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Enhancing television advertising: Same-language subtitles can improve brand recall, verbal memory, and behavioral intent
Abstract
This research explores how same-language subtitles—on-screen text that matches the spoken language—can enhance advertising effectiveness for television commercials on normal viewing audiences outside of foreign-language or deaf-viewer contexts. A preliminary eye-tracker study shows that same-language subtitles capture disproportionate visual attention, and a first study highlights that same-language commercial subtitles can increase brand recall and memory of other verbal ad information. Three further studies using 12 additional ads reinforce the positive effects of subtitles and show how same-language subtitle effectiveness varies with changes in visual and verbal ad complexity. In addition to showing how subtitles can increase behavioral intent, results also highlight how varying subtitle content affects memory gains and illustrate how subtitles can lead to negative effects in the uncommon situation that brand information is missing from the audio. As the efficacy of television advertising becomes increasingly debated, same-language subtitling is a simple way to boost advertising effectiveness.
... Auditory messages can reinforce a matching visual, as in the case of product placements presented both visually and auditorily (Russell 2002). Written information can reinforce auditory information; for instance, in the context of TV commercials, text subtitles that visually reiterate the information conveyed in the auditory channel attract the viewers' attention and enhance recall and memory of the auditory message (Brasel and Gips 2014). ...
... Beyond the regulatory relevance, the banner effect is studied as it may serve as a practical and conceptual marker for comparing the impact of various distractors in DTC advertising research. As documented in prior experiments testing subtitles in TV commercials, banners should redirect viewers' attention to the text and improve the understanding of the verbal messages (Brasel and Gips 2014). ...
... this difference translates into a mean difference of 0.87 and a necessary cell size of 64. However, some degree of attrition is assumed due to the inability to calibrate on the ET (15% based on previous research; Brasel and Gips 2014). This results in a target cell size of at least 75 (i.e., 64/.85) or an N of 225. ...
Risk warning or disclosure information in advertising is only effective in correcting consumers' judgments if enough cognitive capacity is available to process that information. Hence, comprehension of verbal warnings in TV commercials may suffer if accompanied by positive visual elements. This research addresses this concern about cross-modality interference in the context of direct-to-consumer (DTC) pharmaceutical commercials in the United States by experimentally testing whether positive facial expressions reduce consumers' understanding of the mandated health warning. A content analysis of a sample of DTC commercials reveals that positive facial expressions are more prevalent during the verbal warning act of the commercials than during the other acts. An eye-tracking experiment conducted with specially produced DTC commercials, which vary the valence of characters' facial expressions during the health warning, provides evidence that happy faces reduce objective comprehension of the warning.
... Consumer-based strategy is organizational strategy that is developed based on insights about consumers. Such strategy can be developed based on understanding consumers' wants and needs (e.g., Lam et al. 2013;Olson 2013), the costs consumers incur to purchase and own goods and services (e.g., Choi et al. 2014;Zielke and Komor 2015), the convenience of obtaining goods and services (e.g., Baker and Wakefield 2012;Lim et al. 2015), or what makes communication between the organization and the consumer more effective (e.g., Brasel and Gips 2014;Mikolon et al. 2015). All of these insights share a focus on consumers as the unit of analysis: data about needs, costs of purchase and ownership, convenience, and communication effectiveness can be collected for each consumer. ...
... Users of consumer-based strategy may include for-profit firms (e.g., Brasel and Gips 2014;Brocato et al. 2015), nonprofits (e.g., Pappu and Cornwell 2014), and governmental bodies (e.g., Burton et al. 2015;Lwin et al. 2007). Firms may wish to persuade consumers to purchase their products and services; generating consumer insights can help them develop the right products and services for the right prices and effectively persuade consumers to buy them. ...
... First, the phenomenon being studied must be of interest to organizations, whether these are for-profit firms, non-profits, or governmental agencies. For example, Brasel and Gips (2014) compared consumers' reactions to advertisements with and without same-language subtitles; this is relevant to managers because organizations have choices to make about the format of the advertisements they place. Second, the dependent variables that are measured must be relevant to decision makers within these organizations. ...
... When examining consumer reactions to placement integration, however, marketers should consider consumers' cognitive load, that is, the amount of mental effort that is imposed to their cognitive systems (Paas et al. 2003), because consumers are increasingly multitasking and operating under high cognitive loads (Bardhi, Rohm, and Sultan 2010;Brasel and Gips 2011). Thus, we use multitasking to indicate cognitive load. ...
... By conceptual replication, we mean that we included slight changes in the original research procedures (Schmidt 2009;Rosenthal 1991). Because American movies that are exported require either dubbing or subtitling to be available to foreignlanguage markets (Wissmath, Weibel, and Groner 2009), and subtitles are a source of cognitive load (d'Ydewalle et al. 1991;Brasel and Gips 2014), we focused on subtitled movies only. ...
... Considering that consumers are increasingly multitasking (Brasel and Gips 2011), investigations of cognitive load and product placement effectiveness can yield fruitful research. Therefore, we explored the interaction between placement integration and multitasking by replicating Yoon et al.'s (2011) study in France. ...
Marketers are progressively using product placements to counteract technology that enables consumers to skip advertisements. However, consumers are increasingly multitasking while they watch videos, which might affect placement effectiveness. In France we conceptually replicate research on product–plot integration and multitasking that was originally conducted in the United States to analyze how different levels of cognitive charge influence this phenomenon. Results show that participants under moderate cognitive load liked intrusive placements. However, participants under high cognitive load were significantly less positive toward intrusive placements. The results show a potential U-shaped relationship between placement integration and levels of cognitive load.
... More than 100 empirical studies, listed in the appendix, document the benefits of captions. These studies report benefits to a wide swath of participants as measured by a wide swath of criteria: summarizing main ideas (Markham, 2000(Markham, -2001, recalling facts (Brasel & Gips, 2014), drawing inferences (Linebarger et al., 2010), defining words (Griffin & Dumestre, 1992-1993, identifying emotions (Murphy-Berman & Whobrey, 1983), and of course, answering multiple-choice comprehension questions (Hinkin, Harris, & Miranda, 2014;Markham & Peter, 2002-2003Murphy-Berman & Jorgensen, 1980). ...
... Even highly literate adults benefit from captions. For example, when highly literate adults watch television commercials that are captioned, they remember brand names better (Brasel & Gips, 2014), and when highly literate college students watch course lectures that are captioned, they remember course content better (Steinfeld, 1998). Captions benefit hearing adults, just as captions benefit hearing children. ...
Video captions, also known as same-language subtitles, benefit everyone who watches videos (children, adolescents, college students, and adults). More than 100 empirical studies document that captioning a video improves comprehension of, attention to, and memory for the video. Captions are particularly beneficial for persons watching videos in their non-native language, for children and adults learning to read, and for persons who are D/deaf or hard of hearing. However, despite U.S. laws, which require captioning in most workplace and educational contexts, many video audiences and video creators are naïve about the legal mandate to caption, much less the empirical benefit of captions.
... Quite recently, Brasel and Gips (2013) investigated the effect of subtitles on visual attention to and memory for ads. They found that same-language subtitles attracted visual attention, as subjects spent a greater percentage of frames looking at the subtitle region when subtitles were present than when they were absent. ...
... In contrast, repeated exposures to an ad lead to increased variability in fixation locations across subjects (Brasel and Gips, 2008b). Including subtitles with TV ads is also associated with improved memory for certain kinds of information presented in the ads (Brasel and Gips, 2013). Finally, conditioning procedures can increase attention to brand elements in TV commercials (Janiszewski and Warlop, 1993). ...
In this selective review, we examine key findings on eye movements when viewing advertisements. We begin with a brief, general introduction to the properties and neural underpinnings of saccadic eye movements. Next, we provide an overview of eye movement behavior during reading, scene perception, and visual search, since each of these activities is, at various times, involved in viewing ads. We then review the literature on eye movements when viewing print ads and warning labels (of the kind that appear on alcohol and tobacco ads), before turning to a consideration of advertisements in dynamic media (television and the Internet). Finally, we propose topics and methodological approaches that may prove to be useful in future research.
... Mayer and Johnson (2008) showed that when learning scientific knowledge from narrated slide presentations, students who received short redundant on-screen phrases outperformed those who did not on knowledge retention but not on transfer (see also McCrudden et al., 2014). Consistent with this finding, same-language subtitles in video advertisements were shown to enhance the viewers' memory of the brand and slogan (Brasel & Gips, 2014). Subtitled videos were reported to create a lower cognitive load, as indicated by pupil diameter change, than unsubtitled versions (Kruger et al., 2013). ...
