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A Field Guide to the Common Trees and Shrubs of Sri Lanka
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... When values were unavailable from this local database, we used a global wood density database to assign WSG values to the lowest possible taxonomic level (Zanne et al., 2009). We assigned a canopy stratification class based on the known maximum heights of each species (Ashton et al., 1997;Dassanayake et al., 1980), grouping them into canopy trees: 30-45 m, subcanopy trees 15-30 m, and understory trees 5-15 m (Ediriweera et al., 2008;Gunatilleke and Gunatilleke, 1985;Fig. 1b). ...
... The top two species by basal area in fragments were Aporosa cardiosperma, an early successional species associated with disturbed sites, and Dipterocarpus zeylanicus, a long-lived pioneer. In the primary forest, the top two species by basal area were Mesua nagassarium and Cullenia ceylanica, which are associated with undisturbed primary forests ( Fig. 4b; Ashton et al., 1997). ...
This study examines the landscape distribution of aboveground biomass (AGB) in fragmented tropical rainforests in Sri Lanka. While most attribute AGB losses from fragmentation to abiotic edge effects (e.g., desiccation and wind), land tenure and human disturbance also play a significant role. In South Asia, forest fragments are essential food, medicine, and wood sources for large rural populations. Despite this, few studies have addressed AGB dynamics in smallholder landscapes with a long land clearance and cultivation history. This study explored three objectives: (a) assessing the accuracy of a common allometric height-diameter model, (b) comparing AGB stocks in forest fragments to primary forests, and (c) examining the influence of land tenure, abiotic edge effects, and human disturbance on AGB distribution. We estimated AGB using field-based measurements in 18 forest fragments and two primary forest sites and employed mixed effects models to explore the landscape distribution of AGB. The allometric height-diameter model overestimated fragment tree heights compared to measured heights, leading to an overestimation of AGB by 25 %. AGB stocks were significantly lower in fragmented forests (259.9 Mg ha −1) than in primary forests (434.5 Mg ha −1), and there was no significant correlation between plot AGB and variables associated with abiotic edge effects (i.e., distance-to-edge, fragment size, isolation). However, AGB positively correlated with factors related to decreased accessibility and local land ownership. These findings suggest that land tenure and human disturbance strongly influence the current AGB distribution in Sri Lankan rainforest fragments, emphasizing the need to understand human impacts for effective conservation and management.
... Due to geographic and climate conditions, Sri Lanka has a diverse flora (Ashton et al., 1997). The introduction of allelopathic active plants from the Sri Lankan flora may lead to the production of more environmentally friendly and effective natural herbicides. ...
The allelopathic activity of cover crops, green manure, mulching plants, and weeds commonly found in tea plantations was evaluated employing laboratory bioassays, greenhouse experiments and field trials. The results of laboratory and greenhouse experiments concluded that the green manure plants, Gliricidia sepium, Erythrina lithosperma, Eupatorium inulifolium, Tithonia diversifolia, Artemisia vulgaris and mulching plants, Chrysopogon zizanioides, Tripsacum luxum and Pennisetum purpureum × Pennisetum americanum exhibited phytotoxicity against Lactuca sativa. According to the findings of the field tests, these plants significantly exhibited phytotoxicity toward weeds present at the experimental sites. In combination with integrated weed management, these plants could be utilized to manage weeds in sustainable agriculture.
... Polyalthia korintii is an Indo-Sri Lankan ethnomedicinal species bearing edible fruits (Ashton et al. 1997) and is mainly confined to the biodiversity hotspots of India-the Eastern Ghats and the southern Western Ghats (Richard and Muthukumar 2012). The presence of this species is mainly reported from sacred grooves and reserve forests in India. ...
