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Crop Rotation

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Abstract

Crop rotation has been used for thousands of years. During the 1950s and early 1960s, it was felt that synthetic fertilizers and pesticides could forever replace crop rotation without loss of yield, but that opinion has changed. The current consensus is that crop rotation increases yield and profit and allows for sustained production. For example, maize, in a 2‐year rotation with soybean, yields 5 to 20% more than continuous maize, and no amount of fertilizer or pesticide can compensate completely for that difference. It is not well understood what causes the rotation effect, but improvements in soil physical properties and soil organic matter probably play a beneficial role in rotations that include multiple years of sod, pasture, or hay. Short rotations such as maize‐soybean actually result in a degradation in those same factors, yet the rotation effect still is realized. Recent information suggests that soilborne pathogens may be responsible for the yield depression seen with continuous monoculture.

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Spring barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), is one of the fourth largest grain in the world but insects, weeds and diseases agents lead to crop losses and declination of incomes. Fungal diseases cause serious losses in spring barley prompting the need to find an effective strategy of control. In the quest to find a suitable strategy, application of three treatments, high intensive, intensive and basic. In 2020, varieties (factor A) of spring barley were grown: Elf, Yaromir and Vladimir, which were placed in experimental variants that differed in the level of application of mineral fertilizers and plant protection products-basic, intensive and high-intensity technologies (factor B). We studied seeding rates - 4, 5 and 6 million germinating grains per hectare. The technology used modern drugs from Keminova), involving the application of fungicides and fertilizer compounds were evaluated for the control of fore critical fungal disease such as Spot blotch (Bipolaris sorokiniana) disease spring barley varieties Elf, Yaromir and Vladimir. The outcome of the experiment shows that the basic technology treatment with fertilizers and mixture of herbicide, insecticide and fungicides compounds were the most effective strategy in controlling the fungal Spot blotch disease, weeds, insects and increasing the yields of three varieties Elf, Yaromir and Vladimir, which was used only in autumn spring defense is forecast. The yield in the intensive treatments was close in value, respectively, 10.47 T/ha, 10.27 T/ha and 9.15 T/ha which is higher by 27%, 21% and 33 % compared to basic treatments. The outcome was reflected in the segments of the grain yield, with the end goal that the weight and mass of 1000 part were improved in three therapies contrasted with fundamental since the high escalated application was more compelling in such manner. The 3 treatments such as, high intensive, intensive and basic technologies (factor B) on three spring barley varieties (Factor-A), to control fungal disease in three replicated factorial in randomized complete block design (RCBD) containing net plot size i.e. 2 m × 5 m (10 m2). The experiments were fulfillment during the 2020 years and impact of the 3 diverse mixed protection basic, intensive and high intensive technologies were tried.
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Background and aims Crop rotation can effectively alleviate the obstacles of continuous cropping and restore the agroecological balance, and then determining the optimal length of crop rotation is the cornerstone of effective crop rotation. To delve into this issue, we conducted a six-year rotation experiment aimed at exploring how different rotation lengths impact sugar beet yield, soil properties, and microbial communities. Methods Conduct field experiments to gather rhizosphere soil samples from treatments with different rotation lengths of sugar beet and analyze their physicochemical properties and microbial characteristics. Subsequently, establish a model linking sugar yield with the physicochemical properties and microbial characteristics of the rhizosphere soil. Results Sugar beet, sugar content, and sugar yield significantly increased while decreasing disease symptoms, with increases in crop rotation length. Longer rotations significantly ameliorated soil acidification and improved soil fertility. On the other hand, extending the crop rotation length significantly altered the community structure of microbial sub-communities with varying abundances. Additionally, the fungal diversity increased and ecological network became more complex, and a multitude of potentially beneficial microbiota were enriched in the rhizosphere soil with rotation length. Conclusion These results demonstrate that extending the crop rotation length improved soil conditions, and increased sugar beet yield. In addition, we recommend that sugar beet rotation length should be at least three years or more.
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Introduction This study deals with agricultural practices and their implications on soil health and crop yield using economic optimization. Specifically, the research focuses on the impact of different crops, such as canola, wheat, and meadow clover, on soil nitrogen levels and the subsequent effects on crop health. Methods A model of nitrogen flow is utilized while economic optimization is done using dynamic methods. Results The paper highlights the significance of the root system in crops like wheat and canola in determining the amount of organic residue left in the soil. Even though meadow clover stands out as a unique crop in the study, given its ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen without the need for fertilization given the economic variables, it is not selected in the mix. Discussion The findings of this research have implications for sustainable farming practices, emphasizing the balance between environmental protection and economic development. Our study shows in accordance with other studies that the use of canola leads to higher profits with consequent benefits for the next cereal crops.