We examined whether adding video and subtitles to an audio lesson facilitates its comprehension and whether the comprehension depends on participants' cognitive abilities, including working memory and executive functions, and where they looked during video viewing. Participants received lessons consisting of statements of facts under four conditions: audio-only, audio with verbatim subtitles, audio with relevant video, and audio with both subtitles and video. Comprehension was assessed as the accuracy in answering multiple-choice questions for content memory. We found that subtitles facilitated comprehension whereas video did not. In addition, comprehension of audio lessons with video depended on participants' cognitive abilities and eye movement pattern: a more centralized (looking mainly at the screen center) eye movement pattern predicted better comprehension as opposed to a distributed pattern (with distributed regions of interest). Thus, whether video facilitates comprehension of audio lessons depends on both learners’ cognitive abilities and where they look during video viewing.
... When branding is conveyed visually (Bryce and Yalch 1993), brand recall for muted television advertising can be equal to normal (with sound) television advertising (Bellman et al. 2010;Maher et al. 2006). These results suggest that adding visual branding and subtitles can increase muted advertising's effectiveness (Brasel and Gips 2014b). However, multiple resource theory (Wickens 2008) suggests that subtitles may go unread among competing visual stimuli. ...
Video ads are often muted when seen in social media on a smartphone. This research compared video ads across three Muting conditions: (1) normal (audio), (2) muted, and (3) muted with subtitles. The lab-study results showed that muted ads had lower free brand recall, cued brand recall, and brand recognition than normal ads and adding subtitles did not improve effectiveness on these measures. However, the free brand recall effects were significant only for ads seen in a news environment on a desktop computer. Ads seen in a social media environment on a mobile phone were less effective, measured by free brand recall, which is a difficult memory task. Muted ads were just as effective as normal ads and subtitled ads, in a mobile social media environment, on every measure except brand recognition, which is an easy memory task. These results suggest that muting makes little difference to the effectiveness of video ads seen in social media on smartphones. In the desktop news environment, muting reduced ad effectiveness, measured by free brand recall, but improved ad liking. The negative effect of muting on free brand recall was significant only for ads with high amounts of information (speech and audio branding) in their soundtracks, which was lost when the ad was muted. Two visual strategies (visual storytelling, and referencing shared understandings) counteracted the effects of muting on high audio information ads seen in a desktop news environment.
... 15,18,32,33 In our study, signalling was designed to minimise the extraneous cognitive load and emphasise the important elements of a video, accentuate the flow of information and improve the students' ability to retain and transfer knowledge from educational videos. 22,37 Language proficiency has been shown to be a strong predictor of learning outcomes; as such, subtitles were used in the current video. 30 Although language proficiency did not affect the learning outcomes in our study, the students' open-ended responses revealed their preference for the use of subtitles. ...
Background
The application of video‐based learning in dentistry has been widely investigated; however, the nature of on‐screen video enhancements of the video has been minimally explored in the literature.
Purpose
This study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of an in‐class and on‐demand enhanced video to support learning on removable partial dentures in terms of knowledge acquisition, perception and clinical skill performance.
Methods
Fifty‐four dental students enrolled in 2018 were recruited as participants and assigned to two groups. Both groups were given the same lecture and asked to watch the same video in either the enhanced or non‐enhanced version. The enhanced video was modified with the contemporaneous subtitle of the presenters’ dialogue, text bullet points and summary text pages. The knowledge acquisition from the two types of video was subjected to pre‐ and post‐tests one month after the students watched the video. A questionnaire was used to evaluate the students’ perceptions of the learning experience and a performance test on practical skills was performed after six weeks. All the students responded to the test (100%).
Results
The enhanced video demonstration improved the students’ short‐term knowledge acquisition after they watched the video, with an average score of 1.59 points higher in the enhanced group than in the non‐enhanced group (p<0.05). The practical performance did not differ between the two groups. The students were more likely accepted the enhanced video as a replacement of the existing teaching method rather than a teaching supplement (70.3%).
Conclusion
The application of the enhanced video demonstration resulted in a better theoretical knowledge retention but not practical performance. Students also preferred watching video to using conventional learning methods.
... The modality principle suggests that it is generally beneficial to receive both visual and audio information in the learning process (Low & Sweller, 2014). Similarly, subtitles have been shown to enhance learning: same-language subtitles in video advertisements were shown to enhance the viewers' memory of the brand and slogan (Brasel & Gips, 2014), and watching recorded lectures with subtitles was associated with better comprehension performance (Kruger & Steyn, 2014). ...
It remains unclear whether multimedia facilitates or impairs knowledge acquisition. Here we examined whether subtitles and video content facilitate comprehension of documentaries consisting of statements of facts and whether the comprehension depends on participants' cognitive abilities and eye movement strategies during video watching. We found that subtitles facilitated comprehension regardless of participants' cognitive abilities or eye movement strategies for video watching. In contrast, with video content but not subtitles, comprehension depended on participants' auditory working memory, task switching ability, and eye movement strategy. Through the Eye Movement analysis with Hidden Markov Models (EMHMM) method, we found that a centralized (looking mainly at the screen center) eye movement strategy predicted better comprehension as opposed to a distributed strategy (with distributed regions of interest) after contributions from cognitive abilities were controlled. Thus, whether video content facilitates comprehension of documentaries depends on the viewers' eye movement strategy in addition to cognitive abilities.
... More than half of modern television viewers may be expected to make a purchase right after being exposed to an advertisement which is considerably higher compared to social media advertising and other types of online media. Compared to television advertising, for example, potential customer base of radio stations is much smaller as there is a bigger number of local radio stations that usually focus on just one type of demographics (Brasel & Gips, 2014). Television, contrarily, creates larger segments that react to advertising differently and are generally more receptive to marketing initiatives shared by companies through TV spots. ...
This paper gives a look to the television medium as an advertising tool. The effects of television to the advertising industry within media and the story of television and advertising from the past. The paper gives a special interest to the advantages and disadvantages of TV advertising and explore this from industrial and academic perspective. In the conclusion part the paper there are some opinions for the future of television advertising. İt underlines that television advertising will carry on being strong in media with the changes in technology. The screens will never end and with the digitalization of television advertising will remain in this medium but will only change a shape and structure.
... The use of these subtitles has resulted in learners experiencing a lot of improvement in their target language. The use of these subtitles has resulted in learners experiencing a lot of improvement in their target language (Ahn, 2013;Baker, 2001;Brasel & Gips, 2014;Caimi, 2006;Danan, 2004;Hinkin, Harris, & Miranda, 2014;Lee, 2017;Mitterer & McQueen, 2009;Yoon, 2018;Yu, 2013). Markham (1989) conducted a study focusing on the effectiveness of using captioned video in the development of listening comprehension skills of ESL students belonging to various proficiency levels. ...
... Another area of research is advertising effectiveness in television (e.g. Brasel and Gips 2014). This area includes the effect of feelings evoked by television advertisements on attitudes towards the advertisement (Boles and Burton 1992) and ethical issues that advertising professionals face when using television advertising targeted to children (LaFleur et al. 1995). ...
This paper analyses the entire publication history of the Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science (JAMS) by analyzing 1747 documents from 1973 to June 2018. Citation networks were examined from available metadata such as author and index keywords, and institutional affiliations, and abstracts were analyzed using network analysis and text mining techniques. The analysis is supported by the use of data visualization tools and community detection algorithms. Results suggest three main communities addressed throughout JAMS’ publication history (firm capability and performance, brand and value co-creation and customer service) and nine main themes (brands’ strategic value, firms’ strategy and financial performance, customer service, sales, marketing communications, retailing, distribution channel, global markets, and corporate social responsibility). Although empirical quantitative studies account the larger type of research published by JAMS, results also highlight JAMS’ contribution to marketing theory building and methodological issues in the shape of both conceptual/theoretical papers and scale development papers.
... Improves comprehension for all students -SLS can have a powerful impact on comprehension for all students (Brasel & Gips 2014;Kothari 2008;Steinfeld 1998). Providing this kind of access for students is an excellent example of UDL principle 2 (provide multiple means of representation); it can enable the curriculum for all students, not just those with disabilities. ...