Green synthesis of iron oxide nanoparticles using plant extracts is of tremendous interest owing to its cost effectiveness, ecofriendly and high efficiency compared to physical and chemical approaches. In the current study, we describe a green approach for producing iron oxide nanoparticles utilizing Polyalthia korintii aqueous leaf extract (PINPs). The prepared PINPs were assessed of their biological and dye degradation potentials. The physico-chemical characterization of PINPs using UV–Visible spectrophotometer, Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy, X-Ray Diffraction studies, Field emission Scanning Electron Microscopy and Energy Dispersive X-ray spectroscopy analysis confirmed the synthesized sample comprised of iron oxide entity, predominantly spherical with the size range of 40–60 nm. Total Phenolic Content of PINPs is 59.36 ± 1.64 µg GAE/mg. The PINPs exhibited 89.78 ± 0.07% DPPH free radical scavenging and 28.7 ± 0.21% ABTS cation scavenging activities. The antibacterial activities were tested against different gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria and PINPs were more effective against Enterococcus faecalis and Klebsiella pneumoniae. Cytotoxicity of PINPs against K562 and HCT116 were measured and IC50 values were found to be 84.99 ± 4.3 µg/ml and 79.70 ± 6.2 µg/ml for 48 h respectively. The selective toxicity of PINPs was demonstrated by their lowest activity on lymphocytes, HEK293 cells, and erythrocytes. The toxicity (LC 50 values) against first, second, third and fourth instar larvae of Culex quinquefasciatus was 40 ± 1.5 mg/mL, 45 ± 0.8 mg/mL, 99 ± 2.1 mg/mL and 120 ± 3.5 mg/mL respectively. Finally, PINPs were utilized to as a catalyst for removal of textile dyes like Methylene blue and methyl orange in a fenton-like reaction. The results showed 100% dye degradation efficiency in a fenton like reaction within 35 min. Thus, the green synthesized PINPs exhibit antioxidant, antibacterial, antiproliferative, larvicidal and dye degradation potentials, indicating their suitability for biological and environmental applications.
... The following habitat and micro-habitat characteristics were recorded: GPS location of each individual, compass orientation of the dorsum of each individual (i.e., east, west, north, south, northeast, north-west, south-east and south-west), attachment substrate of the web (i.e., a bush or a tree). Host plants were identified using standard plant identification guides (Ashton et al. 1997). ...
... Due to geographic and climate conditions, Sri Lanka has a diverse flora (Ashton et al., 1997). The introduction of allelopathic active plants from the Sri Lankan flora may lead to the production of more environmentally friendly and effective natural herbicides. ...
... The climatic condition of the area is hot and humid (temperature of 21.1 °C-32.2 °C) with an annual rainfall of approximately 2000 mm (Ashton et al. 1997). The South-West monsoon between May and September receives the main precipitation. ...
The influence of benthic organisms on the turnover rate of leaf litter is considered a vital factor to regulate the dynamic of soil organic carbon (SOC) in mangroves. Among the benthic organisms, sesearmids (i.e. Neosarmatium smithi, Episesarma versicolor and Perisesarma cf. guttatum) contribute evidently to this process but the machanisms are poorly known. To quantify this interaction the current study was carried out in a southern mangrove patch of Sri Lanka. The amount of SOC among the sites ranged from 8.20 ± 2.05 to 18.52 ± 4.63 kgm⁻². The ecological zonations (e.g. disturbed and least disturbed) due to land-use changes and pollution events influence the variations of physico-chemical parameters among the habitats. Accordingly, the SOC sedimentation was increased with high crab density and biomass in the least disturbed sites. The stem density of mangroves showed a positive linear relationship with mean crab biomass; representing the mangroves as habitat providers. High amounts of mangrove propagules in crab burrows provide substantial inputs to the standing stock and finally to the SOC sedimentation process.
... The plant species were recorded in three distinct zones of the landslide such as zone of Initiation (I), transportation (T) and deposition (D) (Walker et al., 2009) by visual observation. Plants were identified to species level in the field with the aid of "The Revised Hand Book to the Flora of Ceylon" (Dassanayake et al., 1980) and "A Field Guide to the Common Trees and Shrubs in Sri Lanka" (Ashton et al., 1997). Geobotanical identification was a random survey covering the entire landslide area. ...
