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PICS bags for post-harvest storage of maize grain in West Africa
Abstract
Maize is a key food crop in West Africa, where Benin, Ghana, Burkina Faso and Nigeria account for most of the regional production. Storage pests are major constraints in the maize value chain, with losses reaching 30%. Simple, low-cost triple bagging technology (now known as PICS – Purdue Improved Crop Storage) originally developed for postharvest storage of cowpea was evaluated for applicability to maize storage. Thirteen test units employing PICS bag were set up in July and August 2012 at eleven localities in Benin, Burkina Faso and Ghana. Each trial unit consisted of 3 or 4 PICS bags of 50 kg capacity and 2 woven control bags. We used locally purchased naturally infested maize that had relatively high levels of infestation with Prostephanus truncatus Horn, Sitophilus zeamais Motschulsky, 1855 and/or Rhyzopertha dominica (F.) (seven localities) or lightly infested maize showing little or no evidence of damage (four localities). After 6.5 months of storage in PICS bags, there was 95–100% insect mortality at all sites. The percentage of damaged seeds and the 100 seeds weights in PICS bags were unchanged from what was recorded at the time the experiment was set up. Seed viability was well maintained; germination rates of seeds from the PICS bags did not differ from that observed at the beginning of the experiment. Aflatoxin tests were carried out on 245 samples, with 53% having levels above 20 ppm in both PICS and woven bags. Samples from PICS bags tended to be less contaminated than those from woven bags. PICS bags can be used for maize storage even in areas with high prevalence of P. truncatus, but storage of maize should begin soon after harvest and drying to minimize bag damage that can occur when very high numbers of P. truncatus are present.
... Instead, these methods create ideal breeding grounds for the insects, which can result in rampant proliferation. The Purdue Improved Crop Storage (PICS) bag is a modern hermetic storage technology (HST) that received backing from the Bill and Melina Foundation and was introduced to Africa in 2007 (Baoua et al. 2014;Zeim and Gyebi 2016). Its effectiveness in addressing pest infestations is noteworthy. ...
... Its effectiveness in addressing pest infestations is noteworthy. The PICS bag provides an effective solution for postharvest problems in stored cereals and legumes (Baoua et al. 2014; Baributsa and Njoroge 2020;Ngwenyama et al. 2020;Rabé, Baoua, and Baributsa 2021). The PICS bag, with its triplelayer lining, is an advanced technique that allows for storing grains for extended periods while avoiding the use of insecticides or pesticides (Murdock et al. 2003). ...
... Field experiments conducted across SSA have proven the efficacy and efficiency of PICS bags as an innovative means of storing cereals and legumes with consistent moisture content levels, weight, and seed viability (Baoua et al. 2014;Mlambo et al. 2017). Notably, Baoua et al. (2014) demonstrated that storing naturally infested maize with high levels of Prostephanus truncatus Horn, Sitophilus zeamais Motschulsky, and/or Rhyzopertha dominica (F.) in PICS bags for 6.5 months resulted in an insect mortality rate of 95%-100% across four West African countries (Benin, Ghana, Burkina Faso, and Nigeria). ...
The Purdue Improved Crop Storage (PICS) bag, a sustainable post‐harvest storage technology, can address the high postharvest losses that are a major threat to economic development, food security and the environment in Africa. However, there is limited empirical research on this technology. This study therefore aims to fill this knowledge gap by analysing the factors influencing the diffusion and adoption rates of PICS bags and estimates the impact of the technology adoption on postharvest losses, farm income and income inequality in the Ashanti region of Ghana. The results show that less than 20% of farmers adopt the PICS bag, suggesting low adoption despite the widespread exposure of 51.75%. The technology adoption rate could be increased by 20% if all the farmers were exposed to it. It reduces postharvest losses by 14.2%–19.1%, increases farm income by 89.7%–91.2% and reduces income inequality by 51.33%. These findings suggest that promoting the technology can stimulate sustainable rural development by improving farmers' welfare.
