Introducing Indigenous Knowledge Governance into ICT-based Indigenous Knowledge Management System

Abstract

Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) for Indigenous Knowledge Management (IKM) have been designed using the conventional approach of creating and manipulating databases of knowledge. This typical approach of IKM generates the issues of indigenous knowledge governance, de-contextualisation and data manipulation. Hence, the main research question of this study is "How can we introduce indigenous knowledge governance into ICT-based Indigenous Knowledge Management System (IKMS)?" The study has been conducted in three phases with two indigenous communities of Sarawak, East Malaysia, using the eBario and eLamai Telecentre as a local collaborating institutions. The main outcome of the study is the methodology of conducting a multidisciplinary research and designing Indigenous Knowledge Governance Framework (IKGF). The framework works as an analytical tool that can help in understanding the essential context in which indigenous knowledge management processes occur. The study argues that in order to design appropriate ICT tools for indigenous knowledge management, information technology professionals need to understand, model and formalise the holistic indigenous knowledge management system and then use this understanding as a basis for technology design and approaches.

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IPID 8th International Annual Symposium 2013
9-10th December, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
Introducing Indigenous Knowledge Governance into
ICT-based Indigenous Knowledge Management
System
Tariq Zaman, Alvin Yeo Wee
Narayanan Kulathuramaiyer
Institute of Social Informatics and Technological
Innovations (ISITI-CoERI)
Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Malaysia
zamantariq@gmail.com, alvin@isiti.unimas.my
Faculty of Computer Science and Information
Technology
Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Malaysia
nara@fit.unimas.my
Abstract
Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) for Indigenous Knowledge
Management (IKM) have been designed using the conventional approach of creating and
manipulating databases of knowledge. This typical approach of IKM generates the issues of
indigenous knowledge governance, de-contextualisation and data manipulation. Hence, the
main research question of this study is “How can we introduce indigenous knowledge
governance into ICT-based Indigenous Knowledge Management System (IKMS)?”
The study has been conducted in three phases with two indigenous communities of Sarawak,
East Malaysia, using the eBario and eLamai Telecentre as a local collaborating institutions.
The main outcome of the study is the methodology of conducting a multidisciplinary research
and designing Indigenous Knowledge Governance Framework (IKGF). The framework
works as an analytical tool that can help in understanding the essential context in which
indigenous knowledge management processes occur.
The study argues that in order to design appropriate ICT tools for indigenous knowledge
management, information technology professionals need to understand, model and formalise
the holistic indigenous knowledge management system and then use this understanding as a
basis for technology design and approaches.
Introduction
A wide range of digital tools have been developed and cultural heritage institutions are
exploring the use of ICTs for preservation and improving access to Indigenous Knowledge
(IK). However, ICTs for IKM have been designed using the conventional approach of
creating and manipulating databases of knowledge (Velden, 2010). Early efforts in IKM

IPID 8th International Annual Symposium 2013
9-10th December, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
focused on developing digital technologies to store, capture, and distribute knowledge
(Agrawal, 2002). The focus at present has shifted, however, to make explicit the tacit and
implicit knowledge. The current approaches tend to overlook the community’s creative
expressions, practices of innovation and instead consider IK to be a static resource frozen in
time and place. These typical approaches of IK databases design thus fail to a large extent in
serving the needs of indigenous communities, as it tend to alienate IK from the essential
context such as social, cultural and governance framework (Velden, 2010; Winschiers-
Theophilus, Jensen, & Rodil, 2012).
The prime objective of this research is to develop a holistic framework for IKM that projects
the ontological structure of the wider social cultural and governance system in which IKM
processes occur. The investigation was done in three phases; firstly, we explored the
theoretical gaps and the inherent structure of IKMS in communities. Secondly, we addressed
the gaps by modelling IKMS in communities and designing a structured indigenous
knowledge governance framework. Thirdly, we used the framework to model an existing
IKMS and for designing, developing and implementation of ICT-based IKMS. The designed
framework helps researchers and ICT professionals to understand the unique structure of
IKM and accommodate it in the design and development of ICT-based IKMS.
The remainder of this paper is structured as follows. The first part of the paper presents
background of the research and introduction of the sites and communities where research has
been conducted. . Second part illustrates the research framework and each phase of the study
in detail. The last part, concluding section, presents reflection of the study.
Background
Current technological trends and developments have hardly been informed by indigenous and
rural knowledge systems (Kapuire & Blake, 2011), which is different from non-indigenous
knowledge systems in many ways. The unique features of IKMS are based on two basic
system perspectives: “holistic” and “living”.
Holistic System
We define “holistic” as a “whole” system where all aspects of life – both tangible (such as
oral traditions and activities) and intangible (such as governance systems and spiritual values)
– are assimilated and interconnected and cannot be separated from one another. According to
Velden (2002), IK is a highly contextualised body of knowledge that is linked to location,