A study conducted in the rural Sri Lankan village of Pitekele, located in the buffer zone of the Sinharaja Man and Biosphere Reserve (MAB) in 1992, showed that homegardens were integral to household’s food procurement strategies after changes in forest policy prohibited villagers from sourcing non-timber forest products (NTFPs) or practicing shifting agriculture within the forest. Thirty years later, the village witnessed a new set of changes, including the widespread adoption of tea as a cash crop, improved roads and infrastructure that have led to greater access to urban areas for markets, and a recent economic crash tied closely to a temporary nationwide fertilizer ban initiated in April of 2021. This study examined how homegardens in Pitekele have been affected by economic and land use transitions in the last 30 years and whether homegardens were still making important contributions to food sovereignty and livelihood resilience. Results showed that while tea production generally replaced previously cultivated cash crops and had become the dominant source of income, homegardens were intentionally preserved for subsistence and continued to contain a vibrant diversity of edible plant species. Villagers demonstrated acute awareness of the economic and environmental benefits of homegarden cultivation, and homegardens continued to play an important role in social integration and cultural aspects of village life. This study suggests that homegardens remain a staple practice in Pitekele and that they continue to play a critical role in livelihood resilience and food sovereignty, especially in the face of economic and political turmoil.
Clerodendrum inerme (L.) Gaertn., commonly known as garden quinine, is a perennial shrub that belongs to the Lamiaceae family. It has been extensively used in various traditional medicinal practices to treat ailments such as rheumatic pain, arthritis, scrofulous, venereal disease, skin diseases, wounds, fever, cough, dysentery, and more. This review aims to critically examine a comprehensive compilation of recent research on C. inerme, encompassing its botanical characteristics, ethnomedical applications, phytochemicals, pharmacological activity, and toxicological data, in order to provide insights and inspiration for future research, promote further development, and facilitate the rational application of C. inerme. Nearly 95 chemical constituents belonging to different classes have been isolated from C. inerme, including diterpenoids, triterpenoids, steroids, flavonoids, phenolic glycosides, lignans, iridoid and megastigmane glycosides. Notably, diterpenoids, triterpenoids, steroids, and flavonoids are the main bioactive substances that have been extensively studied and demonstrated the most significant bioactivity. Pharmacological studies demonstrated that the extract of C. inerme exhibits a wide range of biological activities, such as antioxidant, antimicrobial, anticancer, antiinflammatory, insecticidal, antifeedant, neuroprotective, anti-motor tic, and so on, which are closely connected to its numerous ethnomedicinal applications. Nevertheless, some literature have reported the toxicity of C. inerme. Therefore, it is imperative to conduct further in-depth studies encompassing toxicology, as well as preclinical and clinical research, to ascertain the safety and efficacy of C. inerme for medicinal purposes.
Graphical abstract
Prosopis Juliflora is a highly invasive tree that has a severe impact on native species and ecosystems. The most difficult part of controlling Prosopis Juliflora invasion is precisely mapping its presence and distribution pattern. Recent developments in remote sensing and geographic information system (GIS) technologies have enabled to map different types of vegetation. In this study, remote sensing data were combined with supervised classification using a Support Vector Machine (SVM) to map the total cover of Prosopis Juliflora, which was then analyzed using a GIS geo-statistical system. In Sharjah, the UAE's third largest city, images from Landsat 7 and 8 were used over the years 2000, 2010, and 2020. The overall cover of Prosopis Juliflora increased by 1.17% during 20 years, from 11.99 km2 in 2000 to 14.13 km2 in 2020, according to Prosopis Juliflora maps. Geo-statistics showed that Prosopis Juliflora exhibits a spatial clustering pattern and that the majority of Prosopis Juliflora is still under controllable secondary scheme in the eastern and southern parts of the city, with the exception of some areas in the eastern and western parts of the city that require thinning.