Use of multimedia for teaching and learning, particularly digital video, has become ubiquitous in higher education. This is driven in part by the growth in blended pedagogies and an increase in students learning solely or partly online. It is also influenced by relatively inexpensive media production equipment, faster internet speeds, student access to mobile devices and a rise in media production skill sets. Where students are studying solely online, this content becomes essential as it replaces the traditional lecture in the design of the course (“course” refers to individual course, subject or unit of study). Digital video can be an extremely effective way to reach students with course content. One of the main benefits is the flexibility it affords. Students can view the course material when and where they like, on multiple devices. They can rewind, slow down or speed it up – they can revisit particular videos prior to assessments. There have been two primary drivers of the development process of this content. Firstly, a focus on high quality, and secondly, a focus on accessibility. Videos have the potential to be more inclusive as they are accessible to students with a range of disabilities. We have included subtitles with all videos as a minimum requirement. What follows is a case study on the creation and distribution of a large volume (around 6000 items) of digital content designed to support teaching and learning in a newly created suite of completely online undergraduate degrees. This case study will outline the various challenges which are presented by creating and supporting this volume of material and is informed by the results of a survey of students, detailing their usage patterns and habits.
... 2. Improves comprehension for all students -SLS can have a powerful impact on comprehension for all students, Steinfeld (1998), Kothari (2008), Brasel and Gips (2014). Providing this kind of access for students is an excellent example of UDL principle 1 (Provide multiple means of representation): it can enable the curriculum for all students, not just those with disabilities. ...
Educational institutions are increasingly recognising the potential value for students that samelanguage-subtitles can bring to lecture recordings and other digital content. During 2016 the University of South Australia’s Teaching Innovation Unit and School of Information Technology and Mathematical Sciences collaborated on a project which aimed to test our ability transcribe every piece of digital video content hosted by the University in to same-language subtitles in a cost effective way. We believe this augmentation to our existing media content would have various benefits for our students. This paper discusses the benefits of same-language transcription of media content and goes on to outline the details of a technical feasibility study.
... Tipo de anuncio (Bellman et al., 2016) (Bellman, Schweda, & Varan, 2012) (Brasel & Gips, 2014) (Cartwright, McCormick, & Warnaby, 2016) (Chan, Su, & Huang, 2010) Comercial y publicidad estática (Roozen & Meulders, 2015) Medios tradicionales: televisión, radio, impresos y sitio web ...
The objective of this article is to analyze whether or not television is an effective advertising media. To this
end, literature review of academic papers published between 2006 and February 2017 was carried out. This
review shows that advertising effectiveness in television is significant, especially for unconventional types
of ads. Studios use in general, quantitative methodologies to demonstrate the causal relations between the
effectiveness of advertising indicators and the most used indicators. The most relevant ones for studying
are those of having an emotional nature, according to the audience’s response-type models.
... The impact of multi-language stimuli, such as subtitled and multilingual advertising. For example, Brasel and Gips (2014) show that, among L1 speakers of the language used in a commercial, subtitles in the same language can influence attention and increase recall. The influence of relatively small variations in language, such as accents and dialects. ...
Regardless of whether the research goal is to establish cultural universals or to identify and explain cross-cultural differences, researchers need measures that are comparable across different cultures when conducting cross-cultural studies. In this chapter, we describe two major strategies for enhancing cross-cultural comparability. First, we discuss a priori methods to ensure the comparability of data in cross-cultural surveys. In particular, we review findings on cross-cultural differences based on the psychology of survey response and provide suggestions on how to deal with these cultural differences in the survey design stage. Second, we discuss post hoc methods to ascertain data comparability and enable comparisons in the presence of threats to equivalence.
... These observations are consistent with extensive literature pertaining to dual-versus singlemodality presentations and impact on information processing. 37,38 Therefore, policy makers and drug ad sponsors should consider dual modality to be a critical element in the effectiveness of this approach. Without dual modality, far fewer consumers may notice and remember the disclosure statement. ...
Background:
Broadcast direct-to-consumer (DTC) prescription drug ads that present product claims are required to also present the product's major risks. Debate exists regarding how much information should be included in these major risk statements. Some argue that such statements expose people to unnecessary amounts of information, while others argue that they leave out important information.
Objectives:
Examine the impact of type of risk statement (unedited versus serious and actionable risks only) and a disclosure indicating that not all risks are presented on consumers' ability to remember the important risks and benefits of a drug following exposure to a DTC television advertisement (ad). Risk and benefit perceptions, ad-prompted actions, recognition of the disclosure statement, and evaluations of both the disclosure and risk statement were also examined.
Methods:
A web-based experiment was conducted in which US adults who self-reported as having depression (N = 500), insomnia (N = 500), or high cholesterol (N = 500) were randomly assigned to view one of four versions of the television ad, and then complete a questionnaire.
Results:
The type of risk statement had a significant effect on risk recall and recognition, benefit recognition, perceived risk severity (depression condition only), and perceived benefit magnitude (high cholesterol condition only). Disclosure recognition (using bias-corrected scores) ranged from 63% to 70% across the three illness samples.
Conclusions:
The revised risk statement improved overall processing of the television ad, as evidenced by improved risk recall and recognition and improved benefit recognition. Further, the presence of the disclosure did not adversely affect consumers' processing of drug risk and benefit information. Therefore, limiting the risks presented in DTC television ads and including a disclosure alerting consumers that not all risks are presented may be an effective strategy for communicating product risks.
... The impact of multi-language stimuli, such as subtitled and multilingual advertising. For example, Brasel and Gips (2014) show that, among L1 speakers of the language used in a commercial, subtitles in the same language can influence attention and increase recall. The influence of relatively small variations in language, such as accents and dialects. ...
This article discusses methodological issues related to language in advertising research. We introduce a framework that distinguishes between cross-linguistic research settings, where several languages are used in the study and different samples of respondents are studied in their own language, and multilingual research settings, where only a single language is used and multilingual respondents are studied either in their native or nonnative language. We review key principles that govern cross-linguistic and multilingual effects in advertising research to formulate guidelines for research design and data analysis. In the cross-linguistic context, these principles address nonuniform cross-linguistic differences in responses (related to nonequivalence of individual questionnaire items) versus uniform response effects (related to nonequivalence of verbal response category labels). In the multilingual context, we bring together evidence that shows how—even when comprehension is not a problem—stimuli, questions, and response categories may be processed differently in respondents' native versus nonnative language.
... Learning, storage, retrieval Impact of field dependency on brand information Ng and Houston (2009) Structure in memory Consumers' memory retrieval and choice process Biehal and Chakravarti (1982), Keller (1987) Influence of the level of involvement on learning and memory Hawkins and Hoch (1992) Consumers' recall and recognition of advertisements, brand names, brand memory Alba and Chattopadhyay (1986), Bagozzi and Silk (1983), Baker (2003), Brasel and Gips (2014), Kelting and Rice (2013), Lerman and Garbarino (2002) (2002) Nature of consumer knowledge Perspectives on and implications for the nature of consumers' brand-related memory , Ratnayake et al. (2010), Teichert and Schöntag (2010) Memory research reviews Synthesizes memory (affect and persuasion) research including information processing, interplay between motivation and cognition, and implicit memories' impact on consumer behavior Johar et al. (2006), Schacter (1987) behavior researchers. Not surprisingly, a large amount of research investigating diverse facets of brand knowledge structures has been produced over the years (summarized in Table 1). ...
Consumers strongly rely on their memories and experiences during their decision-making processes. Yet, despite empirical evidence that both semantic and episodic brand memories affect consumer behavior, literature on their distinction and differential impact is scarce. This empirical investigation seeks to reduce this imbalance by enhancing the understanding of these consumer knowledge structures. Using a mixed methods approach including a collage technique and one-to-one interviews (N = 118) consisting of open-ended and closed-ended (survey) elements and a subsequent content analysis, this research (1) explores differences in memory between brand users and nonusers, (2) evaluates the distinct impact of semantic and episodic memories on brand perceptions, and (3) presents a taxonomy of the principal domains of semantic and episodic brand memories and their implications for brand management. The article concludes by discussing theoretical, methodological, and managerial implications, as well as opening new avenues for future research directed at understanding and managing consumers’ semantic and episodic brand memories.
... Further, when examining customer responses for consumer-based marketing strategy questions, Hamilton (2016) presents useful guidance. When done well, results from experiments provide evidence of how and/or why the phenomenon works, such as, for example, why a change in product subtitling might result in a change in sales (Brasel and Gips 2014). ...