... Ghana is among the top three producers of maize in West Africa [1]. The crop is a staple food and makes a substantial contribution to the diets of both urban and rural populations [2]. Maize is also used as feed for poultry and about 30% of all maize produced in Ghana is used by the poultry industry [3]. ...
... PP bags are affordable, easy to use, reusable, and convenient for transportation. Nevertheless, jute and PP bags do not adequately preserve stored commodities [2,11,12]. ...
... PP bags are one of the most popular methods of storing grains in sub-Saharan Africa, however, they are not durable and offer little or no protection against insect pests, rodents and water. According to Baoua et al. [2] PP bags are relatively easy for adult insects to penetrate by pushing through the interstices of the mesh. High insect infestation of maize in PP bags has been reported in studies in Ghana [11,12,14]. ...
... Ghana is among the top three producers of maize in West Africa [1]. The crop is a staple food and makes a substantial contribution to the diets of both urban and rural populations [2]. Maize is also used as feed for poultry and about 30% of all maize produced in Ghana is used by the poultry industry [3]. ...
... PP bags are affordable, easy to use, reusable, and convenient for transportation. Nevertheless, jute and PP bags do not adequately preserve stored commodities [2,11,12]. ...
... PP bags are one of the most popular methods of storing grains in sub-Saharan Africa, however, they are not durable and offer little or no protection against insect pests, rodents and water. According to Baoua et al. [2] PP bags are relatively easy for adult insects to penetrate by pushing through the interstices of the mesh. High insect infestation of maize in PP bags has been reported in studies in Ghana [11,12,14]. ...
Maize forms a key component in poultry feed formulation in Ghana. Nonetheless, there is an existing challenge of low-quality maize due to insect infestation and mycotoxin contamination resulting in poor chicken growth and performance including diminished egg laying. This study compared the effectiveness of ZeroFly® Hermetic (ZFH) storage bags to polypropylene (PP) bags to mitigate insect pest and mycotoxin levels over a 6-month storage period. The study was conducted in three-layer poultry farms in Dormaa Ahenkro, Bono Region, Ghana. One storehouse was used in each poultry farm. In each storehouse, there were thirty-two 100-kg-capacity ZFH and same number of 100-kg PP bags, each containing 100 kg of maize, that is, altogether sixty-four 100-kg-capacity bags in each storehouse. The experiment was set up in a Randomized Complete Block Design with two treatments (ZFH and PP bags), three replications (storehouses), and two sub-replications. In each storehouse, two bags in each treatment were destructively sampled monthly. After 6 months of storage, the predominant insects found were Sitophilus spp. and Sitotroga cerealella, and a larger mean number of insects (live and dead) per 500-g sample was found in the PP bags (149.67 ± 8.67), compared to ZFH bags; 4.67 ± 0.73. The percentage of insect damaged kernels after 6 months was significantly higher in PP bags (67.67 ± 2.62) than ZFH bags (5.00 ± 0.50). Weight loss in the PP bags was > 30%, compared to < 0.3% in ZFH bags. Aflatoxin and fumonisin levels of maize in both types of bags were below the recommended safe threshold of 15 ppb and 4 ppm, respectively. The moisture content of maize in ZFH bags was maintained over the 6-month period whereas that of maize in PP bags increased. Also, crude protein, crude fat, and carbohydrate levels in maize were higher in ZFH bags than PP bags. Data showed ZFH bags conserved maize quality better than the PP bags thereby making maize wholesome for food and feed. Further research to compare the growth and performance of layer poultry in terms of egg laying related to diets of feed from maize stored in ZHF and PP bags is recommended.
... 17,18 Hermetic storage bags can maintain the quality of stored crops such as cowpea, maize, common bean, mung bean, pigeon pea, peanut, wheat, and sorghum against insect pests in hot, humid climates. 16,[19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28] However, widespread adoption of hermetic bags has been slow in most of Sub-Saharan Africa, with issues such as cost, availability, and lack of technical information often cited as contributing factors. In a recent comprehensive review on grain hermetic storage and postharvest loss reduction in Sub-Saharan Africa, it was concluded that hermetic storage technologies, such as layered bags and grain silos, effectively prevent losses and maintain grain quality, resulting in enhanced prices, safety, and nutrition for consumers. ...