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Chapter
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Despite human activities are key influencing factors for cropland soil organic matter (SOM), detailed characterization of human activities has always been limited in the digital mapping of SOM due to the lack of proper representations of human's cropland use activities. Crop rotation is an essential human agricultural practice significantly affecting the spatial-temporal variations of SOM due to the periodically dynamic changes of crops. Thus, incorporating crop rotation in the digital soil mapping holds high potential for improving SOM prediction. Here, we applied time-series radar Sentinel-1 and optical Sentinel-2 to map crop rotation systems by a hierarchical rule-based method. Then we explored the effectiveness of incorporating such information in predicting SOM by implementing various combinations of predictive variables. We chose a typical multiple cropping region with various crop rotations in southern China. The model performance was evaluated by 10-fold cross-validation. Results showed significant differences in SOM among the crop rotation systems, and the single rice rotated with vegetables has the highest SOM followed by the high-diversity vegetables and long-term orchard systems. Adding crop rotation enhanced the predictability of SOM with a decrease in RMSE by 7% and an increase in R 2 by 24%. Furthermore, the crop rotation systems appeared more important in the predictive models than the soil, topo-graphic, and climatic variables. Our results demonstrated the effectiveness of including crop rotation in predicting SOM over complex agricultural landscapes. Our study indicated that human activities should be characterized more detailedly in cropland soil mapping, and that crop rotation containing information on the seasonal dynamics of cropland may be an option for such characterization.
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Intercropping of legume and cereal crop species shows potential to reduce root disease pressures by changing root-associated microbiomes and improving nitrogen (N) use via soil N-dependent fixation of atmospheric N 2 by symbiotic rhizobia. A two-year field study was conducted to evaluate the effect of pea–barley association on crop performance and on the root fungal community. Five pea cultivars (Alvesta, Karpate, Mytic, Respect, and Vitra) were grown either in pure stands or mixed with one variety of barley (Atrika). We measured crop grain yield and root rot incidence and analyzed root fungal communities. In mixed stands, total grain yield was more stable compared with that in each pure stand, but pea root disease incidence was higher except for cultivars Vitra and Karpate. The effect of cropping system on fungal alpha diversity depended on the cultivar, with Vitra showing higher Shannon diversity and Alvesta showing lower richness in mixed compared with pure stands. All four operational taxonomic units (OTUs) belonging to the Didymellaceae family were positively associated with pea root rot, and another disease-associated OTU in pea, Neoascochyta exitialis, was found to be also part of the barley core microbiome. Eleven of twelve OTUs belonging to the Glomeraceae family were associated with healthy roots and abundant in cultivar Vitra. This study shows how the phenotype and fungal microbiome of different pea cultivars respond distinctly to intercropping. Furthermore, the identification of disease- and health-associated taxa in the pea root fungal community refines the characterization of different cultivar candidates for intercropping. [Formula: see text] Copyright © 2024 The Author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY 4.0 International license .
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As one of the most fundamental and prevalent agronomic practices, crop rotation is of great significance for the optimization of regional planting structure and sustainable agricultural development. Therefore, crop rotation has attracted continuous attention from both researchers and producers worldwide. In recent years, many review articles have been published in the field of crop rotation. However, since most reviews usually focus on specialized directions and topics, only few systematic quantitative reviews and comprehensive analysis can fully determine the state of research. To address this knowledge gap, we present a scientometric review to determine the current research status of crop rotation by using CiteSpace software. The main findings were as follows: (1) From 2000 to 2020, five knowledge domains were identified as representing the intellectual base of crop rotation: (a) synergism and comparison of conservation agriculture measures or other management measures; (b) soil microecology, pest control, weed control, and plant disease control; (c) soil carbon sequestration and greenhouse gases (GHGs) emissions; (d) organic crop rotation and double cropping patterns; and (e) soil properties and crop productivity. (2) Six notable research fronts were identified: (a) plant–soil microbial interactions under crop rotation; (b) integrated effect with minimum soil disturbance and crop retention; (c) carbon sequestration and GHG emission reduction; (d) impact on weed control; (e) heterogeneity of rotation effects under different weather and soil conditions; and (f) comparison between long-term and short-term rotation. Overall, this study provides a comprehensive overview of crop rotation and proposes some future development trends for the researchers.
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Maize is one of the main irrigated crops in northern Spain. However, the traditional cropping system used for its cultivation has relied on intensive monoculture, demanding significant inputs, and resulting in occasional unprofitable yields. A promising practice to increase the sustainability of farms is the use of double-cropping systems. The aim of this study was to evaluate the combined impact of introducing a legume prior to maize, together with different tillage systems and mineral N fertilization rates on crop yields and water productivity under Mediterranean irrigation conditions. The study compared monocropping maize (MC) versus legume-maize double cropping (DC) with three tillage systems (conventional tillage, CT; minimum tillage, MT; no-tillage, NT), and three mineral N fertilization rates (zero, medium and high). The legumes employed were pea for grain (2019), vetch for green manure (2020), and vetch for forage (2021). The highest yields were found in DC. On the one hand, the benefits associated with legume cropping allowed for increased grain yield of DC maize; on the other hand, the combined biomass of the legume plus maize led the DC systems to achieve significantly higher total biomass (sum of grain and stover) than the MC systems. In addition, a better adaptation of the maize DC phenological cycle to environmental conditions favoured higher yields in this system. Higher water consump-tions in DC systems resulted in lower yield water use efficiency (WUE y). However, when only irrigation water was taken into account, DC was the system with the highest irrigation water use efficiency for yield (IWU y). Similarly, the high biomass values generated in the DC system resulted in higher water use efficiency for biomass (WUE b). The tillage system with the highest yields was NT. These results, together with a higher water retention capacity in NT made the water productivity (WUE b , WUE y and IWU y) of these systems higher. The use of high N fertilizer rates did not show any yield or WUE advantage over the medium rate. The results of this study indicate that in Mediterranean agroecosystems, the use of legume-maize double cropping systems together with NT systems and reduction of N fertilization can be a good strategy to maintain crop yields, while saving N fertilizer, and to improve WUE b and IWUE y .