... Kovacs et al. [20] developed a video player for foreign language learners which enhanced the traditional subtitles display by allowing users to jump back and forth through the video by clicking on the corresponding subtitle. Brasel et al. [4] investigated displaying advertisements in users' native language with subtitles and their effects on eye movements and recall showing that participants were able to recall more of the advertisement brands shown. However, they also showed a negative effect for recalling visual program elements. ...
Using mobile devices while watching TV is becoming increasingly common. Most of the so-called second-screen apps provide additional information and services for a specific TV program. App content is mostly manually curated by the program or app publishers. In this paper we present an approach for automatically extracting keywords from subtitles in order to retrieve and provide highly relevant additional program content. Over the course of 4 months we recorded more than 45.000 hours of TV shows, on which we based an entity linking algorithm to extract relevant keywords and automatically trigger Wikipedia look-ups. Our system includes a second-screen app which proactively displays these contents with hindsight to time and position in the current TV show. We then conducted a user study with 30 participants investigating the relationship between app usage while watching documentaries and effects on comprehension, recall, and subjective experience. We confirmed user distraction while using the app, but noticed an increase in subjectively reported comprehension compared to when users triggered web-searches via a smartphone browser. The content extracted, linked and proactively presented by our system turned out to be highly relevant.
... Neuromarketing methods are useful to study consumer behavior in a noninvasive way, bringing better understanding of the decision-making process which is much more emotional than once thought (Fugate, 2007(Fugate, , 2008Balconi, 2014;Booth & Freeman, 2014;Droulers et al., 2014;Sebastian, 2014;). These new methods raise the issues of advertising impact on decision making to a new level (Macklem, 2005;Babiloni et al., 2014;Brasel & Gips, 2014;Venkatraman et al., 2014). Over the past decade, the application of neuroscience to the consumer psychology of brands has gained popularity (Plassman et al., 2012). ...
In recent years, there is a growing interest of academics and practitioners in applying neuromarketing tools to identify consumer perceptions and preferences. The paper aims to unveil implicit consumer perceptions of fragrance in the blind tasting, and to compare the results with consumer expectations caused by commercials of perfume. Combined use of psychophysiological and sociological methods demonstrated different perception of aromas when tasting (i) on the basis of subjective assessments, and (ii) on the basis of the non-verbal level. The obtained results suggest that matching consumer expectations, based on brand advertising, with physiological fragrance perception is of high importance. Moreover, the dissonance between subjective expectations and implicit reaction to the odor leads to deterioration of brand perceptions.
Purpose
This study aims to analyze the most effective type of emoji for deriving positive marketing results by determining whether the relationship between brand attitude, brand attachment and purchase intention is moderated by the various types of prosocial expression-based brand emojis used.
Design/methodology/approach
An online survey was administered to Koreans in their 20s. Starbucks brand emojis were classified into three types: static gesture, animated gesture and a combined animated gesture and displayed word. A moderated–mediation analysis was performed to verify the research hypotheses. Gender, age, region of residence, frequency of Starbucks use and Starbucks favorability were used as control variables.
Findings
Animations in emojis were shown to strengthen the marketing effect. Further, combining animated prosocial gestures and displayed words had a more positive marketing effect than merely applying animated prosocial gestures.
Originality/value
This study closely examined the role of verbal, in the form of colloquial words, and nonverbal aspects, in the form of emojis, in the creation of positive business outcomes. Additionally, the positive marketing effect of animated emojis is discussed from a mechanistic point of view by linking research results to those in the field of neuroscience (mirroring by mirror neurons).
The advertising is very essential component of a well-prepared social campaign. Thanks to the occurrence of the campaign in the media, it can reach the larger number of potential customers and initiate a number of positive changes. Effectiveness of the advertising, no matter if it is commercial or social, depends heavily on the message that is communicated. An effective message should engage the recipient’s mind and shape his consciousness, as it can significantly increase the impact of social campaign. Therefore, before deciding on the final form of advertising, it is a good practice to generate some alternative messages and pretest them to find the best one. Pretesting involves using various methods to exam messages and materials with the target audience members. The traditionally used methods in this scope are based on self-report questionnaires. But due to some disadvantages of this type of methods, cognitive neuroscience tools are more and more popular in scientific advertising research. However, such tools have also their limitations so some scholars advocate using cognitive neuroscience in combination with traditional survey methods to augment data collected, for a more informed interpretation. In this context, the question arises, what is the correlation between traditional measures of social advertising effectiveness and neurophysiological measures, and how research should be conducted to make the best use of the potential of both groups of methods. Therefore, the aim of the presented article is to show what traditional metrics are used in assessing the effectiveness of social campaigns advertising and which neurophysiological measures could complement them. Additionally, a framework for assessing the effectiveness of media messages in social campaigns using triangulation of cognitive neuroscience and diagnostic survey methods is proposed.
Heeding calls to broaden the scope of smart city discourse analysis to include visual representations and building on Regina Queiroz's notion of “publicity without a public”, this article scrutinizes audio-visual smart city narratives from an actually existing (aspiring) smart city. A meticulous analysis of the interplay of different expressive modes within those narratives is followed by a contextual analysis and discussion with a view to reconstructing underlying notions of sustainability and security as key aspects of increasing claims to citizen-centred smart urbanism. The results provide concrete illustrations of the maxim of “pursuing neoliberal goals by letting people think (wrongly) that other legitimate goals are being pursued”.
Video content has become a major component of total internet traffic. Growing
bandwidth and computational power conspire with an increasing number of video editing tools, smartphones, and online platforms that have facilitated video production, distribution, and consumption by businesses and consumers alike. This makes video content relevant across business research disciplines, including commercials, product presentations, and manager interactions. However, analyzing videos can be a cumbersome manual task. Automated techniques are scattered across technical publications and are often not directly accessible to business researchers. This article synthesizes the current state of the art and provides a consolidated tool to efficiently extract 109 video-based variables, requiring no programming knowledge for standard use cases. The variables include structural video characteristics such as colorfulness as well as advanced content-related features such as scene cuts or human face detection. The authors discuss the research potential of video mining, the types of video features of likely interest and illustrate application using a practical example.
Das Internet ist mehr als ein weiterer Kommunikationskanal. Für neue Online-Marken ist zunächst eine geeignete Markenidentität zu entwickeln. Bei bestehenden Marken gilt es, ihre Markenidentität zu stärken und den Erfordernissen der Digitalisierung anzupassen. Marken sind ansprechend, glaubwürdig und integriert zu kommunizieren. Basierend auf dem Konstrukt des Involvements sind dabei die Nutzertypen des auf Unterhaltung bedachten Browsers und des zielgerichtet nach Informationen suchenden Searchers zu unterscheiden. Im Fokus steht die Kontaktherstellung, um im Internet sichtbar zu werden. Zudem sind Potenziale zur Markenbindung zu nutzen.
Eye tracking offers researchers an opportunity to collect an objective assessment of visual behavior. Visual behavior—referring broadly to metrics and measures of gaze positioning and movement—has been used to assess variables including exposure time, cognitive processing, prominence, and (visual) attention. Over the past decade, communication science researchers have increased their use of eye-tracking methods in published articles. During that same period, technological innovations have made eye-tracking units more affordable and accessible to interested researchers increasing the likelihood that eye-tracking research will continue to increase in the field. In this article, we provide information on eye tracking in hopes of improving the quality and reporting of eye-tracking research in communication. The article first provides an overview of basic eye-tracking information followed by a systematic review on the reporting of eye-tracking methods in communication-relevant research. We then provide eye-tracking research reporting recommendations and some ideas about how eye tracking might be integrated into scholarly work moving forward with the aim of improving the transparency and replicability of eye-tracking research in communication science.
Individuals watch TV shows while simultaneously and/or immediately searching online. Thus, the content of offline TV ads can affect online brand search, a key predictor of sales. Yet there are few insights on the effect of offline ad content on online brand search. We develop hypotheses relating the informational and emotional content of TV ads on online brand search, independently, and in conjunction with two attentional content elements of the ad campaign, prior media publicity and brand website prominence in the TV ad. We test the hypotheses using a quasi-experimental study, the telecast of TV ads on the annual Super Bowl event between 2004 and 2012 (n = 293 observations). We measure online brand search by online brand search lift, i.e., the growth in online brand search following the telecast of the brand’s ad on Super Bowl. The findings indicate that the informational content of the TV ad increases online brand search, while both attentional content elements decrease this effect. We find no support for the effect of emotional content of the TV ad on online brand search. Our findings extend marketing theory on online search and generate managerial implications for designing TV ads to increase online brand search.