... 67 Therefore, seasonal changes, for example, from rainy and humid to dry conditions, or vice versa, may lead to fluctuations in moisture content in grain stored in conventional bags. 19 Grain stored hermetically is supposed to maintain its moisture level 68-70 as hermetic storage does not allow moisture exchange. Hermetic storage bags act as a moisture barrier and reduce fluctuations in moisture content (Fig. 1) by preventing moisture transfer into and out of the bags during storage. ...
... beans, peas, peanuts, and Bambara nuts, during storage. 16,[19][20][21][22][23][24][25] We found that hermetic bags were superior to conventional bags for maintaining seed germinability, restricting insect infestation, reducing grain weight loss and damage, stabilizing grain moisture content, and limiting mycotoxin contamination. Further research is needed to determine if the advantages identified in this metaanalysis carry over to culinary characteristics, e.g. ...
Postharvest management is critical to attaining household food, nutrition, and income security. Hermetic grain storage bags offer an effective pesticide‐free way to protect stored grain against fungal and insect infestation. We evaluated articles indexed in the Web of Science that included experiments comparing the storage efficacy of conventional and hermetic storage bags based on grain germination rate, insect infestation, physical damage, mycotoxin contamination, and changes in weight and moisture content. Compared with grain stored in hermetic bags, grain stored in conventional bags lost 3.6‐fold more seed viability, contained 42‐fold more insects, had 11‐fold more physical damage, and lost 23‐fold more grain weight, while grain moisture levels were similar for both hermetic and conventional storage bags. Mycotoxin contamination levels were not as frequently assessed. Levels could be low in grain stored in both types of bags, or levels could be low in hermetic bags and significantly higher in conventional bags. The improved properties of grain stored in hermetic bags can increase food security and household income by providing safe storage options for maintaining seed germinability, and for consumption and/or sale when food supplies are high, or when prices are low. Hermetic bags are economically feasible for use by subsistence farmers in Sub‐Saharan Africa for grain for household consumption and for carrying‐over seed for planting in the next season. Additional studies are needed to verify the mycotoxin contamination results and to determine if there are differences in functional food characteristics, e.g. flavor and cooking properties, that have not been as comprehensively studied. © 2023 The Authors. Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.
... Insects alone can contribute 30-40% to postharvest loss in developing countries [2]. Thus, insects reduce the quality and quantity of grains, lowering their market value and resulting in economic losses [3]. ...
... Different stages of germinating seeds had varying levels of oxygen depletion. Oxygen levels below 5% effectively control stored product pests [3,7]. So, the germinating stages that reached a 5% level could be used to deplete oxygen. ...
Hermetic storage systems are used around the world to reduce stored product losses. Scavenging residual oxygen in hermetic containers can further enhance their effectiveness in minimizing stored commodity losses. Our objective was to assess the effectiveness of germinating seeds of soybeans, rice, cowpeas, and corn in scavenging oxygen. There were six germination stages: seeds soaked for 24 h and allowed to grow for 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6 days (T1 to T6). Oxygen consumption was monitored for 30 h. Root length, the weight of mobilized seed reserve, and visual fungal growth were also assessed. The results showed that cowpeas in their fourth (T4), fifth (T5), and sixth (T6) germination stages were the most effective in scavenging oxygen to below 5% after only 12 h. Corn in its fifth (T5) germination stage took twice the time (24 h) of cowpeas (T4–T6) to reach 5%. Hypoxia affected the growth of radicle length and seed reserve mobilization in all crops except soybeans. Very minimal fungal growth was observed on germinating cowpea seeds under hermetic conditions. The fourth stage (T4) of germinating cowpeas has more potential as an oxygen scavenger because it requires less time to grow, and the seeds are easy to handle. Further research is needed to understand the role of seed weight and sizes, crop varieties, and genetic mechanisms that govern rapid oxygen consumption by germinating seeds among crops. Harnessing seeds as oxygen scavengers to reduce storage losses holds the promise of advancing the sustainable utilization of resources on smallholder farms.
