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Tehachapi Wind Energy Storage Project: Description of operational uses, system components, and testing plans
Abstract
The Tehachapi Wind Energy Storage Project (TSP) is a research project with the objective of demonstrating the effectiveness of lithium-ion battery technology to improve grid performance and wind integration. Deployment of the demonstration will be at Southern California Edison's Monolith substation located 100 miles north of Los Angeles using the Antelope-Bailey 66kV system, part of the Tehachapi Wind Resource Area. The TSP Battery Energy Storage System (BESS) consists of an 8 MW - 4 hour (32 MWh) lithium-ion battery and smart inverter system that is cutting-edge in scale and application. The BESS will be tested for a period of 24 months pursuant to 13 specific operational uses that include delivering ramp rate, voltage support/grid stabilization, frequency regulation, spin/non-spin replacement reserves, and charging/discharging to better integrate renewable energy. This paper presents a description of the 13 operational uses, the technical details of the BESS components, and the test plan to support the use cases.
... Thus, Li-ion batteries have become the key energy storage technology for e-mobility applications [3,4]. Furthermore, energy storage systems based on Li-ion batteries are evaluated in different projects where they are used in grid ancillary service applications [5][6][7] or for renewables' grid integration [6,8,9]. Consequently, Li-ion batteries are expected to become the major player in utility-scale applications as stated in different surveys [10,11]. ...
... Thus, Li-ion batteries have become the key energy storage technology for e-mobility applications [3,4]. Furthermore, energy storage systems based on Li-ion batteries are evaluated in different projects where they are used in grid ancillary service applications [5][6][7] or for renewables' grid integration [6,8,9]. Consequently, Li-ion batteries are expected to become the major player in utility-scale applications as stated in different surveys [10,11]. ...
... Thus, in the present work, the first term in Equation (5) is used to describe the inductive behavior at high frequencies, the second term is used to calculate the over-voltage caused by the ohmic resistance (V ohmic ), the third term is used to calculate the over-voltage corresponding to the charge-transfer process (V chtr ), while the last term is used to determine the over-voltage corresponding to the diffusion process (V diff ). Consequently, based on the aforementioned aspects, the battery voltage Equation (3) was rewritten as given in Equation (6). Furthermore, considering Equation (6), the configuration of the EEC, which was used to model the performance behavior of the LFP/C battery, is presented in Figure 15. ...
Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries are complex energy storage devices with their performance behavior highly dependent on the operating conditions (i.e., temperature, load current, and state-of-charge (SOC)). Thus, in order to evaluate their techno-economic viability for a certain application, detailed information about Li-ion battery performance behavior becomes necessary. This paper proposes a comprehensive seven-step methodology for laboratory characterization of Li-ion batteries, in which the battery’s performance parameters (i.e., capacity, open-circuit voltage (OCV), and impedance) are determined and their dependence on the operating conditions are obtained. Furthermore, this paper proposes a novel hybrid procedure for parameterizing the batteries’ equivalent electrical circuit (EEC), which is used to emulate the batteries’ dynamic behavior. Based on this novel parameterization procedure, the performance model of the studied Li-ion battery is developed and its accuracy is successfully verified (maximum error lower than 5% and a mean error below 8.5 mV) for various load profiles (including a real application profile), thus validating the proposed seven-step characterization methodology.
... Nowadays, Liion batteries represent the most suitable battery technology for powering electric vehicles [1], [2]. Furthermore, Li-ion batteries energy storage systems are used in various renewable energy storage applications, such as grid frequency regulation [3], renewables' grid integration [4] etc. This has become possible because Li-ion batteries are characterized by high gravimetric and volumetric energy density, high efficiency, high power capability during both charging and discharging, and long lifetime [5]. ...
... C fade [%] = (7.07 · 10 -4 · e -0.149·cd ) · FEC 0.443·cd 0.4109 (4) According to the lifetime model (4), the LTO-based battery cells are able to withstand approximately 5180 FEC, before reaching 20% capacity fade when cycling with 100% cycle depth is considered. Furthermore, based on the data sheet of these specific LTO-based battery cells, they are able to perform at least 4 000 FEC and 16 000 FEC when cycled with 2C during both charging and discharging at 55°C and 25°C, respectively. ...