Das Internet ist mehr als ein weiterer Kommunikationskanal. Für neue Online-Marken ist zunächst eine geeignete Markenidentität zu entwickeln. Bei bestehenden Marken gilt es, ihre Markenidentität zu stärken und den Erfordernissen der Digitalisierung anzupassen. Marken sind ansprechend, glaubwürdig und integriert zu kommunizieren. Basierend auf dem Konstrukt des Involvements sind dabei die Nutzertypen des auf Unterhaltung bedachten Browsers und des zielgerichtet nach Informationen suchenden Searchers zu unterscheiden. Im Fokus steht die Kontaktherstellung, um im Internet sichtbar zu werden. Zudem sind Potenziale zur Markenbindung zu nutzen.
Advertising needs to capture consumers' attention in likable ways, and the visual complexity of advertising plays a central role in this regard. Yet ideas about visual complexity effects conflict, and objective measures of complexity are rare. The authors distinguish two types of visual complexity, differentiate them from the difficulty of comprehending advertising, and propose objective measures for each. Advertisements are visually complex when they contain dense perceptual features ("feature complexity") and/or when they have an elaborate creative design ("design complexity"). An analysis of 249 advertisements that were tested with eye-tracking shows that, as the authors hypothesize, feature complexity hurts attention to the brand and attitude toward the ad, whereas design complexity helps attention to both the pictorial and the advertisement as a whole, its comprehensibility, and attitude toward the ad. This is important because design complexity is under direct control of the advertiser. The proposed measures can be readily adopted to assess the visual complexity of advertising, and the findings can be used to improve the stopping power of advertisements.
Considerable research suggests that advertising executional cues can influence communication effec- tiveness. Related research indicates that communication effectiveness is in part driven by consumers' motivation, opportunity, and ability (MOA) to process brand information from an ad. However, little re- search has explicitly linked executional cues to communication effectiveness via their impact on MOA and levels of processing. The authors present a framework that explicitly provides such a linkage. The framework highlights the mediational role of MOA in the relationships among executional cues and com- munication outcomes, it also provides a theoretical account that links apparently disparate cues to their common effects on motivation, opportunity, or ability. The framework is complemented by a critical re- view of current measures of MOA and proposed measures based on the review. Research issues raised by the framework and the proposed measures are discussed.
This experiment investigated the effects of visual intensity in audiovisual redundancy research. Results indicate that viewers' recognition and delayed free recall of compelling messages were unimpeded by redundancy. For noncomplying messages, however, the 2 cognitive indicators both suffered when redundancy was absent. Results of this study suggest that redundancy did not have a blanket effect. The variance explained by visual intensity suggests that human processing of audio and visual information could be better understood by taking into consideration cognitive variables such as redundancy, as well as affective variables such as visual intensity.
In 4 experiments, college students viewed an animation and listened to concurrent narration explaining the formation of lightning. When students also received concurrent on-screen text that summarized (Experiment 1) or duplicated (Experiment 2) the narration, they performed worse on tests of retention and transfer than did students who received no on-screen text. This redundancy effect is consistent with a dual-channel theory of multimedia learning in which adding on-screen text can overload the visual information-processing channel, causing learners to split their visual attention between 2 sources. Lower transfer performance also occurred when the authors added interesting but irrelevant details to the narration (Experiment 1) or inserted interesting but conceptually irrelevant video clips within (Experiment 3) or before the presentation (Experiment 4). This coherence effect is consistent with a seductive details hypothesis in which the inserted video and narration prime the activation of inappropriate prior knowledge as the organizing schema for the lesson. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Many advertisers have argued that 15-sec TV commercials should be used only to reinforce effects created by longer commercials. However, this recommendation is based on studies that have several weaknesses, including use of single exposure levels, established commercials, and learning as the primary dependent variable. The authors report the findings of an experiment in which they compared the effectiveness of 15- and 30-sec commercials by using novel commercials with different message appeals (informational vs emotional), exposing 138 undergraduates multiple times, and employing multiple dependent variables. Informational 15-sec commercials were as effective as informational 30-sec commercials in several situations and could be used as stand-alone units. Emotional 30-sec commercials were superior to emotional 15-sec commercials in influencing a viewer's learning of brand name and attitude. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Dubbing and subtitling are the two most common methods of translating television broadcasts or movies. Both dubbing and subtitling may present specific advantages and disadvantages. In this study, the effects of these two methods on presence, transportation, flow, and enjoyment were investigated in an experimental approach. Participants (
N = 154) watched a 30-min segment of a movie. Between-subject factors were translation method (dubbing without subtitles, dubbing with subtitles in a foreign language, and original language with subtitles) and genre (drama, comedy, and thriller). Findings indicate that subtitles in a foreign language decrease feelings of spatial presence, transportation, and flow. However, the difference between dubbing and subtitling failed to reach significance. No effect of translation method on enjoyment was found. The pattern of results is equal for all genres. Further analyses showed spatial presence, transportation, and flow to be related. In addition, transportation is more strongly related to enjoyment than flow and spatial presence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Students viewed a computer animation depicting the process of lightning. In Experiment 1, they concurrently viewed on-screen text presented near the animation or far from the animation, or concurrently listened to a narration. In Experiment 2, they concurrently viewed on-screen text or listened to a narration, viewed on-screen text following or preceding the animation, or listened to a narration following or preceding the animation. Learning was measured by retention, transfer, and matching tests. Experiment 1 revealed a spatial-contiguity effect in which students learned better when visual and verbal materials were physically close. Both experiments revealed a modality effect in which students learned better when verbal input was presented auditorily as speech rather than visually as text. The results support 2 cognitive principles of multimedia learning. Technological advances have made possible the combina-tion and coordination of verbal presentation modes (such as narration and on-screen text) with nonverbal presentation modes (such as graphics, video, animations, and environmen-tal sounds) in just one device (the computer). These ad-vances include multimedia environments, where students can be introduced to causal models of complex systems by the use of computer-generated animations (Park & Hopkins, 1993). However, despite its power to facilitate learning, multimedia has been developed on the basis of its technologi-cal capacity, and rarely is it used according to research-based principles (Kozma, 1991; Mayer, in press; Moore, Burton, & Myers, 1996). Instructional design of multimedia is still mostly based on the intuitive beliefs of designers rather than on empirical evidence (Park & Hannafin, 1994). The purpose of the present study is to contribute to multi-media learning theory by clarifying and testing two cogni-tive principles: the contiguity principle and the modality principle.
The purpose of this study was to examine the redundancy effects obtained when spoken information was duplicated in writing during the learning of a multimedia document. Documents consisting of diagrams and spoken information on the development of memory models were presented to three groups of students. In the first group, no written text was presented. In the second, written sentences redundant with the spoken information were progressively presented on the screen while in the third group, these written sentences were presented together. The results show that whatever the type of text presentation (sequential or static), the duplication of information in the written mode led to a substantial impairment in subsequent retention and transfer tests as well as in a task in which the memorization of diagrams was evaluated. This last result supports the hypothesis that the visual channel is overloaded as the cognitive theory of multimedia learning suggests.
The aim of this study was to evaluate the benefit that listeners obtain from visually presented output from an automatic speech recognition (ASR) system during listening to speech in noise.
Auditory-alone and audiovisual speech reception thresholds (SRTs) were measured. The SRT is defined as the speech-to-noise ratio at which 50% of the test sentences are reproduced correctly. In the auditory-alone SRT tests, the test sentences were presented only auditorily; in the audiovisual SRT test, the ASR output of each test sentence was also presented textually. The ASR system was used in two recognition modes: recognition of spoken words (word output), or recognition of speech sounds or phones (phone output). The benefit obtained from the ASR output was defined as the difference between the auditory-alone and the audiovisual SRT. We also examined the readability of unimodally displayed ASR output (i.e., the percentage of sentences in which ASR errors were identified and accurately corrected). In experiment 1, the readability and benefit obtained from ASR word output (n = 14) was compared with the benefit obtained from ASR phone output (n = 10). In experiment 2, the effect of presenting an indication of the ASR confidence level was examined (n = 14). The effect of delaying the presentation of the text relative to the speech (up to 6 sec) was examined in experiment 3 (n = 24). The ASR accuracy level was varied systematically in each experiment.