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Purpose of Review: Continuous replanting of land with the same or similar plant species can result in the accumulation of harmful soil microbes, which can lead to crop failure. In this review, we explore the influence of constant replanting on the health of short-rotation forestry soil, focusing on the accumulation of deleterious microbes and the decline of beneficial microbes. We also suggest possible practical solutions to address this problem and consider future research that could be conducted to better understand and reduce the build-up of deleterious soil microbes in short-rotation forestry soil. Recent Findings: Compelling evidence that continuous replanting of the same tree species in short-rotation plantation forestry might contribute to the build-up of deleterious soil microbes is still lacking. However, our assessment of existing soil microbiome data from global short-rotation plantation environments suggests a high risk of an accumulation of harmful microbes and a loss of beneficial microbes in plots that were continually replanted with the same tree species. Based on this evidence, and that from agriculture, we propose further research to acquire a better understanding of the build-up of harmful soil microbes in short-rotation plantation forestry, and suggest crop rotation and intercropping strategies to avoid this malady in the future. Summary: The accumulation of microbes detrimental to plantation trees and the decline of microbes beneficial to these trees are realistic risks when plantations are continually replanted with the same tree species. Extensive research is necessary to evaluate the impact of short continuous planting rotations on the biodiversity of soil microbes in plantations and to develop strategies that would alleviate the build-up of detrimental microbes.
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China is the largest producer of faba bean with a total harvested area of 8.11×10⁵ ha and a total production of 1.69 ×10⁶ tons (dry beans) in 2020, accounting for 30% of the world production. Faba bean is grown in China for both fresh pods and dry seed. East China cultivates large seed cultivars for food processing and fresh vegetables, while northwestern and southwestern China grow cultivars for dry seeds, with an increased production of fresh green pods. Most of the faba bean is consumed domestically, with limited exports. The absence of unified quality control measures and simple traditional cultivation practices contributes to the lower competitiveness of the faba bean industry in international markets. Recently, new cultivation methods have emerged with improved weed control, as well as better water and drainage management, resulting in higher quality and income for producers. Root rot disease in faba bean is caused by multiple pathogens, including Fusarium spp., Rhizoctonia spp., and Pythium spp. Fusarium spp. is the most prevalent species causing root rot in faba bean crops and is responsible for severe yield loss, with different species causing the disease in different regions in China. The yield loss ranges from 5% to 30%, up to 100% in severely infected fields. The management of faba bean root rot disease in China involves a combination of physical, chemical, and bio-control methods, including intercropping with non-host crops, applying rational nitrogen, and treating seeds with chemical or bio-seed treatments. However, the effectiveness of these methods is limited due to the high cost, the broad host range of the pathogens, and potential negative impacts on the environment and non-targeted soil organisms. Intercropping is the most widely utilized and economically friendly control method to date. This review provides an overview of the current status of faba bean production in China, the challenges faced by the industry due to root rot disease, and the progress in identifying and managing this disease. This information is critical for developing integrated management strategies to effectively control root rot in faba bean cultivation and facilitating the high-quality development of the faba bean industry.
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INTRODUCTION: Sustainability in agricultural production is guided by the overriding philosophy of "feed the soil to feed the plant". This basic precept is implemented through a series of practices designed to increase soil productivity and fertility by adding organic matter, biological activity and nutrient availability. Over time, adding organic materials such as green manure, crop residues, and composts to cultivated soils builds levels of soil organic matter. As soil organic matter increases, the ability of the soil to supply to the crops also increases (Shah and Wu, 2019). The ultimate goal is a healthy, fertile, biologically active soil with improved structure and enhanced nutrient availability. Soil has biological, chemical, and physical properties that are always changing. Sustainable agricultural practices are important to keep the soil healthy and productive. Soils are the reservoirs for nutrients and water, and they provide a means of physical support for plants. Modern agriculture has made use of this resource through the domestication of plant species suitable for large-scale food production in combination with tillage practices that opened large acreage for cultivation and planting.
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The objective of this experiment was to evaluate the effects of growing a deep-rooting perennial on the root system development of a subsequent crop with low root penetrating ability. These effects were measured on a gravelly Alfisol with a compacted subsoil horizon for three tillage methods (zero tillage, conventional tillage and reduced tillage, consisting of chiseling in the row zone once a year) and two cropping sequences (pigeon pea-maize and continuous maize). The root development was related to changes in soil physical and chemical properties.