... Twelve of the projects were large grid-connected systems, with a wide range of applications and energy storage technologies. The relatively high costs of storage at the time, combined with multiple potential value streams, started to spur research on stacking benefits to achieve the maximum value out of a deployed system [46], [47]. ...
... • Large utility owned systems • Distributed utility owned systems • Independently owned systems in market areas • Independently owned systems in vertically integrated utilities • Small privately owned systems controlled by an aggregator • Small systems owned and controlled by the aggregator • Large systems owned by an industrial customer • Large systems owned by an aggregator to benefit an industrial customer An example of a large utility-owned system is the 8 MW/32 MWh Tehachapi Wind Energy Storage Plant owned by South-ern California Edison [47], shown in Figure 1. In this case, the EMS must interface to other utility systems to coordinate operations with other assets. ...
Today, the stability of the electric power grid is maintained through real time balancing of generation and demand. Grid scale energy storage systems are increasingly being deployed to provide grid operators the flexibility needed to maintain this balance. Energy storage also imparts resiliency and robustness to the grid infrastructure. Over the last few years, there has been a significant increase in the deployment of large scale energy storage systems. This growth has been driven by improvements in the cost and performance of energy storage technologies and the need to accommodate distributed generation, as well as incentives and government mandates. Energy management systems (EMSs) and optimization methods are required to effectively and safely utilize energy storage as a flexible grid asset that can provide multiple grid services. The EMS needs to be able to accommodate a variety of use cases and regulatory environments. In this paper we provide a brief history of grid-scale energy storage, an overview of EMS architectures, and a summary of the leading applications for storage. These serve as a foundation for a discussion of EMS optimization methods and design.
... While this may seem quite restrictive, in practice, many networks have generators of this type. The single generator single load case in Figure 3a models topologies where generators and loads are geographically separated and are connected by a transmission line, e.g., see [48]. This is common where the resources for the generation technology (like coal or natural gas) are available far away from where the loads are located in a network. ...
... Combining equations (48) and (49), we have ...
We formulate the optimal placement, sizing and control of storage devices in
a power network to minimize generation costs with the intent of load shifting.
We assume deterministic demand, a linearized DC approximated power flow model
and a fixed available storage budget. Our main result proves that when the
generation costs are convex and nondecreasing, there always exists an optimal
storage capacity allocation that places zero storage at generation-only buses
that connect to the rest of the network via single links. This holds regardless
of the demand profiles, generation capacities, line-flow limits and
characteristics of the storage technologies. Through a counterexample, we
illustrate that this result is not generally true for generation buses with
multiple connections. For specific network topologies, we also characterize the
dependence of the optimal generation cost on the available storage budget,
generation capacities and flow constraints.
... Hokkaido, Japan, has built one of the largest battery storage installations in the world, with a capacity of 60 MWh, so that photovoltaic energy can be added to the grid. In Southern California, a 32-MWh lithium-ion BESS is being developed to offer voltage level and frequency control close to a 4500-MW wind farm [123]. ...
Electric vehicles (EVs) are popular now due to zero carbon emissions. Hence, with the advancement of EVs, charging station (CS) design also plays a vital role. CS is generally called a charge or power supply point and delivers power to the EVs. Usually, CSs are either of the direct current (DC) type, as the EVs need a DC supply or in some cases of the alternating current (AC) type, as the traditional power grid delivers AC power. Usually, on-board chargers (on-BCs) and off-board chargers (off-BCs) are used to charge the EV batteries. Due to heavy loads, size, and budget constraints, many on-BC facilities have power limits, which can be overcome by designing the on-BC with an electrical motor. In different types of off- and on-BCs, the power flow can be in one or two directions. Uni-directional power flow reduces hardware needs and makes connecting problems easier, whereas bi-directional power flow allows battery energy to be injected back into the grid. The primary issue with EVs is the charging time as well as the need for charging infrastructure. The infrastructure for fast charging makes on-board energy storage less expensive and more essential. This paper details various charging technologies, including wired and wireless methods. Also, numerous on-board and off-board charging topologies are summarized in the literature. Different EV battery charging standards and levels are also discussed. The paper also delineates several alternative CS topologies based on architecture, energy storage, and renewable energy sources. Considering the present scenario, having a sophisticated quick EV charging network is crucial to ensure maximum EV charging with renewable power and reduce grid strain.