... Insect infestation increased with the duration of storage period in maize (Kharel et al., 2018;Walker et al., 2018). Better performance of hermetic technologies such as PICS bags in protecting grains against insect pests is well documented (Baoua et al., 2012(Baoua et al., , 2014Afzal et al., 2017). Hermetic storage prevents insect survival because of lack of availability of oxygen (Baoua et al., 2014;Mlambo et al., 2017). ...
... Better performance of hermetic technologies such as PICS bags in protecting grains against insect pests is well documented (Baoua et al., 2012(Baoua et al., , 2014Afzal et al., 2017). Hermetic storage prevents insect survival because of lack of availability of oxygen (Baoua et al., 2014;Mlambo et al., 2017). Hermetic bags retard insect growth because of low oxygen permeability as available oxygen reduced from 21 to 5%, which is quite low for insect's survival Bakhtavar et al., 2019b;Williams et al., 2014). ...
Maize (Zea mays L.) is a major cereal crop used as a staple food worldwide for decades. Farmers store their produce in porous polypropylene bags under humid conditions which negatively affects their quality. In this study, maize seeds were stored in hermetic and conventional bags with an initial seed moisture content of 13.5% (wet basis) and 96.3% germination for 8 months at four major maize growing districts (Athmuqam, Hattian Bala, Muzaffarabad and Rawlakot) of Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. Due to high ambient relative humidity conditions (>80%), an increase in moisture was observed in seeds stored in porous conventional bags (14. 7%). This increase was because of high initial relative humidity conditions (79-85%) in conventional bags. Seed moisture content remained unchanged in hermetic bags and internal humidity was 59-60%. As a result of hermetic conditions, germination and seed integrity were maintained in hermetic bags compared to conventional woven bags. Germination drastically decreased in conventional bags and fell to 9 % (Athmuqam), 13 % (Hattian Bala), 11 % (Muzaffarabad) and 12 % (Rawlakot). Higher physical quality losses of maize in conventional bags were because of infestation activity of live insect pest populations (S. zeamais, R. dominica and T. castaneum) that initiated 21.7-23.7 % weight loss in polypropylene bags. Hermetic bags protected seeds from insect pest attack and maintained seed quality. Higher contamination of aflatoxin B1, G1, B2 and G2 (ppb) was recorded in seeds stored in conventional bags as compared to hermetic bags. Aflatoxin B1 was maximum in conventional bag at Hattian Bala (8.93 ppb) followed by Muzaffarabad (6.68 ppb), Athmuqam (5.02 ppb) and Rawlakot (0.71 ppb). In conclusion, the use of hermetic dry chain storage preserves maize seed quality and thus can have a significant impact on the livelihoods of smallholder farmers of humid areas.
... Our findings confirmed the efficiency of hermetic bags in avoiding changes in seed moisture content as reported in various crops, including sesame (Neme et al., 2021), groundnut (Sudini et al., 2015), maize (Bhandari et al., 2018;Danso et al., 2017;Manu et al., 2019), chickpea (Alemayehu et al., 2020), cassava (Hell et al., 2014) and wheat (Kalsa et al., 2019;Martin, 2014;Martin et al., 2015). Hermetic bags' capacity to block the passage of moisture from the atmosphere into the seeds and to block oxygen from being used by insects and other pests for respiration is what allows these bags to maintain these seeds safe storage moisture content for long storage duration (Abass et al., 2018;Affognon et al., 2016;Alemayehu et al., 2020;Bailey, 1965;Baoua et al., 2012Baoua et al., , 2014Baoua et al., , 2015Baributsa et al., 2017;Bhandari et al., 2018;Bista et al., 2022;Chigoverah and Mvumi, 2016). ...