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Relationships between the activities of 11 soil enzymes and microbial respiration, biomass, viable plate counts, and soil properties were determined in surface samples of 10 diverse soils. Alkaline phosphatase, amidase, alpha -glucosidase, and dehydrogenase activities were significantly related to microbial respiration. Alkaline phosphatase, amidase, and catalase were the most satisfactory choices in determining the relative activity and mass of the microbial population in soils. The activities of these enzymes were highly correlated with both microbial respiration and total biomass in soils. -from Authors
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Predicting crop yield reductions from weeds continues to challenge weed science. Useful methods based upon weed densities and upon area weeds influence have been developed. Results vary greatly from year to year and location to location for several reasons which are reviewed: 1) the shift in crop yield from a weed density-dependent to a weed density-independent relationship; 2) the effect of density on essential growth factor competed for; 3) differences among weed species in relative competitiveness for essential growth factors; 4) the differential effect of environmental conditions on the competitiveness of weed species; and 5) the effect of time of emergence on competition. To reduce the variability in prediction methods will necessitate developing a method based upon the factor(s) responsible for yield reduction.
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The competitiveness of 10 soybean [ Glycine max (L.) Merr.] cultivars to weeds, their tolerance to twice normal rates of commonly used soybean herbicides, and the soil residual properties of these herbicides were studied during 4 years at Lincoln, Nebraska. Three soybean cultivars showing the least percentage yield loss from weeds were ‘Harosoy 63′, ‘Amsoy’, and ‘Corsoy’; whereas cultivars showing the greatest yield loss were ‘Hawkeye 63′, ‘Shelby’, and ‘Lindarin 63′. The two herbicide treatments causing the greatest average soybean yield loss were 3-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-1-methoxy-1-methylurea (linuron) at 4.5 kg/ha and α,α,α-trifluro-2,6-dinitro- N,N -dipropyl- p -toluidine (trifluralin) at 2.2 kg/ha. Cultivar selection was important in reducing soybean yield loss from herbicides as linuron at 4.5 kg/ha reduced yields 5% for ‘Harosoy 63’ to as much as 31% for ‘Ford’. ‘Neal’ oat (Avena saliva L.) yields showed 4-(methylsulfonyl)-2,6-dinitro- N,N -dipropylaniline (nitralin) to be the most persistent herbicide in soil in this study followed by trifluralin. Plowing the soil eliminated the phytotoxicity of nitralin and trifluralin to subsequently planted oats.
Article
Weed seed and seedling populations, and weed competition were compared in plots of continuous corn and corn/soybean rotation under ridge and conventional tillage. After 7 to 8 yr of standard chemical and mechanical weed control, from 1500 to 3000 weed seeds/m ² (to a 10-cm depth) were found in continuous corn with ridge tillage whereas about two-thirds fewer seeds were found in conventionally tilled corn. Soil from a corn/soybean rotation had from 200 to 700 seeds/m ² in both tillage systems. Annual loss of weed seeds from the soil through germination was from 3 to 12% in ridge tillage and 11 to 43% in conventional tillage. Additions to the seed pool were supplied by small weeds whose germination was stimulated by “layby” cultivation, with up to 10 times more emergence and 140 times more seed production in ridge than in conventional tillage. Withholding herbicides for 1 yr reduced yields of continuous corn by 10 to 27% in ridge tillage, only 2 to 4% in conventional tillage, and negligibly in corn/soybean rotations regardless of tillage. Reducing seed production of small layby weeds in ridge tillage may aid in solving the weed problem in this conservation tillage system.
Article
Knowledge of interference thresholds, biology, and growth habits of weeds of rice is essential to implement timely, effective, economical weed control technology for profitable rice production. Regression analyses were used to determine threshold levels for weed densities and durations of interference for major weeds of rice. Weed threshold information for individual species or combinations of species can be used to develop models for initiating control inputs and determining their costs and returns. Among the grass weeds in density experiments, red rice reduced rice grain yields the most followed by barnyardgrass, beared sprangletop, and broadleaf signalgrass. Among broadleaf/aquatic weeds in density experiments, hemp sesbania reduced rice grain yields the most followed by northern jointvetch, ducksalad, spreading dayflower, and eclipta. Barnyardgrass, broadleaf signalgrass, and ducksalad interfered with rice the most during early season, whereas eclipta, hemp sesbania, northern jointvetch, red rice, and spreading dayflower caused greater interference during mid- to late-season.