Mean readability scores ranged from 0 to 46%, depending on ASR accuracy. Speech comprehension improved when the ASR output was displayed. For example, when the ASR output corresponded to readability scores of only about 20% correct, the text improved the SRT by about 3 dB SNR in the audiovisual SRT test. This improvement corresponds to an increase in speech comprehension of about 35% in critical conditions. Equally readable phone and word output provides similar benefit in speech comprehension. For equal ASR accuracies, both the readability and the benefit from the word output generally exceeded the benefits from the phone output. Presenting information about the ASR confidence level did not influence either the readability or the benefit obtained from the word output. Delaying the text relative to the speech moderately decreased the benefit.
The present study indicates that speech comprehension improves considerably by textual ASR output with moderate accuracies. The study shows that this improvement depends on the readability of the ASR output. Word output has better accuracy and readability than phone output. Listeners are therefore better able to use the ASR word output than phone output to improve speech comprehension. The ability of older listeners and listeners with hearing impairments to use ASR output in speech comprehension requires further study.
Previous research has shown that redundant information in faces and voices leads to faster emotional categorization compared to incongruent emotional information even when attending to only one modality. The aim of the present study was to test whether these crossmodal effects are predominantly due to a response conflict rather than interference at earlier, e.g. perceptual processing stages. In Experiment 1, participants had to categorize the valence and rate the intensity of happy, sad, angry and neutral unimodal or bimodal face-voice stimuli. They were asked to rate either the facial or vocal expression and ignore the emotion expressed in the other modality. Participants responded faster and more precisely to emotionally congruent compared to incongruent face-voice pairs in both the Attend Face and in the Attend Voice condition. Moreover, when attending to faces, emotionally congruent bimodal stimuli were more efficiently processed than unimodal visual stimuli. To study the role of a possible response conflict, Experiment 2 used a modified paradigm in which emotional and response conflicts were disentangled. Incongruency effects were significant even in the absence of response conflicts. The results suggest that emotional signals available through different sensory channels are automatically combined prior to response selection.
Changes in the media landscape have made simultaneous usage of the computer and television increasingly commonplace, but little research has explored how individuals navigate this media multitasking environment. Prior work suggests that self-insight may be limited in media consumption and multitasking environments, reinforcing a rising need for direct observational research. A laboratory experiment recorded both younger and older individuals as they used a computer and television concurrently, multitasking across television and Internet content. Results show that individuals are attending primarily to the computer during media multitasking. Although gazes last longer on the computer when compared to the television, the overall distribution of gazes is strongly skewed toward very short gazes only a few seconds in duration. People switched between media at an extreme rate, averaging more than 4 switches per min and 120 switches over the 27.5-minute study exposure. Participants had little insight into their switching activity and recalled their switching behavior at an average of only 12 percent of their actual switching rate revealed in the objective data. Younger individuals switched more often than older individuals, but other individual differences such as stated multitasking preference and polychronicity had little effect on switching patterns or gaze duration. This overall pattern of results highlights the importance of exploring new media environments, such as the current drive toward media multitasking, and reinforces that self-monitoring, post hoc surveying, and lay theory may offer only limited insight into how individuals interact with media.
Three central problems in the recent literature on visual attention are reviewed. The first concerns the control of attention by top-down (or goal-directed) and bottom-up (or stimulus-driven) processes. The second concerns the representational basis for visual selection, including how much attention can be said to be location- or object-based. Finally, we consider the time course of attention as it is directed to one stimulus after another.
This text provides a snapshot of issues reflecting the changing nature of translation studies at the beginning of a new millennium. Resulting from discussions between translation theorists from all over the world, topics covered include: the nature of translation; English as a "lingua franca"; public service translation and interpreting; assessment; and audio-visual translation. The first part of the work covers a discussion stimulated by Peter Newmark's paper, and the second part allows invited colleagues to develop his topics. © 2003 Gunilla Anderman, Margaret Rogers and the authors of individual chapters. All rights reserved.
In daily life people are often confronted with more than one source of information at a time, as, for example, when watching television. A television program has at least two channels of information: a visual one (the image) and an auditory one (the sound). In some countries most of the television programs are imported from abroad and subtitled in the native language. The subtitles, then, are a third source of information. Characteristically, each of these three sources of information are partly redundant: they do not contradict but rather supplement one another, or express the same content in a different form.
For hundreds of years verbal messages such as lectures and printed lessons have been the primary means of explaining ideas to learners. Although verbal learning offers a powerful tool, this book explores ways of going beyond the purely verbal. Recent advances in graphics technology have prompted new efforts to understand the potential of multimedia and multimedia learning as a means of promoting human understanding. In Multimedia Learning, Second Edition, Richard E. Mayer asks whether people learn more deeply when ideas are expressed in words and pictures rather than in words alone. He reviews twelve principles of instructional design that are based on experimental research studies and grounded in a theory of how people learn from words and pictures. The result is what Mayer calls the cognitive theory of multimedia learning, a theory introduced in the first edition of Multimedia Learning and further developed in The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning.
This experiment involved the question of where human observers look in a picture. The results indicated that observers fixate earlier, more often, and with longer durations on objects that have a low probability of appearing in a scene (e.g., an octopus in a farm scene) than on objects that have a high probability of appearing (e.g., a tractor in a farm scene). These findings (a) imply a role of cognitive factors in peripheral visual processing and (b) suggest a possible relationship between the nature of information initially acquired from a picture and subsequent recognition memory for that picture. Language: en
In Experiment 1, subjects reported on the speed of three presentation times of subtitles (4-, 6- and 8-seconds rules), with the 6-seconds rule as the one used by most TV stations (normal presentation time). In Experiment 2, three time rules (2-, 4- and 6-seconds rule) were used in three different tapes of the same movie and the eye movements were recorded. Subjects did or did not master the spoken language; a third group did not receive the sound track. The findings suggest that, under normal presentation time, time spent in reading the subtitle does not change as a function of the knowledge and the availability of the spoken language, due to the longstanding experiences of our subjects with such a presentation time. A number of episodic effects of the movie are to be explained by their confounding with the number of lines in the subtitle: As the time to switch from the movie to the subtitle is more or less the same in all cases, more viewing time is available with two lines. In general, processing of subtitles seems to be an automatic or “encapsulated” activity, at least if it is not disturbed by abnormal presentation times.
In recent years, multimedia learning, or learning from words and images, has developed into a coherent discipline with a significant research base. The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning is unique in offering a comprehensive, up-to-date analysis of research and theory in the field, with a focus on computer-based learning. Since the first edition appeared in 2005, it has shaped the field and become the primary reference work for multimedia learning. Multimedia environments, including online presentations, e-courses, interactive lessons, simulation games, slideshows, and even textbooks, play a crucial role in education. This revised second edition incorporates the latest developments in multimedia learning and contains new chapters on topics such as drawing, video, feedback, working memory, learner control, and intelligent tutoring systems. It examines research-based principles to determine the most effective methods of multimedia instruction and considers research findings in the context of cognitive theory to explain how these methods work.
The plot structure in television advertisements can enhance consumers' brand attitudes and foster increasing consumer and industry recognition. A corpus analysis of contemporary television advertisements shows that advertisements using the repetition-break plot structure are a small percentage of television advertisements but a large percentage of Clio and Effie award-winning advertisements. They are also likely to attain postings and views on YouTube. Three experiments using television advertisements from contemporary brands show that repetitionbreak advertisements are persuasive, leading to more favorable brand attitudes and greater purchase intentions than similar plot structures and that this effect is attributable in part to the advertisements being more engaging. Thus, a theoretically explainable and generic plot structure yields effective advertisements. The result is a new and flexible tool for marketing professionals to use to generate advertisements, with guidelines for when and why it should and should not be effective.
Historically television has been one of the most powerful marketing contacts. But the recent proliferation of TV channels and influence of digital contacts resulted in audience fragmentation and additional media clutter. These caused speculation that the influence of TV is waning. Based on the last four years' data across the globe, the empirical evidence refutes that conclusion. The data show that TV retains its clout among target audiences. Increased digital media influence has not caused a decrease of TV influence. However, influence of any communication contact varies by market. In closing we show contact influence in an electronics category in 12 global markets.
■ Dubbing and subtitling are the most prevalent methods used to make foreign-language television programmes available to a domestic market. Each adaptation method has its advantages and disadvantages. This article provides an inventory of the pros and cons of both methods on the basis of three questions: Through which method can information best be transferred? What are the aesthetic advantages and disadvantages of each method? Which skills do viewers acquire `incidentally' by using one of the two adaptation methods? The answers given to these questions are based as much as possible on the results of empirical research on dubbing and subtitling. The conclusion is that there is no empirical evidence for some frequently claimed advantages and disadvantages. With regard to other pros and cons, it depends on the viewer, the type of television programme and the way in which a programme is subtitled or dubbed as to whether the argument should be taken seriously. ■
This experimental study examines the effects of audio and visual redundancy on recall and story understanding in television news. College students viewed a series of voice-over news stories that varied in the amount of redundancy between the two channels and then responded to both auditory and visual recall measures. The results show higher auditory recall and story understanding in the high-redundancy condition than in the lower redundancy conditions. Visual recall shows the reverse pattern with higher recall scores in the lower redundancy conditions than in the high-redundancy condition.