... Recently, various research findings indicated that hermetic technologies, such as PICS and Super GrainPro (SGP) bags, are efficient at keeping out insects and molds (Abass et al., 2018;Alemayehu et al., 2020;Baoua et al., 2014;Chigoverah and Mvumi, 2016;Hell et al., 2014;Kalsa et al., 2019;Odjo et al., 2022). In the current investigation, it was found that the two methods performed similarly against a live adult insect population in sesame storage. ...
Sesame seeds, being a crucial traditional oilseed crop in Ethiopia, face challenges related to storage and insect pests that can adversely affect their quality and quantity. Farmers often sell their sesame seeds immediately after harvest at lower prices due to concerns about pest damage during storage. This study aimed to assess the impact of different storage containers and storage durations on reducing infestation by storage insect pests and minimizing losses of stored sesame seeds over a six-month period. The findings revealed that hermetic storage solutions, particularly PICS and SGP bags, effectively suppressed insect development, minimized losses, and maintained seed viability without the need for insecticides. Weight loss in PICS and SGP bags remained consistent regardless of the storage duration, whereas jute and PP bags exhibited a significant increase in weight loss. Lower seed germination rates were observed in PP and jute bags, whereas PICS and SGP bags maintained consistent germination rates throughout the storage period. PICS and SGP bags also exhibited a significant decrease in oxygen levels and an increase in carbon dioxide levels, contributing to the reduction in insect infestation. In comparison, traditional storage bags such as jute and PP bags exhibited higher insect counts, seed damage, and greater weight loss compared to hermetic bags. Therefore, hermetic storage solutions are recommended for farmers to minimize losses and preserve seed viability. During the study, three insect species were identified as the most prevalent in stored sesame seeds: Corcyra cephalonica, Tribolium spp (T. castaneum & T. confusum), and Rhyzopetha dominica. The maximum insect counts of these species were recorded in jute bags. At the beginning of the experiment, the average seed damage across all storage units was 1.9%, which increased to 14.1% in jute bags and 9.3% in PP bags after six months of storage.
... Numerous scientific studies and field demonstrations during the past decade have proven the benefits of hermetic storage bags for cowpeas, edible beans and other pulses, maize, rice, and other cereal grains, soybeans, oilseeds, as well as cocoa bean, groundnuts, and a number of tree nuts from postharvest losses due to insects in a cost-effective and food-safe manner (Baributsa et al., 2010;Jonfia-Essien et al., 2010;Baoua et al., 2014;Guenha et al., 2014;Mutungi et al., 2015). Studies have shown that insect pests such as cowpea bruchid (Callosobruchus maculatus), larger grain borer (Prostephanus truncates), maize weevil (Sitophilus zeamais) on maize, and rice weevil (Sitophilus oryzae) on wheat grain reached up to 100% mortality, substantially reducing post-harvest loss due to consumption by insects Anankware et al., 2012;De Groote et al., 2013;Martin et al., 2015;Nwaubani et al., 2020). ...
... Aside from limiting air movement to the stored grain, hermetic storage bag technology also limits moisture movement from or to the external environment due to low WVTR properties of the gas barrier liner. Research has consistently shown that hermetic storage bag technology is effective at maintaining a safe moisture content of grain during the storage period, regardless of ambient relative humidity (Afzal et al., 2017;Baoua et al., 2014;Likhayo et al., 2018;Okolo et al., 2017). The existing literature strongly suggests that OTR and WVTR of hermetic gas barrier liners are key properties that ensure safe bio-generated modified atmosphere storage. ...
Highlights
Fundamental engineering properties of hermetic bag liners were identified and measured to establish specifications for a new ASABE X657 standard for measurement and rating the performance of gas barrier liners in hermetic storage bags.
Results showed strong evidence of differences in properties among six types of commercially available hermetic bag gas barrier liners (P<0.05).
Critical gas barrier properties (OTR and WVTR) were measured to assess their ability to maintain initial conditions (“hermeticity”).
Critical mechanical properties, such as impact failure weight, penetration resistance, and tear strength, were measured to determine their durability during handling and storage.