Chapter
This chapter elaborates the microbially mediated increases in plant-available phosphorus (P). The importance of microorganisms in soil nutrient cycling and their role in plant nutrition has been realized for a long time. Their active part in the decomposition and mineralization of organic matter and release of nutrients is crucial to sustaining the plant productivity. The concentration of total P in soils ranges from 0.02 to 0.5% and averages approximately 0.05%, the variation being largely because of differences in weathering intensity and parent material composition. The uptake of P from relatively insoluble sources can be affected by the type of plant growing in the soil. The effect of mycorrhizae on plant P uptake and the effect of soil P on mycorrhizae were among the first aspects of these symbioses studied. Under soil conditions, potential benefits of adding P-solubilizing (PS) organisms would depend on several factors, one of the most important being the activity of the PS microbial population already in the soil. In almost all cases, the major sources of PS isolates have been soils. The mechanism of action of PS microorganisms is also elaborated.
Article
The increased sophistication of genetic manipulation of crop species during this century is reviewed, noting the effect on genetic characteristics of modern crop varieties. The values of sustainable agriculture are defined, eg the principle that agriculture is a biological process, that soil should be seen as a living system, and maintenance of complexity and diversity in plant types and cropping systems. The history of the development of the tomato Lycopersicon esculentum variety VF145 illustrates how genetic variability has been reduced. This is contrasted with the increased genetic diversity needed in sustainable agriculture, which facilitates a lowered reliance on synthetic organic chemicals, and relative tolerance to crop pests. The benefits for weed control, insect and disease resistance, fruit quality, quantitative genetic traits and the future prospects for genetic engineering are discussed. -J.W.Cooper
Article
Presents an introduction to crop sequences and management practices which take advantage of biological and soil processes and their interactions with climate and with imposed economic and policy factors, these last two often overriding any biological advantages. North American research into rotations and crop diversity is explored, with examples of legume, seed legume, perennial forage and non-legume systems. The next section examines past management in crop rotations, specifically management of insect pests, plant diseases, nematodes and weed species. Biological structuring in crop rotations is presented diagrammatically and discussed with reference to short-term economic aspects such as government price support and supplemental payment programmes, which require the producer to maintain a certain acreage based on historical production. -J.W.Cooper
Chapter
Green manuring, in the scheme of tilling the soil for bigger and better crops, has been appreciated for a long time, especially by progressive farmers whose experiences have contributed a great deal to present the problems involved. The scientific agriculturists lagged behind in interpreting gains made and in explaining failures, thereby causing confusion and misunderstanding on the value of green manures. The underlying cause of confusion prevailing and lack of progress in utilizing the potential benefits of green manuring practices lies in the inappreciation of the zonality principle operating in nature. It is shown that the pedologic approach, based on this principle, offers an opportunity to clear the air of misapprehensions and provides rational interpretations of the true nature of reactions set off by green manuring in the respective zonal soil types. Each zonal soil, with its characteristic pedologic features, has its own mode of reactions to one or the other procedure. While most of these reactions may be theoretically anticipated, some experiments to prove the theories and ideas are in order.
Chapter
This chapter describes the influences of microorganisms in soil aggregation. Microorganisms influence the physical properties of soil by aiding in the process of water-stable aggregate formation. The influence may be direct or indirect, the latter acting through the compounds produced during decomposition. The favorable effect of microbes is contingent upon the decomposition of organic residues in the soil. During the decomposition process, substances synthesized by the organisms and products of decomposition undergo chemical and physical interactions with the soil particles, which may increase aggregate stability. During periods of intense microbial activity, the cells and filaments of the organisms themselves may mechanically bind soil particles together. The soil-binding substances produced through microbial activity are slowly or quickly destroyed by subsequent microbial action. To maintain aggregate stability at a high level, a continuous supply or periodic additions of organic residues are necessary. Microbial species and different types of organic residues vary in their soil aggregate stability effects. Some fungi or bacteria are very effective, whereas others have little influence. The action of organic compounds in affecting aggregation may be very complex and, at best, is little understood. Many have postulated that soil particles are held together in aggregates by the organic compounds.
Chapter
Publisher Summary This chapter presents the estimates of nitrogen fixation by legume crops and discusses the methods of estimating fixation by crops. The pulses are sources of good-quality protein. The forages have a long-documented history of supporting livestock on poor soil. Both these factors are attributed in part to the ability of legumes, in symbiosis with rhizobia, to obtain nitrogen from the air. Legumes require more phosphate fertilizer than cereals, and many are more demanding of water. There is not a single legume crop for which valid estimates of the nitrogen fixed in agriculture is available. There are good estimates for soybean grown in representative locations in experimental plots. Dry beans are the important legume crop for human consumption in Latin America. There is no good evidence that any legume crop satisfies all its nitrogen requirements by fixation. The highest estimates are typical of low-fertility soil or soils artificially made N-poor by admixture or carbon amendment. The simplest estimate of nitrogen fixation is by total nitrogen accumulation of the crop. This is based on the intuitive assumption that the crop derives all its nitrogen via symbiotic fixation.