Fruits: legumes clustered, narrowed ends; seeds shiny brown
- I-Numerous
I-numerous, globose heads.
Fruits: legumes clustered, narrowed
ends; seeds shiny brown.
Site: roadsides, plantations; DL, IN, W.
Uses: W-fuelwood; leaves-fodder.
axillary or terminal. Fruits: pink to brown, coiled legumes; pink to whitish pulp; shiny, black seeds
- I-Small
I-small, globose heads,
axillary or terminal.
Fruits: pink to brown, coiled legumes;
pink to whitish pulp; shiny, black seeds.
Site: roadsides, home gardens;
Uses: shade tree, hedges
- I N Dl
DL, IN, W.
Uses: shade tree, hedges; pulp-edible, lemonade;
Fruits: globose/ like a small lime; pulp mucilaginous. Site: monsoon forest subcanopy/ sandy coastal scrub
- I-Axillary Racemes
I-axillary racemes.
Fruits: globose/ like a small
lime; pulp mucilaginous.
Site: monsoon forest subcanopy/
sandy coastal scrub;
COROLLA: 4-5, sometimes basally united, the two inner smaller, the outer broader, imbricate. ANDROECIUM: stamens 4-5, free or epipetalous, sometimes only 2 fertile. Anthers 2-locular with thick connective. GYNOECIUM: superior, 2-carpelled, 2-locular with 1-2 ovules in each
- Flower Parts -Calyx
FLOWER PARTS -CALYX: 3-5, free or basally united, imbricate. COROLLA: 4-5,
sometimes basally united, the two inner smaller, the outer broader, imbricate.
ANDROECIUM: stamens 4-5, free or epipetalous, sometimes only 2 fertile. Anthers
2-locular with thick connective. GYNOECIUM: superior, 2-carpelled, 2-locular with
1-2 ovules in each. Styles 2, often united.
Fruits: brown/ ovoid/ stellate hair/ supported on persistent calyx; seeds black/ covered with pulpy white aril. Site: monsoon and intermediate forest sub canopy and rain forest understory
- I-Large
I-large, lax,
pubescent/ pyramidal/
terminal panicles.
Fruits: brown/ ovoid/ stellate
hair/ supported on persistent
calyx; seeds black/ covered
with pulpy white aril.
Site: monsoon and intermediate
forest sub canopy and rain
forest understory;
Flowers: pinkish-white, small, numerous; I-axillary panicles. Fruits: purple, ovoid/ pointed, smooth/ shiny drupe. Site: intermediate forest canopy
- W-Pale Red
W-pale red, rather hard, heavy.
Flowers: pinkish-white, small,
numerous; I-axillary panicles.
Fruits: purple, ovoid/ pointed,
smooth/ shiny drupe.
Site: intermediate forest canopy; IN.
Uses: ornamental;
Flowers: pale yellow, small; I-small/ crowded, axillary clusters. Fruits: brilliant scarlet, cylindrical, smooth, soft, berry; seeds hard and shiny. Site: montane and rain forest canopy
- W-Hard
W-hard, heavy;
young parts brownish-pubescent.
Flowers: pale yellow, small; I-small/
crowded, axillary clusters.
Fruits: brilliant scarlet, cylindrical,
smooth, soft, berry; seeds
hard and shiny.
Site: montane and rain
forest canopy; LM, W.
Trunk: B-brownish grey
- Petioles Stout
petioles stout, densely tomentose.
Trunk: B-brownish grey;
Flowers: numerous, clusters of 4-8 in axils of fallen leaves. Fruits: brown, ovoid, pointed, glabrous berry. Site: rain forest canopy
- W-Hard
- Brown
W-hard, heavy,
yellowish brown; young shoots
densely orange tomentose.
Flowers: numerous, clusters of
4-8 in axils of fallen leaves.
Fruits: brown, ovoid, pointed,
glabrous berry.
Site: rain forest canopy; W.
Uses: stem, leaves-medicinal;