... Serving as an important part of energy storage, battery energy storage station (BESS) is featured with fast response and high control accuracy, and is of great value in scenarios of distributed generation connection, frequency regulation joint with heat-engine plant, peak shaving and frequency regulation for power system, demand-side load shifting and etc. [1] At present, a great number of BESSes have been established and put into operation both at home and abroad, and abundant experience on the operational control of BESS has been accumulated [2] . Regarding the test of BESS, the research fields abroad are mainly concentrated in three aspects: grid-connected converter, control system and energy storage battery pack charging and discharging curve [3][4][5][6][7] . The domestic energy storage power station system test mainly focuses on the formulation of the corresponding standards [8][9][10] and grid-connected testing [11][12][13] , there is no relevant researches on the testing of the monitoring system of electrochemical energy storage power station. ...
The test of battery energy storage station has the characteristics of low degree of automation, complicated testing process, and many cooperation links. Especially for the battery energy storage station monitoring, there are currently no corresponding test tools and test methods. Based on the business function and energy storage equipment simulation modularization, test configuration and test case configuration ideas, this paper designs a set of battery energy storage station simulation test system. It realizes the functions of configurable equipment model of energy storage power station, selectable communication protocol, settable test scenarios, scripted execution of test process, automatic generation of test results, etc., and can provide specialization tool for the testing of the grid-side battery energy storage station monitoring system, effectively improve the testing efficiency. The field test results show that the test system is accurate and effective.
... Significant large scale projects of wind generation coordinated with battery storage have been commissioned in the US, such as the Tehachapi project [12]. The wind-storage demonstrates the aforementioned services, as well as further support in the respective area of Southern California with high wind capacity: load shed deferral for increasing system reliability of supply, renewable-energyrelated transmission optimization, transmission congestion issues mitigation. ...
A secure and reliable supply of electricity is a necessary requirement of a well-functioning economy. Reducing the likelihood of system disturbances or, in the extreme, load (demand) shedding is a fundamental objective of Transmission System Operators during planning and operation of electricity grids. The integration of new forms of generation - diverse in location and operation profile – as well as rapidly changing demand from new consumer technologies powered by breakthroughs in technology, poses a different set of challenges in their daily business. System flexibility, like many other aspects of the bulk electric system, can be examined as a supply and demand problem. A holistic assessment of flexibility examines the resources available to supply flexibility and the factors driving the demand or requirements for flexibility. This paper aims to highlight the importance of flexibility assessment studies alongside capacity adequacy studies being carried out during system planning. Moreover, the paper will present the challenges facing the electricity networks for integrating high amount of renewable energy which are well expressed by the views of the energy stakeholders regarding priorities for innovation technologies and this is also very well reflected in the research and development projects. The FLEXITRANSTORE project, which is aiming to implement innovative technologies of battery storage solutions, smart grid technologies and market platforms in the SEE region, is briefly presented. Furthermore, a wide review of flexibility-related research and innovation projects in Europe and United States has been carried out during the project and their contribution is presented, analysed and mapped against specific power system challenges. A detailed survey conducted during FLEXITRANSTORE on identifying stakeholders’ opinion on electricity networks’ challenges is presented and commented. Stakeholders’ are stressing that highest priorities for the electricity networks in their country are renewable energy integration, cross border interconnections, grid stability in short- and long-term horizon. These renewables integration and cross border interconnections answers could be also linked with the European targets: To sum up, the paper is identifying significant opportunities for future research and innovation in storage and market models, regarding the inherent flexibility of the electricity networks to host the electrification ‘wave’ of the following decades.
... Among many others, these services include load leveling, renewable capacity firming, ancillary services, and backup power [2], [3]. Different classifications are provided in the literature for these services based on the ESS location (transmission, distribution, and behind the meter), operator (ISO, utility, and customer) and the owner [4], [5]. The benefits of ESS offered by these services must be clearly defined for different industry stakeholders in order to facilitate further investment and deployment of ESS. ...