Abstract. The impacts of hermetic storage bag technology on food security are well established. However, understanding the hermetic bag liner's mechanical and barrier properties with its useful life and efficacy are needed to ensure the continued successful adoption of this critically important storage technology to control biological activity. The goals of this study were to identify and quantify fundamental engineering properties as a basis for establishing an American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers (ASABE) engineering standard for testing and rating the hermeticity of gas barrier liners in storage bags for smallholder farmers. Six commercially available hermetic storage bag liners (AgroZ, Elite, PICS, GrainPro, Storezo, Zerofly) were evaluated for mechanical properties (tensile, impact, tear, penetration resistance) and barrier properties (oxygen transmission rate and water-vapor transmission rate) following American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) test methods. Results indicate significant differences (P< 0.05) in material properties among brands of storage bag liners. Values for oxygen and water vapor transmission rates were determined to ensure hermetic conditions can be achieved. Values for mechanical properties (yield and tensile strength, elongation, and toughness, tear strength, penetration resistance and impact failure weight) of gas barrier liners were quantified to ensure acceptable performance of hermetic storage bags. Keywords: Elongation, Hermetic storage, Hermetic storage bags, Impact failure weight, Oxygen Transmission Rates (OTR), Penetration resistance, Tear strength, Tensile strength, Toughness, Water Vapor Transmission Rate (WVTR), Yield strength.
... They believe that such tools will hurt mother earth 50% IR (1) While machine-driven agriculture can increase efficiency and productivity, communities that choose to abstain from such practices often prioritize the long-term health of the land, cultural continuity, and a sustainable way of life (Schumacher 1973). This approach reflects a deep respect for the interconnectedness of nature and human activities 11 Consumption of millet by farmer labourers delays their appetite and helps them to deliver work for longer period 78.5% R (4) Millets generally have a low glycemic index, which means they release glucose into the bloodstream at a slower rate (Shobana et al. 2010 R (3) The presence of panicles and straw can act as a protective barrier, reducing the risk of insect infestations (Baoua et al. 2018). In traditional storage practices, the natural structures around the grains can deter pests and serve as a form of natural pest control (Goyal et al. 2018). ...
Traditional agricultural practices play a crucial role in sustaining ecological balance and enhancing crop resilience, particularly in millet cultivation among indigenous communities. This study explores the Indigenous Traditional Knowledge (ITK) associated with millet cultivation in Attappady, Kerala, by evaluating adoption rates, farmer perceptions, and scientific relevance. A structured survey conducted among 118 respondents from 25 tribal families revealed that 83.1% of the farmers recognized ITK as essential for soil fertility management, while 96.5% reported improved yield stability when integrating ITK into their farming practices. Statistical analyses indicated a significant correlation (p < 0.05) between traditional agronomic methods and enhanced drought resilience, with higher adoption rates observed among small landholders and veteran farmers. The most widely adopted ITK practices included the selection of mature earheads as seed material (100% adoption), multi-seed farming techniques (98%), and mixed-model cultivation (96.5%). Conversely, the application of turmeric-garlic solution as a natural pest repellent exhibited a lower adoption score of 35.6%, likely due to skepticism regarding its efficacy. Principal Component Analysis highlighted farming experience as a key factor influencing adoption, whereas infrastructure utilization and higher education levels were negatively associated with ITK uptake. Additionally, qualitative interviews with key informants emphasized the socio-cultural importance of ITK in preserving biodiversity and food security. The findings underscore the need for policy interventions that integrate traditional knowledge with modern agronomic strategies to promote sustainable millet cultivation while enhancing farmer participation in scientific validation efforts.
... Additionally, insect development rate (30%), wheat grain damage (10.16%), and wheat weight loss (0.5-1.0%) decreased. Baoua et al. (2014) compared PICS R bags for maize storage in West Africa, whereas work has been done to compare Bioxilo TM and sBag TM against stored corn insects in Central Mexico. Chigoverah and Mvumi (2016) demonstrated 100% mortality of insects in hermetically sealed bags and metal silos against stored-maize pests in modeled micro farmer locations. ...