IPID 8th International Annual Symposium 2013
9-10th December, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
situation and cultural, social and historical context. The IKMS is a complex structure that
cannot be understood by only examining the parts (processes, technology, people, economic,
social and ideological aspects). It must also take into account how the parts interact to make a
whole system.
Living System
In Western epistemologies, IK is generally interpreted as a static and archaic form of
knowledge while the indigenous researchers interpret IK as;
 a way of life (McGregor, 2004)
 a way of knowing (Aikenhead & Ogawa, 2007) and
 adaptable and creative system (Macchi & Oviedo, 2008).
The indigenous perspective is not just “knowledge” per se (a thing, an object) but also a way
of life that includes dynamic practices such as oral traditions, listening to stories, singing
songs, reciting prayers, dancing at celebrations, and participating in ceremonies; all of which
are passed on from generation to generation.
In the conventional approaches of IKM, knowledge is de-contextualised by extracting it from
the living and holistic system of IK and storing it as data in databases. IKM is a long process
and complex system of activities that deals with the multidimensional challenges such as
digital technologies, intellectual property rights and the complex social, cultural and belief
system of the communities. The current ICT-based IKMS and the frameworks provide a
product-view of IKM and mainly satisfy the Western conception of knowledge management,
in which knowledge is stored as abstract entities in digital forms. Hence, a well-formulated
holistic framework is needed to provide real-time modelling of the living IKMS assimilated
with the structure and use of ICT tools.
The Research Sites
The study was conducted in two remote sites of Sarawak in East Malaysia: Long Lamai, a
Penan settlement, and Bario, a Kelabit settlement. Sarawak is situated on the northwest of the
island of Borneo. Indigenous peoples – collectively known a Dayaks - comprise two-thirds of
Sarawak’s population (Ngidang, 2005). Many, distinct ethnic groups exist in Sarawak,
including the Penan and Kelabits. These two sites were chosen largely because Universiti

IPID 8th International Annual Symposium 2013
9-10th December, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
Malaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS) maintains a research collaboration and development
partnership with Bario and Long Lamai communities.
Research Framework
The research operationalisation process (Fig. 1) is divided into three phases. In Phase 1, we
conducted a literature review and collected the empirical data to discover existing theoretical
gaps among studies of IKMS. In Phase 2, we addressed the gaps by designing and modelling
the indigenous knowledge management processes and the indigenous knowledge governance
system. In Phase 3, we used the framework to model an existing community IKMS and then
formalised the framework by using it as a base for the design, development and
implementation of ICT-based IKMS.
Figure 1: Research operationalisation
Phase 1: Exploring Theoretical Gaps
In this phase, a through literature review has been conducted to explore the theoretical gaps in
existing literature. The review found a gap at epistemological level in defining IKM. The
current definitions tends to de-emphasise the comprehensive process oriented IKM and
mainly focuses on the processes of “capturing” and “distribution” while undermining the IK
creation process (Yeo, Zaman, & Kulathuramaiyer, 2013). The approaches also reflected in