Two experiments examined visual attention distribution in learning from text and pictures. Participants watched a 16-step multimedia instruction on the formation of lightning. In Experiment 1 (N=90) the instruction was system-paced (fast, medium, slow pace), while it was self-paced in Experiment 2 (N=31). In both experiments the text modality was varied (written, spoken). During learning, the participants’ eye movements were recorded. Results from both experiments revealed that learners spent more time studying the visualizations with spoken text than those with written text. In written text conditions learners consistently started reading before alternating between text and visualization; moreover, they spent more time reading the text than inspecting the visualizations. While in Experiment 1 additional time that was made available in conditions with a slow or medium instruction pace was spent inspecting visualizations, in Experiment 2 longer learning times resulted from reading the text more intensively. With respect to learning outcomes (retention, transfer, and visual memory) Experiment 1 revealed an effect of text modality for visual memory only. In Experiment 2 no modality effects were found. Instruction pace was hardly related to learning outcomes. Overall, the results confirm prior findings suggesting that the distribution of visual attention in multimedia learning is largely guided by the text.
Attitude toward the ad (Aad) has been postulated to be a causal mediating variable in the process through which advertising influences brand attitudes and purchase intentions. Previous conceptual and empirical research on this topic has suggested four alternative models of the relationships between brand-related cognitive, affective, and conative responses and ad-related cognitive and affective responses. The authors describe a structural equations analysis of these four models, utilizing two data sets generated within a commercial pretest setting. The results suggest that a dual mediation hypothesis, which postulates that Aad influences brand attitude both directly and indirectly through its effect on brand cognitions, is superior to the other three models under the particular set of conditions in the pretest setting.
Eye movements of children (Grade 5–6) and adults were monitored while they were watching a foreign language movie with either standard (foreign language soundtrack and native language subtitling) or reversed (foreign language subtitles and native language soundtrack) subtitling. With standard subtitling, reading behavior in the subtitle was observed, but there was a difference between one- and two-line subtitles. As two lines of text contain verbal information that cannot easily be inferred from the pictures on the screen, more regular reading occurred; a single text line is often redundant to the information in the picture, and accordingly less reading of one-line text was apparent. Reversed subtitling showed even more irregular reading patterns (e.g., more subtitles skipped, fewer fixations, longer latencies). No substantial age differences emerged, except that children took longer to shift attention to the subtitle at its onset, and showed longer fixations and shorter saccades in the text. On the whole, the results demonstrated the flexibility of the attentional system and its tuning to the several information sources available (image, soundtrack, and subtitles).
The growth of advertising on the World Wide Web requires research on users' general perceptions since these affect attitudes toward individual advertisements. This article presents results of an intercept survey focusing on the perceived value of Web advertising, an approach developed by the author for assessing advertising in the general media. Both the hypothesized model of advertising value and its role as an antecedent of overall audience attitudes are confirmed. The author maintains that advertising value is a useful measurement criterion for evaluating advertising effects generally, and particularly in the case of the Web.
When foreign movies are subtitled in the local language, reading subtitles is more or less obligatory. Our previous studies have shown that knowledge of the foreign language or switching off the sound track does not affect the total time spent in the subtitled area. Long-standing familiarity with subtitled movies and processing efficiency have been suggested as explanations. Their effects were tested by comparing American and Dutch-speaking subjects who differ in terms of subtitling familiarity. In Experiment 1, American subjects watched an American movie with English subtitles. Despite their lack of familiarity with subtitles, they spent considerable time in the subtitled area. Accordingly, subtitle reading cannot be due to habit formation from long-term experience. In Experiment 2, a movie in Dutch with Dutch subtitles was shown to Dutch-speaking subjects. They also looked extensively at the subtitles, suggesting that reading subtitles is preferred because of efficiency in following and understanding the movie. However, the same findings can also be explained by the more dominant processing of the visual modality. The proportion of time spent reading subtitles is consistently larger with two-line subtitles than with one-line subtitles. Two explanations are provided for the differences in watching one- and two-line subtitles: (a) the length expectation effect on switching attention between picture and text and (b) the presence of lateral interference within two lines of text.
The Viewer Response Profile (VRP) scale is often used in commercial advertising research, and frequently used and cited in the academic advertising literature. This paper describes an investigation of the psychometric soundness of the Schlinger scale among a very large sample of respondents (N = 4,800) who each view a single ad from a large set of ads. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) provides an alternative parsimonious 20-item version of the scale that is found to exhibit superior psychometric properties. Managerial and research implications are discussed and suggestions for further improvement of the scale are offered.
A number of experimental studies have demonstrated the incidental acquisition of a foreign language by children and adolescents when watching foreign language television. While such experiments can only establish short‐term effects, this article investigates the extent to which children’s foreign language skills benefit from their long‐term consumption of media. An empirical study conducted in the Flemish (Dutch‐speaking) area of Belgium compared the self‐reported use of three English language media by 374 pupils in the last year of primary education with their scores on two oral translation tests: one from Dutch to English and one vice versa. Two general linear model analyses of variance reveal that pupils who frequently watch subtitled English television programs and movies perform significantly better on both tests. Interestingly, the effect of watching subtitled television and movies is stronger with girls than with boys. Furthermore, playing English computer games positively influences the scores on the English–Dutch test.
Reports 2 studies, using a total of 304 university students, in which a likable or unlikable communicator delivered a persuasive message via writing, audiotape, or videotape. In both studies the likable communicator was more persuasive in video- and audiotape than in writing, but the unlikable communicator was more persuasive in writing. Thus, communicator likability was a significant determinant of persuasion only in the broadcast modalities. Other findings suggest that Ss process more communicator cues when exposed to video- and audiotape messages than when exposed to written ones and that communicator-based (rather than message-based) cognitions predicted opinion change primarily in video and audiotape conditions rather than in written ones. It is concluded that video- and audiotapes enhance communicator-related information, so that communicator characteristics exert a disproportionate effect on persuasion when messages are broadcast. Findings are also discussed in relation to "vividness" phenomena. (40 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In an experimental study, we analyzed the cognitive processing of a subtitled film excerpt by adopting a methodological approach based on the integration of a variety of measures: eye-movement data, word recognition, and visual scene recognition. We tested the hypothesis that the processing of subtitled films is cognitively effective: It leads to a good understanding of film content without requiring a significant tradeoff between image processing and text processing. Following indications in the psycholinguistic literature, we also tested the hypothesis that two-line subtitles whose segmen-tation is syntactically incoherent can have a disruptive effect on information processing and recognition performance. The results highlighted the effectiveness of subtitle processing: Regardless of the quality of line segmentation, participants had a good understand-ing of the film content, they achieved good levels of performance in both word and scene recognition, and no tradeoff between text and image processing was detected. Eye-movement analyses enabled a further characterization of cognitive processing during subtitled film viewing. This article discusses the theoretical im-plications of the findings for both subtitling and multiple-source communication and highlights their methodological and applied implications.
The three key ad elements (brand, pictorial, and text) each have unique superiority effects on attention to adver-tisements, which are on par with many commonly held ideas in marketing practice. This is the main conclusion of an analysis of 1363 print advertisements tested with infrared eye-tracking methodology on more than 3600 con-sumers. The pictorial is superior in capturing attention, independent of its size. The text element best captures attention in direct proportion to its surface size. The brand element most effectively transfers attention to the other elements. Only increments in the text element's surface size produce a net gain in attention to the advertisement as a whole. The authors discuss how their findings can be used to render more effective decisions in advertising. Rik Pieters is Professor of Marketing, Marketing Department, Tilburg Uni-versity (e-mail: pieters@uvt.nl). Michel Wedel is Professor of Marketing, University of Michigan Business School (e-mail: wedel@bus.umich.edu). The authors thank Dominique Claessens and Chris Huijnen of Verify Inter-national for the eye-tracking data.