Chapter
Publisher Summary This chapter describes the various aspects of cereal-legume intercropping systems. Intercropping is the growing of two or more crop species simultaneously in the same field during a growing season. The intercropping of legumes with cereals offers scope for developing energy-efficient and sustainable agriculture. The main types of intercropping include mixed intercropping, row intercropping, and strip intercropping. Crop combinations differ with geographical location and there may be intercropping of tree crops, intercropping of tree and field crops, or intercropping of field crops. Combinations of crops are determined primarily by the length of the growing season and the adaptation of crops to particular environments. Different indices have been suggested for evaluating productivity and efficiency per unit area of land of cereal-legume intercrop systems. These include comparisons of absolute yields, protein yields, caloric equivalent, and in economic terms, gross returns from intercrops and sole crops. Differences in competitive ability affect the relative performance of component crops and thus the land equivalent ratio values of different cereal-legume intercrop systems. It is found that phosphorus is a major nutrient that determines the production potential of most grain legumes usually intercropped with cereals.
Article
The problems arising in the analysis of experiments containing different crop rotations are investigated. When the design of the experiment is such that each block contains plots which sometimes carry a given crop but do not all carry the crop in the same set of years the year-block totals will not be orthogonal with the plot totals. In most such cases the fitting of constants must be resorted to in order to obtain separate estimates of plot error and plot x year error which are free of year x block interactions. The method is illustrated by application to a rice-pasture experiment containing rotations of different lengths and with different proportions of rice to pasture.
Article
A 6-yr field experiment was conducted in central Pennsylvania to determine the fertilizer N equivalent value of three forage legumes managed as hay prior to 3 yr of succeeding corn (Zea mays L.). The forage component of the rotations were 3 yr of alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.), 3 yr of birdsfoot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus L.) (BFT), and 2 yr of red clover (Trifolium pretense L.). There was no significant grain yield response to N fertilizer for first-year corn following any of the legumes. The 3-yr total fertilizer N equivalences of alfalfa, BFT, and red clover were estimated to be 167,151, and 131 lb/acre, respectively. The proportion contributed each year averaged 70% the first, 20% the second, and 10% the third for alfalfa and red clover, and 55%, 30%, and 15% for the three years with BFT. The beneficial effect of legumes on subsequent corn yields appeared to be due primarily to their residual N rather than to a crop sequence or rotation effect. Please view the pdf by using the Full Text (PDF) link under 'View' to the left. Copyright © 1988. . Copyright © 1988 by the American Society of Agronomy, Crop Science Society of America, and Soil Science Society of America, 5585 Guilford Rd., Madison, WI 53711 USA
Article
The management of sustainable, lower-input agroecosystems needs to be more sophisticated than high-input systems. This subject is introduced by describing: types and characteristics of multiple cropping, and its potential for US and European agriculture; minimum (conservation) tillage practices and associated problems; agroforestry and the types of possible agroforestry systems, mentioning the tree species commonly grown in alley cropping systems as microclimate modifiers, soil nutrient concentrators, windbreaks and firewood providers, as well as its potential for US and European agriculture; and integrating plant and animal systems. -J.W.Cooper
Article
Information from the northern Corn Belt comparing tillage systems and corn (Zea mays L.)/soybean [GQcine m a . (L.) Merr.] rgtations over years is limited. Field studies were con-ducted near Arlington, WI for 3 yr (1987-1989) on a Plano silt loam soil (fine-silty, mixed, mesic Typic Argiudoll). The objectives were to determine the influence of tillage, N fer-tilizer level, and hybrid/cultivar on growth and grain yield of corn and soybean grown in various rotation sequences. Yields of both corn and soybean declined with consecutive years of monocropping, but only soybean had 15% lower yields with annually alternating corn and soybean than for the 1st yr of production following several years of the other crop. For the least "monocropping-sensitive" hybrid (Pioneer 3737) or cultivar (BSR 101) evaluated and for either corn hybrid under conventional tillage (CT), the yield benefit of 1st yr compared to continuous cropping was similar for corn and soybean at about 15%. But with corn hybrid DeKalb 524 under no-till (NT), and the brown stem rot (BSR) (caused by Phialophora gregata) susceptible soybean cultivar in 1987 and 1989, yields were more than 25% higher for 1st yr crop production. Average NT yields were similar to CT for both crops with 1st yr or alternate corn and soybean, but yields were usually lower under NT with monocropping.
Article
Scientific planning for soil and water conservation requires knowledge of the relations between those factors that cause loss of soil and water and those that help to reduce such losses. The soil loss prediction procedure presented in this handbook provides specific guidelines which are needed for selecting the control practices best suited to the particular needs of each site. The procedure is founded on an empirical soil loss equation that is believed to be applicable wherever numerical values of it factors are available. KEYWORDS: TROPAG textbar Miscellaneous subjects textbar Climatology textbar Land Conservation and Management textbar USA (Mainland).
Chapter
We propose that a holistic view be taken to the study and implementation of ecological research into soils, soil organisms and plant growth. This builds upon the spatial and temporal aspects of soil physical and biological characteristics at the micro-and macroaggregate scales. This has major implications for the interactions of the soil biota and also for the possibilities of soil organic matter (SOM) dynamics, including gradual accumulation of SOM across decades and centuries. One of the key integrating factors in the role of soil biota in plant nutrition is the centrality of detrital and soil food webs in fostering nutrient cycling and ecosystem stability. We conclude with a fi ve-dimension approach to studying key factors in soil biological interactions that affect plant nutrition and also long-term carbon balance in natural and agricultural ecosystems.
