) study found no relation-
ship between emotional exhaustion and job satisfaction. The
current research contributes by focusing, with mixed results,
on relationships between individual components of job burn-
out and job satisfaction. The initial component of job burnout,
emotional exhaustion, by itself can have a negative effect on
job satisfaction. More important, it was found that the last
stage of job burnout, reduced personal accomplishment, has
a negative relationship on job satisfaction.
Establishing this relationship between the components of
job burnout and job satisfaction is important, as consider-
able research has linked low job satisfaction with problematic
areas such as high turnover and low productivity in the sales
literature (e.g., see Boles, Johnston, and Hair 1997; Jara-
millo, Mulki, and Marshall 2005; MacKenzie, Podsakoff,
and Ahearne 1998).
RESEARCH DIRECTIONS
To this point, much of the research on job burnout in market-
ing has focused on the individual components of job burnout.
The integrative model of job burnout in the sales context
presented and tested in this research should stimulate addi-
tional research on job burnout in selling as a multidimensional
construct. Opportunity exists for further testing of this model.
Additional research should focus on the determinants of job
burnout in the selling context. What organizational variables
further exacerbate job burnout? It has been suggested that the
sales manager is the individual within the sales organization
who has the greatest impact on the success or failure of the
salesperson (Dubinsky et al. 1995). Research should focus on
a host of sales management variables to investigate their effects
on the job burnout of salespeople. For example, broader spans
of control often reduce the interaction between sales manag-
ers and salespeople. Reductions in contact may reduce the
sales manager’s opportunity to detect and, hopefully, assuage
burnout in the sales force.
Individuals vary in the way they perceive and respond to
stress. Research indicates that those who maintain a strong
desire to give of themselves and to help others are most at risk
for burnout (Malakh-Pines and Aronson 1988). In addition,
Elliott and Smith (1984) caution that a tendency to strive
for perfection can result in unrealistic expectations, which,
when unfulfilled, can lead to burnout. Perhaps the most
straightforward, easily measurable personal antecedents of
burnout are age, job tenure, and education. Younger people
have been found to be more susceptible to burnout, as have
those with less job tenure (Caputo 1991; Maslach 1982). It
has been suggested that as one ages or gains experience in
a position, one gains life and work-related experiences that
may help the individual cope with the stresses that can lead
to burnout (Caputo 1991). Caputo (1991) suggests that the
high expectations often found in younger people and those
Fall 2011 407
new to a job often lead to disappointments as individuals begin
to realize their limitations and the limitations of their jobs.
Expectations may also help explain the positive relationship
between burnout and formal education (Maslach 1982). In
other words, higher levels of formal education may lead in-
dividuals to have higher expectations of their ability to have
an impact in their profession. Another rich opportunity for
research concerns the relationship of individual characteristics
to incidences of job burnout.
This study displayed a relationship between job burnout
through the reduced personal accomplishment component
and job satisfaction. Other outcomes of job burnout found in
the literature include absenteeism (Firth and Britton 1989),
turnover (Schwab, Jackson, and Schuler 1986), propensity to
leave (Boles, Johnston, and Hair 1997), and decreases in per-
formance (Singh, Goolsby, and Rhoads 1994). For example,
Shepherd and Tashchian (1999) did find a negative relation-
ship between job burnout and sales performance; however,
that study was exploratory in nature with a small one-company
sample. Clearly, opportunities exist for research focusing on
the consequences of job burnout.
Finally, research should focus on organizational and indi-
vidual approaches for reducing the propensity for job burnout.
For example, Cravens et al. (2004) have explored the impact
that various formal and informal management control com-
binations can have on job burnout. Their results indicate that
salespeople who work under a more visible high control system
display less role stress and job burnout. Several other research-
ers have investigated the impact that a host of individual and
organizational variables can have on the salesperson’s role stress.
For example, Sumrall and Sebastianelli (1999) investigated the
impact that managerial sales orientation has on a salesperson’s
role stress, and Nonis and Sager (2003) investigated the impact
of individual coping styles on the salesperson’s ability to handle
job-related stress. More research should focus on organizational
and individual variables that impact job-related stress and
burnout from both a standpoint of reducing the propensity
to burn out and approaches to helping the salesperson who is
suffering from job burnout.
MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS
The findings of this research suggest several managerial im-
plications. First, it is widely accepted that stress is a normal
aspect of the sales position. As a result, management may take
the view that stress “comes with the territory” and do little to
alleviate the stress inherent in the sales position. In fact, it has
been suggested that moderate levels of role stress may increase
performance as they stimulate individuals to excel (Seyle 1978;
Singh, Goolsby, and Rhoads 1994). However, no positive
outcomes have been identified for job burnout. This research
helps managers understand the negative effect that chronic role
conflict and customer-oriented role ambiguity can have on
the sales force. Specifically, job stress, in terms of role conflict
or customer-oriented role ambiguity, is positively related to
job burnout, which has been linked to a host of deleterious
individual and organizational outcomes. Thus, it behooves
management to seek approaches to reducing the stress inher-
ent in the sales position before the stressed salesperson begins
to experience burnout.
Second, this study shows that burnout in the sales position
tends to follow the generally accepted progression from emo-
tional exhaustion to depersonalization to perceived reduced
personal accomplishment. Understanding each of the three
components of burnout and the typical burnout progression
should help management identify salespeople as they move
through the burnout syndrome. For example, a noticeable
decrease in enthusiasm for the job or cynical statements about
customers may be a warning sign of emotional exhaustion or
depersonalization, respectively. Since the negative outcomes of
decreasing job satisfaction primarily stem from the last stage
in the burnout syndrome, it is important that management
identify and attempt to rectify burnout in its early stages. Based
on the results of this research, emotional exhaustion can be
thought of as the “gateway” of burnout in the sales context. As
a result, practitioners should focus burnout intervention efforts
on salespeople who exhibit signals of emotional exhaustion,
therefore maximizing the potential for successful intervention
by attacking burnout in its earliest stage.
In conclusion, while the Lewin and Sager (2007) results
suggested that burnout in sales follows a unique nonsequential
pattern, this conceptualization does not appear to fit as well
as the traditional Maslach model in a cross-industry sample
of salespeople. This is an important finding, as knowing the
process by which burnout emerges is critical in any effort to
intervene to stem the development of burnout in the sales
force. In essence, the results of this study demonstrate that
job burnout in sales is much like job burnout in any helping
profession. As a result, researchers and practitioners can feel
comfortable borrowing from the significant amount of burnout
research available in other helping professions ranging from
librarians, to teaching, to police officers. Thus, while research
into burnout in personal selling is just beginning, researchers
have the opportunity to build on a rich research history in
related fields.
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