The ubiquitous label ‘some assembly required’ signals the appearance of instructions for assembly procedures. These instructions come in various formats, some of which may be more effective than others. Previous research has demonstrated advantages for multimedia as compared to single-format presentations. The current study sought to outline the cognitive processes contributing to this advantage. Specifically, two experiments examined the working memory and source monitoring processes involved with remembering procedural instructions presented in three different formats. Participants learned procedural instructions while undertaking one of a variety of selective interference tasks targeting working memory subcomponents. Results, while supporting a multimedia advantage for learning, demonstrated selective working memory subsystem involvement with different instruction formats. Further, despite the multimedia advantage, participants often misremembered multimedia presentations as picture-based ones. These results provide further insight into the cognitive processes that underlie comprehension and memory for multimedia experiences. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
The next 5 years will hold more change for the advertising industry than the previous 50 did. Increasingly empowered consumers,
more self-reliant advertisers, and ever-evolving technologies are redefining how advertising is sold, created, consumed, and
tracked. Our research points to four evolving future scenarios, and the catalysts that will be driving them. Traditional advertising
players — broadcasters, distributors, and advertising agencies — may get squeezed unless they can successfully implement consumer,
business model and business design innovation.
This plenary address to the Society for Marketing Advances calls on the marketing discipline to be accountable, link its contributions to financial performance, and assert the value it contributes to the firm. The paper suggests a process for developing causal links among marketing activities, intermediate marketing outcomes, and financial performance metrics.
Multimodal training involving both visual and auditory information was shown to improve text comprehension and reduce cognitive load. However, it is argued that in spatial tasks visual guidance can impair training effectiveness because it encourages shallow performance strategies and little exploration. Moreover, visual aids are attractive to both trainers as well as trainees, who tend to use them despite their potential disadvantages. To examine this potential training trap, two experimental studies were conducted. In Study 1, each trainer instructed trainees on how to perform a 3-D puzzle in two conditions: vocal guidance (17 trainees), where only vocal instructions were possible, and vocal guidance with mouse pointing (17 trainees), where the trainer could also use a mouse to point out positions on the trainee's screen. The results showed that while the use of the mouse pointer reduced trainees' mental load during training, it also drastically lowered performance level on a non-supervised test. In Study 2, a real-world version of puzzle was trained. A comparison of a vocal guidance group (16 trainees) to a group trained with an additional mouse pointing and drawing option (16 trainees) showed, as well, reduced performance levels with the additional visual aids. The results suggest that the abundant use of multimodal training in Augmented Reality (AR) applications should be re-evaluated.
The present study examined attentional capture by an unannounced motion singleton in a visual search task. The results showed that a motion singleton only captured attention on its first unannounced occurrence when the observers had not encountered moving items before in the experiment, whereas it failed to capture when observers were familiar with moving items. This indicates that motion can capture attention independently of top-down attentional control settings, but only when motion as a feature is unexpected and new. An additional experiment tested whether salient items can capture attention when all stimuli possess new and unexpected features, and novelty information cannot guide attention. The results showed that attention was shifted to the location of the salient item when all items were new and unexpected, reinforcing the view that salient items receive attentional priority. The implications of these results for current theories of attention are discussed.
How is our gaze dispersed across the screen when watching television? An exploratory eyetracker study with a custom-designed show indicated a very strong center-of-screen bias with gaze points following a roughly normal distribution peaked near screen center. Examining the show across time revealed that people were rarely all looking at the same location, and the amount of gaze dispersion within frames was highly variable. Different forms of programming yielded different levels of dispersion: static network 'bumpers' created the tightest visual groupings, and gaze dispersion for frames with show content was less than the dispersion for commercials. Advertising frames with brand logos generated higher dispersion than the non-branded advertisement portions, and repeated advertisements generated higher dispersion than their first-run counterparts.
Simultaneous reading and listening with a redundant display of visual text with speech output was investigated to determine how variations in verbal working memory capacity and content complexity affected comprehension.
Previous work has found some evidence of a benefit for displays that blend speech and visual text; content complexity and verbal working memory capacity are likely to significantly determine this benefit.
In the experiment reported here, a multimodal display of e-mail messages was compared with speech output alone and with a purely visual display. Comprehension of the messages was examined in relation to verbal working memory capacity and the complexity of the messages. Thirty-two users participated in the study, which used a repeated measures design.
The data show that the multimodal interface did not affect comprehension relative to a purely visual interface, even when the content was more complex, although it did improve the comprehension of complex information relative to a purely auditory interface. Lower-capacity participants were neither especially advantaged nor disadvantaged by the multimodal interface. Participants expressed a marked preference for the multimodal display of the more complex sentences.
The experiment suggests that a redundant multimodal display will neither assist nor disrupt understanding when compared with a purely visual display, but it will assist understanding of complex content when compared with speech output alone. Application: Redundant displays of visual text and speech have potential application in multitask situations, in multimedia presentations, and for devices with small screens.
We propose a formal Bayesian definition of surprise to capture subjective aspects of sensory information. Surprise measures how data affects an observer, in terms of differences between posterior and prior beliefs about the world. Only data observations which substantially affect the observer's beliefs yield surprise, irrespectively of how rare or informative in Shannon's sense these observations are. We test the framework by quantifying the extent to which humans may orient attention and gaze towards surprising events or items while watching television. To this end, we implement a simple computational model where a low-level, sensory form of surprise is computed by simple simulated early visual neurons. Bayesian surprise is a strong attractor of human attention, with 72% of all gaze shifts directed towards locations more surprising than the average, a figure rising to 84% when focusing the analysis onto regions simultaneously selected by all observers. The proposed theory of surprise is applicable across different spatio-temporal scales, modalities, and levels of abstraction.
This experiment involved the question of where human observers look in a picture. The results indicated that observers fixate earlier, more often, and with longer durations on objects that have a low probability of appearing in a scene (e.g., an octopus in a farm scene) than on objects that have a high probability of appearing (e.g., a tractor in a farm scene). These findings (a) imply a role of cognitive factors in peripheral visual processing and (b) suggest a possible relationship between the nature of information initially acquired from a picture and subsequent recognition memory for that picture.
Recorded the eye movements of 20 undergraduates as they viewed each of 10 pictures for 20 sec. The informativeness of regions within the pictures was determined independently by subjective ratings from 20 different Ss. Mean informativeness of locations fixated decreased over time and reached an asymptote after about 10 sec of viewing time. Mean duration of fixation showed a steady increase and mean extent of saccadic eye movements showed a steady decrease as viewing time progressed. A pattern of visual exploration was found in which Ss initially made many long saccades to fixate informative elements for short fixations; this behavior gradually evolved to fixating informative features less frequently and with longer examination of less informative details.
Recent studies of eye movements in reading and other information processing tasks, such as music reading, typing, visual search, and scene perception, are reviewed. The major emphasis of the review is on reading as a specific example of cognitive processing. Basic topics discussed with respect to reading are (a) the characteristics of eye movements, (b) the perceptual span, (c) integration of information across saccades, (d) eye movement control, and (e) individual differences (including dyslexia). Similar topics are discussed with respect to the other tasks examined. The basic theme of the review is that eye movement data reflect moment-to-moment cognitive processes in the various tasks examined. Theoretical and practical considerations concerning the use of eye movement data are also discussed.
We examined how behavioral context influences novelty processing by varying the degree that a novel event predicted the occurrence of a subsequent target stimulus.
Visual event-related potentials (ERPs) and reaction times (RTs) were recorded in 3 detection experiments (23 subjects). The predictive value of a novel stimulus on the occurrence of a subsequent target was varied as was novel-target pairing intervals (200-900 ms). In Experiment 1, novel stimuli always preceded a target, in Experiment 2, 40% of novel stimuli were followed by a target, and in Experiment 3, novel stimuli occurred randomly.
In Experiment 1, RTs following 100% predictive novels were shortened for targets at all spatial locations and novel-target pairing intervals. Novel stimuli predicting a target generated a central negativity peaking at 300 ms and reduced P3a and P3b ERPs. In Experiments 2 and 3, target RTs were prolonged only when novel and target stimuli were presented in the same spatial location at short ISIs (200 ms). The central novel N2 was smaller in amplitude in comparison to Experiment 1, and novelty P3a and target extrastriate N2 and posterior scalp P3b ERPs were enhanced.
The enhanced N2 for 100% predictive novel stimuli appears to index an alerting system facilitating behavioral detection. The same novel stimuli with no predictive value distract attention and generate a different ERP pattern characterized by increased novelty P3a and target P3b responses. The results indicate that behavioral context determines how novel stimuli are processed and influence behavior.