The key challenge for automatic generation control (AGC) dispatch lies in the contradiction between detailed modeling required for optimal dispatch and the tight calculation time. The current method includes (1) the heuristics method that allocates real-time commands based on certain rules (fast but nonoptimal) and (2) the proactive dispatch method with a detailed AGC dispatch model (relatively optimal but the forecast error exists). The development of renewables and the prevalence of energy storage systems (ESSs) with costly degradation calls for combining the advantages of heuristics and proactive methods in AGC dispatch. With this in mind, a hierarchical AGC dispatch method is proposed. A proactive AGC dispatch model embedding state of charge (SOC) recovery is established to make the best use of regulating resources while avoiding the degradation of ESSs. A uniform SOC model considering comprehensive ramping circumstances of ESSs is proposed with low model complexity. A theoretical analysis demonstrates the desired modeling accuracy. To compensate for the forecast error, real-time AGC dispatch is considered. The dead band and forced SOC recovery of ESSs are used to alleviate their degradation. Time-domain simulations based on practical data demonstrate that the proposed method can improve the system frequency performance while obviously reducing the degradation of ESSs.
Energy storage systems (ESS) are increasingly deployed in both transmission and distribution grids for various benefits, especially for improving renewable energy penetration. Along with the industrial acceptance of ESS, research on storage technologies and their grid applications is also undergoing rapid progress. We present an overview of ESS including different storage technologies, various grid applications, cost-benefit analysis, and market policies. First, we classify storage technologies with grid application potential into several groups according to the form of energy stored. This classification is presented to summarize technological and economic characteristics of storage technologies and also present the recent development of these technologies. Next, we categorize the grid applications of ESS into several groups based on the physical location, service type, and working principle. We also review the state-of-the-art optimization and control methodologies for each application group. Furthermore, we present the cost-benefit analysis for three types of investors and a comprehensive comparison among market policies for the participation of ESS in different wholesale markets. Finally, we highlight several future research directions that are derived from this review. To improve the performance and profitability of ESS for electric grid applications, future research should have a focus on developing decision-making tools for determining the storage technology, installed capacity, and operating strategy. This research focus should be supported by the further developments of component-level performance and aging models, system-level market frameworks, and cost-benefit analysis.
This paper investigates the use of the electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) technique as an alternative to the DC pulses technique for estimating the power capability decrease of Lithium-ion batteries during calendar ageing. Based on results obtained from calendar ageing tests performed at different conditions during one to two years, a generalized model that estimates the battery power capability decrease as function of the resistance Rs increase (obtained from EIS) was proposed and successfully verified.
With the increasing penetration of renewables in power system, secondary frequency regulation (SFR) is becoming a big challenge for conventional coal-fueled thermal generator units. To address this issue, a stricter AGC criteria to regulate the generators has been but forward. However, old-fashioned units can hardly meet the requirements and thus are subject to penalty. In this paper, an approach of using BESS for coordinated SFR is proposed to improve the AGC performance of such generators. A demonstration project with a 2 MW BESS has been commissioned at Shijingshan Thermal Power Plant, Beijing. The basic principles, coordinated control strategy, technical performance as well as economic benefits were validated from field measurement. This project, as a pioneer in this domain in China, offers an excellent demonstration of utilizing BESS for improving the performance of SFR under the enviroment of high renewable integration.
With the increasing penetration of renewables in power system, frequency regulation is becoming a big challenge for conventional coal-fueled thermal generator units. To address this issue, more stringent criteria of automatic generation control (AGC) has been established by grid operators to regulate the generators. However, old-fashioned units can hardly meet the requirements and thus are subject to penalty. In this paper, an approach of using battery energy storage systems (BESS) for coordinated frequency regulation is proposed to improve the AGC performance of such generators. A demonstration project with a 2 MW BESS has been commissioned at Shijingshan Thermal Power Plant, Beijing. The basic principles, coordinated control strategy, technical performance as well as economic benefits have been presented and validated with field test results. As a pioneer of its kind in China, this project offers an excellent demo of utilizing BESS for improving AGC performance under the context of high renewable integration.
Because of their characteristics, which have been continuously improved during the last years, Lithium ion batteries were proposed as an alternative viable solution to present fast-reacting conventional generating units to deliver the primary frequency regulation service. However, even though there are worldwide demonstration projects where energy storage systems based on Lithium-ion batteries are evaluated for such applications, the field experience is still very limited. In consequence, at present there are no very clear requirements on how the Lithium-ion battery energy storage systems should be operated while providing frequency regulation service and how the system has to re-establish its SOC once the frequency event has passed. Therefore, this paper aims to investigate the effect on the lifetime of the Lithium-ion batteries energy storage system of various strategies for re-establishing the batteries’ SOC after the primary frequency regulation is successfully delivered.