... The "Purdue Improved Crop Storage" (PICS) bags, which work on the principle of hermetic storage, have recently been made available to farmers in several countries around the world. Extensive research has been done on the efficacy of these bags in preventing storage losses primarily incited by insect pests in crops such as cowpea (Murdock et al., 2003;Baoua et al., 2012), maize (Baoua et al., 2014), pigeonpea (Vales et al., 2014), and sorghum (Waongo et al., 2019). In an initial attempt, these bags were evaluated for their efficacy in groundnut storage and were found to be very effective in containing both bruchid infestation and aflatoxin contamination (Sudini et al., 2015). ...
Storage is an important aspect of groundnut, as the in-shell and shelled kernels are prone to infestation by insects, pests, and fungi. Among several storage pests, the groundnut bruchid, Caryedon serratus , causes serious losses. Farmers often resort to different management practices, including hermetic storage, to control it. The moisture content of the commodity plays an important role in insect infestation during storage. Drying to safe moisture levels before storage is known to prevent the activity of various living organisms, such as storage pests. However, drying to low levels of moisture may not be economical for farmers, as they may not have access to devices to accurately check product moisture. In this regard, we wanted to demonstrate the efficacy of triple-layer hermetic storage bags in preventing the damage caused by C. serratus when the groundnuts are stored at intermediate (10%) and high (14%) levels of moisture compared to traditionally used bags such as polypropylene bags and jute bags. Groundnut pods at 10% moisture content and 14% moisture content were separately inoculated with adult bruchids and a toxigenic strain of Aspergillus flavus fungal inoculum before storing them for 6 months. Results from groundnut samples taken at two-month intervals indicated that groundnut pods stored in triple-layer hermetic bags were completely free from infestation by C. serratus by recording a zero number of eggs laid, number of pupae, adult emergence, percentage of loss, and percentage of damage up to 6 months of storage, by creating low oxygen (hypoxia) and high carbon dioxide (hypercarbia) conditions. Results also indicate no loss of pod weight stored in triple-layer bags, but a slight reduction in germination percentage was recorded due to a slight increase in fungal activity, but the reduction was significantly less in triple-layer plastic bags compared to other bag types. Similarly, biochemical constituents such as oil and protein content were slightly reduced in triple-layer plastic bags when pods were stored at a 10% moisture level, but a higher reduction was observed at a 14% moisture level. However, the reduction was very high and significant in other bag types at both 10 and 14% moisture levels.
... These findings are consistent with Njoroge et al. (2014), who reported that grains stored in PICS bags absorbed less moisture than grains stored in woven polypropylene bags. In Benin, Ghana, Burkina Faso, and Nigeria, Baoua et al. (2014) they stored locally contaminated corn in PICS bags. Although 53% of maize had AF levels above 20 ppm, samples from PICS bags showed less accumulation than those from woven bags. ...
Given Africa's productive potential, addressing constraints to agricultural productivity in Africa will need inventive techniques. Having in mind the aforementioned, the study explores the impact of developing concerns in African agriculture, such as maize fall armyworm, cereal aflatoxins, African swine fewer in pigs, and climate change-related issues in agriculture and proposes remedies. This was performed by a scoping review using bibliometrics (Web of Science, CiteULike, and Science Direct) as well as a systematic review covering the years 2008-2021. The findings have revealed that developing concerns have a severe influence on agricultural and food security in Africa, particularly among the poor. Furthermore, the findings have demonstrated that sustainable technologies can address rising difficulties in African agriculture. However, various programs that promote the progress of creative and advanced technology might be implemented to develop frameworks for managing developing difficulties in African agriculture. Production in African agriculture must be boosted by the implementation of innovative and modern technology.
... [46], the expected values of the outcomes of adopters and non-adopters in actual and counterfactual scenarios can be computed using the following equations (Eqs. 11,12,13,14): ...