IPID 8th International Annual Symposium 2013
9-10th December, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
the digital technology designs. As noted by Agrawal (2002) the main aim of the IKM
databases is to “collect” and “distribute” available information.
Based on the Burtis (2009); Ngulube (2002) and Velden (2010), we identified the influencing
factors that’s should be considered and addressed by the researchers and IT professionals
while developing a digital solution for IKM. The focus of software system for IKM should be
extended to incorporate complex issues of IK ownership, IPR legislation, cultural protocols
and technical issues in the form of choice of media and access at the project planning level.
The second part of the first phase explores the study gaps by observing a case study from the
field and to develop a methodological approach to reveal the inherent structure of IKMS in
indigenous community of Bario (Yeo, et al., 2013). The study confirms that the knowledge
creation process is arguably the most important step in the IKM processes. It is highly rated
by the respondents from the Bario community. The study also reveals that the organisation’s
KM tools and frameworks cannot be used in the existing shape for IKM because of the
differences between indigenous and non-indigenous knowledge domains. The study also
highlights the features that are not taken into account in the conventional approaches of
designing ICT tools and frameworks for IKM. These features include the indigenous
governance system, organisational structure, the protection of IK and resource management,
and collective community activities.
Phase 2: Positioning Indigenous Knowledge Governance
As explored in Phase 1 of the study, the recent wave of research undermines the knowledge
creation process in indigenous communities which is an important and well established area
of research and development in organisations. The ultimate effect is that IT researchers focus
on the “dissemination” and “storage” processes while neglecting the “living” characteristic of
IK. In this phase first, we delineate in more detail the knowledge creation process in
indigenous communities and present it as a “living system”. A living system is one that
constantly creates new knowledge, closely connected to day-to-day activities and social
systems and is reflected upon before acceptance and assimilation. Furthermore, we outlined
the community’s engagement process with new information and know-how and present Tacit,
Implicit and Explicit (TIE) model of knowledge creation in indigenous communities (Zaman,
Yeo, & Kulathuramaiyer, 2011a).
In second part of the Phase 2, we expanded the scope of indigenous knowledge management
with notion of indigenous knowledge governance. In the indigenous way of life, communities

IPID 8th International Annual Symposium 2013
9-10th December, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
govern their knowledge by coordinating activities that are influenced and controlled by social
and cultural systems. Efforts in managing IK using ICT technologies face a number of
shortcomings. For example, the lack of consideration of the holistic structure of IK, being
overly reliant on persistent data and the loss of control over knowledge assets when they
become stored and structured in databases. In this context, IK represents a critical resource
that needs to be focused towards specific processes and governance activities. To address this
gap, we presented indigenous knowledge governance framework as a holistic model of
indigenous knowledge management (Zaman, Yeo, & Kulathuramaiyer, 2011b).
The standard IKGF is the abstract model of IKM system contains the set of cooperating
components that are grouped into seven layers Capital Layer; IK Governance Layer; Activity
Layer; KM Layer; Data Repository Layer; Community Engagement Layer; and Cross-
Cutting External Environment Layer.
Figure 2: The logical architecture view of a layered IKG system (Zaman, et al., 2011b)
Phase 3: Validating and Formalising IKGF
In this phase of the research, first we presented an explanatory case study of using IKGF as
an analytical tool for understanding Penan Toro activity from IKM perspective. Depicting the

IPID 8th International Annual Symposium 2013
9-10th December, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
complex structure of Penan IK in IKGF layers model helps in understanding the holistic
context of Toro IKMS.
In second part of this phase, we formalise the framework by using it for designing,
developing and implementing the eToro platform (Siew, Yeo, & Zaman, 2013). The eToro
platform is a combination of ICTs and community activities to support the Indigenous
Botanical Knowledge (IBK) of the Penan community of Long Lamai in Sarawak. The
proposed framework has helped in developing a common understanding of the eToro team
members for planning, designing, developing and implementing ICT-based IKMS. From the
researchers’ perspective, a series of formalised methodology were identified. These are: (1)
Designing Process Flow Diagrams in order to understand processes, roles, actions & rights of
stakeholders; (2) Developing Cultural Protocols for community, researchers and data
engagement; (3) Designing Data Instruments for eliciting community needs and acquisition
of eToro; (4) Developing Prototypes for digital data collection and indigenous content
management and (5) Capacity Building Program for participatory digital data collection and
processing (Zaman, Yeo, & Kulathuramaiyer, 2013).
Conclusion
Based on the results of this research, IKM is a complex system that cannot be understood by
examining individual parts (processes, data, activities, people, economic etc.) only. It is also
about how these parts interact and combine to make a whole system. Whereas a wide range
of digital IKM tools have been developed, special attention has been given to use ICT for the
management of this highly valuable resource. IK takes predominantly tacit and implicit
forms, locked in the community’s activities and governed by local social and cultural
frameworks. The use of ICT for IKM, will create the problem of knowledge de-
contextualisation by extracting IK from the living and holistic system and storing it as raw
data. Furthermore, ICTs alone cannot provide all the answers or solutions to IKM, but it can
be a part of the solution. In order to design an adequate ICT-based IKMS, a holistic approach
needs to be adopted that accommodates the community communication pattern, social and
cultural systems and governance mechanism.

IPID 8th International Annual Symposium 2013
9-10th December, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
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