Because of their characteristics, which have been continuously improved during the last years, Lithium ion batteries were proposed as an alternative viable solution to present fast-reacting conventional generating units to deliver the primary frequency regulation service. However, even though there are worldwide demonstration projects where energy storage systems based on Lithium-ion batteries are evaluated for such applications, the field experience is still very limited. In consequence, at present there are no very clear requirements on how the Lithium-ion battery energy storage systems should be operated while providing frequency regulation service and how the system has to re-establish its SOC once the frequency event has passed. Therefore, this paper aims to investigate the effect on the lifetime of the Lithium-ion batteries energy storage system of various strategies for re-establishing the batteries’ SOC after the primary frequency regulation is successfully delivered.
Reliable source of energy is a topic of momentous concern in the world due to the uncertainty in conventional energy sources. The situation gets exacerbated with the impact of natural disasters on the transmission grid. The advent of cutting edge energy storage technology has provided a competent solution. Energy storage system is an integral part of a grid since it enhances the stability and performance by disengaging the energy generation source and the load especially when intermittent renewable energy sources are a part of the system. Battery technology should not only be able to demonstrate high performance but must be economically viable for project implementation. Several grid connected renewable energy based battery projects have been implemented for research and development as well as commercial application. The projects discussed in this review are considered based on the availability of information. This review paper will focus on grid connected battery projects powered by wind and solar energy generation sources.
Distributed energy storage is a promising emerging technology for smart grid. In this paper, we address the question of optimally placing and sizing distributed storage resources in a network to minimize the cost of generation given a budget of available storage. For a non-decreasing convex generation cost, we prove that it is always optimal to place zero storage at generator buses that connect to rest of the grid via single links, regardless of demand profiles and network parameters. Hence, this defines a robust investment strategy for network planners. Besides, for a star network where the center is a generator bus and the other nodes are demand buses, we show that it is optimal not to place storage resources at the generator bus for small enough and large enough storage budget.
This paper presents the Bibliography of FACTS technology for 2012. It provides a listing of various journal and conference papers in this area. This Bibliography includes papers published until November 2012.
Wind generation is a rapidly growing industry as the wind power capacity grew by 30% in 2010 to reach 196 GW worldwide, more than double the 74 GW that existed in 2006. However, the operational, reliability and economic impacts of integrating wind generation must be addressed. High penetration of wind energy may introduce technical challenges including grid interconnection, power quality, reliability, protection, generation dispatch, ramping requirements and regulation services. The application of Energy Storage and STATCOM can help alleviate the problems encountered with wind farm integration to the existing power system. The intent of this paper is to demonstrate the benefits obtained with STATCOM and Energy Storage for this purpose. Firstly, the paper identifies the power quality and transient stability issues in the Southern California Edison system where there is abundant wind generation. Secondly, paper identifies the path constraint issues in one of the non- renewable regions in SCE territory which has loads that are sensitive to power system disturbances. Computer simulations (e.g. load flow and transient stability) show that the application of a STATCOM and Energy Storage at selected locations within SCE service territory can help alleviate the issues mentioned previously.
The application of a STATCOM and Battery Energy Storage System (BESS) can help alleviate some of the problems encountered with wind farm integration to the existing power system. The intent of this paper is to demonstrate the benefits obtained with STATCOM and BESS for this purpose. First, the paper identifies the power quality and some other issues in the Southern California Edison system where there is abundant wind generation. Computer simulations (e.g. load flow and transient stability) show that the application of a STATCOM with BESS can help the system survive under the most severe contingencies occurring in the area. The analysis also demonstrates that the BESS can help dispatch an individual wind farm in the area during steady state. The BESS can help reduce local wind generation curtailment, necessary during high generation and low local system load that causes transmission overloading, by absorbing the excess energy generated by the wind farms.
Planning and operation of dynamic energy storage for improved integration of wind energy
- N Y Abed
- S Teleke
- J J Castaneda