Article
21 topsoils, with texture varying from sandy loam to clay and organic matter content ranging from 1.6 to 11.9%, were submitted to compaction and settling at different moisture contents where dry bulk density was determined. The most important physical properties affecting soil behaviour under compaction and settling were found to be water retention properties at low matric potential which themselves depended primarily on organic matter content. Organic matter played an important role in reducing the effects of compaction, and moisture content alone was not sufficient to predict the best conditions for workability in the fields.-from Authors
Article
The effect of corn (Zea mays L.) residue age and placement on early corn growth was studied in the greenhouse. Both fresh and partially decomposed corn residues were collected from the field, oven dried, ground, and placed as horizontal bands in sand- or soil-filled acrylic containers. Corn seeds were planted with one residue band placed either above, below, or at seed depth. A no-residue control treatment was also included. Fresh residues reduced root and shoot weights more than partially decomposed corn residue. The effects were most notable when roots came into direct contact with a residue layer. The total impact of corn seedling root contact with corn residue under field conditions is not known. However, evidence suggests that high residue levels in the vicinity of the seedling root may have negative impacts on seedling growth.Key words: Corn, Zea mays, plant residue phytotoxins, early corn growth
Article
Conservation tillage technologies are essential to develop long‐term alternative agriculture approaches to protect the nation's resources. This study was conducted to develop long‐term multiple cropping systems to sustain conservation crop production. Soybean [ Glycine max (L.) Merrill] and grain sorghum [ Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench] cropping sequences following wheat ( Triticum aestivum (L.) grain harvest were studied at three tillage‐intensity levels on a Cecil sandy loam (clayey, kaolinitic, thermic Typic Hapludult) soil. During the first 4‐yr crop rotation cycle, coulter in‐row chisel (MT) planted grain sorghum produced significantly more grain than either coulter (NT) or disk harrow (CT) planted (4.89 vs. 4.58 and 4.39 Mg ha ⁻¹ ), without a crop‐rotation response. In the second 4‐yr cycle, the sorghum grain yields declined NT > MT > CT (5.14 > 4.74 > 4.40 Mg ha ⁻¹ ) significantly with each increase in tillage‐intensity level. Soybean responded consistently and significantly to high‐frequency (1:1) rotation with grain sorghum. These responses to rotation with grain sorghum become less important to conservation tillage systems when favorable rainfall distributions permit grain yields that range between 2.00 and 3.50 Mg ha ⁻¹ . Wheat yields increased significantly following soybean (first rotation cycle) until take‐all ( Graeumannomyces graminis ) became epidemic. Elucidation of significant grain sorghum responses to in‐row chisel and coulter conservation tillage during the first and second crop‐rotation cycles, respectively, requires additional research that focuses on characterization of temporal changes in the soil environment. Rotation of both cool‐ and warm‐season crops is necessary to sustain long‐term conservation tillage.
Article
Sustaining or increasing soil productivity depends in part on soil and crop management practices that maintain or increase soil organic matter. This study was conducted to determine the effects of tillage, crop rotation, and fertilizer N on soil organic C and N. Two long-term tillage/rotation studies and one long-term rotation/N-rate study were conducted on eastern Kansas soils. Soils were sampled from conventional (CT) and no-tillage (NT) treatments. Crop management systems that include rotations with high residue-producing crops and maintenance of surface residue cover with reduced tillage result in greater soil organic C and N, which may improve soil productivity.
Article
This study was conducted to identify the effect of tillage intensity associated with soybean and grain sorghum crop sequences following winter wheat, and the effect of summer crop species on selected physical characteristics of a Cecil sandy loam (clayey, kaolinitic, thermic Typic Kanhapludult). Through 8 seasons, soybean and grain sorghum were grown in 10 crop sequences that were imposed on 3 tillage treatments: conventional tillage (CT), in-row chisel (MT), and no-tillage (NT). It was found that aggregate stability at 0 to 10 mm was significantly higher for MT and NT than for CT. The CT treatment exhibited significantly lower bulk density and higher air-filled pore space than MT and NT. Infiltration was significantly greater on the MT than the CT and NT treatments. Greater aggregate stability, higher air-filled pore space, and lower bulk density were measured after 2 or more years of grain sorghum than after soybean. The maintenance of wheat straw on the soil surface under the MT and NT treatment exhibited an effect to a depth of 75 mm. Crop-rotational effects can be erased or modified by tillage and may only be observed under NT. -from Authors
Article
Corn residue at typical field rates (20 Mg/ha) reduced soil splash by about one-third and increased strength about two times as compared to the check after 14 d of incubation. Incubation with soybean residue for a similar time caused slightly greater soil splash than incubation with the same amount of corn residue, suggesting that small changes in stability are related to residue quality. No differences in soil strength relative to residue quality was detected after 14 d of incubation, indicating a subtle difference between splash and strength as measures of surface-soil stability. Aggregate size measurements were less sensitive to plant residue treatment and time of incubation than splash or strength.-from Authors
Article
Greater soil losses are generally thought to occur with soybean (Glycine max. (L.) Merr.) cropping than with corn (Zea mays L.) cropping. However, runoff and soil losses from corn and soybean cropping systems have been measured simultaneously in only a few studies. The objectives of our study were to evaluate differences in soil and water losses between continuous corn and continuous soybean cropping for conventional, field cutivation, and no-till methods of tillage; and to evaluate differences between measured cropping and management (C) factors and those in Agricultural Handbook 537, USDA that are currently used in soil conservation planning. These objectives were accomplished by analyzing soil and water loss data from a 7-yr study conducted on a claypan soil in central Missouri. Cropping differences were evaluated for five seasonal periods based upon cultural operation dates and estimated amounts of canopy cover. Average annual soil loss from soybeans was significantly higher (p less than 0.01) than that of corn for the conventional and no-till methods. Seasonal periods having the greatest cropping differences in soil loss were period F (rough fallow), period 12(30 to 60 d after planting) and period 4 (fall harvest to spring tillage). Annual C factors for soybeans were about two times those of corn for all tillage methods. Measured C factors for all tillage methods were consistently lower than those presented in Agricultural Handbook 537, USDA.
Article
Many people have observed what they felt was greater soil erosion by wind and water following production of soybeans. This experiment was conducted to measure the actual erosion following soybean production compared to that following corn production. Using natural rainfall plots at Beaconfield, Iowa, soil and water losses were measured from soybeans in a corn‐soybean rotation and from corn in this same rotation and grown continuously over a 7‐year period. Soil losses were found to be greater following soybeans than following corn in either a corn‐soybean rotation or in continuous corn. This means more precautions must be taken to control erosion when soybeans are grown on sloping lands than when corn is grown.
Article
Wheat and oat straw, soybean and sweetclover hay, corn and sorghum stalks, bromegrass and sweetclover stems were extracted with hot and cold water, using 1 part of residue to 15 parts of water. One‐half of the water extract of each residue was autoclaved for 1 hour at 20 pounds steam pressure. In addition, wheat straw was extracted with ethanol and the extract was separated into strong and weak acids, neutral, basic, and water‐soluble compounds. The ethanol‐soluble compounds were tested for their effect on wheat, whereas the hot and cold water extracts of residues were tested for their effect on germination and growth of wheat, sorghum, and corn seeds. All the residues contained water‐soluble substances that inhibited the germination and growth of sorghum, corn, and wheat. The cold water extracted more toxic materials than did the hot water. Autoclaving increased the toxic effect of the water extract of residues on root growth. The toxic effect on germination and shoot growth was decreased for most residues by autoclaving of aqueous extract. Ethanol‐soluble substances of wheat straw inhibited the germination and growth of wheat seeds. The ethanol extract of wheat straw, separated into strong acid, water‐soluble, neutral, weak acid, and basic compounds, showed decreasing toxicity in the order listed.
Article
Competitive ability of 48 sorghum [ Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench] hybrids and 41 parental inbred lines was evaluated using (a) germination percentage and germination rate index, (b) emergence percentage and emergence rate index, (c) seedling vigor, (d) rate of root and shoot development, and (e) cation exchange capacity of roots as selection criteria. Average response of sorghum hybrids was superior to parental inbred lines in all selection criteria. Sorghum lines selected for high and low seedling growth characteristics in laboratory and greenhouse studies showed corresponding competitive advantages over weeds in field studies. Competitive advantage of sorghum over weeds was largely due to rapid germination, emergence, and root and shoot growth during the early stages of sorghum development.
Article
The objective was to measure inorganic N removal from soil by soybeans (Glycine max L.) grown at different N levels. Nodulating and non-nodulating isolines of ‘Clark’ soybeans were planted on Flanagan silt loam in 1972 and 1973. Fertilizer rates of 0, 112, 224, and 448 kg N/ha as Ca(NO3)2 enriched with 1% ¹⁵N were applied. Symbiotically fixed N decreased from 48 to 10% of the total N in the above-ground plant as applied fertilizer N increased from 0 to 448 kg/ha. Net removals of N by soybean grain were 61, 109, 135, and 149 kg/ha at 0, 112, 224, and 448 kg fertilizer N/ha rates, respectively. Corn (Zea mays L.) grain grown on adjacent plots removed 62, 123, 129, and 133 kg N/ha at fertilizer N rates of 0, 112, 224, and 336 kg/ha, respectively. The study indicates that soybeans are good scavengers for inorganic N in soils. Inclusion of net N removal by soybeans in the calculated N removed by nonleguminous crops in Illinois from 1945 to 1973 increases net crop N removal by approximately 37%. Added fertilizer N has exceeded the N removed by the harvested portion of Illinois crops in only 5 years since 1945, all 5 of these occurring after 1965. Please view the pdf by using the Full Text (PDF) link under 'View' to the left. Copyright © . .