We utilize a unique dataset comprising 1180 households affiliated with maize producers' organizations (POs) in the Rukwa and Ruvuma regions of Tanzania to analyze the adoption and impacts of hermetic storage technologies (HSTs) on the quantity of stored maize, measured in kilograms (QSM), and the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS). The study employs the logit and endogenous switching regression models to generate results. We find that, among other factors, the presence of HST vendors in the local community and training on proper HST usage are crucial in the adoption of HSTs among POs. Additionally, the usage of storage pesticides is negatively and significantly correlated with HST adoption. This suggests that farmers employing chemical insect pest control methods are less likely to adopt HSTs. The adoption of HSTs is shown to increase maize storage quantities by 40% and decrease household food insecurity by 43%. Further analysis based on the gender of the household head demonstrates that both female- and male-headed households benefit equally from the adoption of HSTs. The results advocate for the promotion of HSTs as a viable solution to mitigate household food insecurity among members of maize POs in Tanzania.
... These findings are consistent with Njoroge et al. (2014), who reported that grains stored in PICS bags absorbed less moisture than grains stored in woven polypropylene bags. In Benin, Ghana, Burkina Faso, and Nigeria, Baoua et al. (2014) they stored locally contaminated corn in PICS bags. Although 53% of maize had AF levels above 20 ppm, samples from PICS bags showed less accumulation than those from woven bags. ...
Given Africa's productive potential, addressing constraints to agricultural productivity in Africa will need inventive techniques will need inventive techniques. Having in mind the aforementioned, the study explores the impact of developing concerns in African agriculture, such as maize fall armyworm, cereal aflatoxins, African swine fewer in pigs, and climate change-related issues in agriculture and proposes remedies. This was performed by a scoping review using bibliometrics (Web of Science, CiteULike, and Science Direct) as well as a systematic review covering the years 2008-2021. The findings have revealed that developing concerns have a severe influence on agricultural and food security in Africa, particularly among the poor. Furthermore, the findings have demonstrated that sustainable technologies can address rising difficulties in African agriculture. However, various programs that promote the progress of creative and advanced technology might be implemented to develop frameworks for managing developing difficulties in African agriculture. Production in African agriculture must be boosted by the implementation of innovative and modern technology.
... Use of woven bags is one of the low-cost method of storing grains but this method needs to apply the insecticide (De Groote et al., 2013; Maina et al., 2016). In Sub-Sahara region for storing maize and some other crops hermetic storage bags were used for past ten decade (Baoua et al., 2014;De Groote et al., 2013). Many companies have applied package-testing programs in order to develop resistance against insect attack (Mullen, 1994). ...
The present study was carried out to investigate the toxicity of plant extracts treated on three packaging materials against two stored product insect pests, Tribolium castaneum. Three plant extracts (Azadirachta indica, Eucalyptus globulus and Ocimum basilicum) were applied on three packaging materials (polyethylene, polypropylene and jute). Six concentrations of plant extracts (10, 15, 20, 25, 30 and 35%) were applied on each packaging material cut into circular pieces of petri dish size. After air drying, the treated pieces of packaging materials were placed in petri dishes. Then 30 adults of Tribolium castaneum was released in the petri dishes, which were tightly covered using rubber bands and were placed in incubator at optimum growth conditions. Mortality of insects were observed after 24, 48 and 72 hrs. According to the results of bioassay for evaluation of plant extracts, maximum mortality of T. castaneum at 35% conc. and 72 hours exposure time was 36.01% for Azadirachta indica treated on polyethylene packaging material, 32.95% for Eucalyptus globulus and 24.30% for Ocimum basilicum at the same packaging material, dose rate and exposure time.
... This results are can be supported on the basis of many studied by previous investigator that had documented efficacy of hermetic bags over traditional structures in respect of damage and population. (Amadou et al., 2016;Baoua et al., 2014;Mutungi et al., 2014;Njoroge et al., 2014;Murdock et al., 2012;Chowdhury et al., 2014). ...
The present investigation was carried out to study the physiological and biochemical changes of paddy grain (Oryza sativa L. var. Ranjit) throughout the course of a 12-month storage period, in an effort to determine the ideal storage conditions with the highest potential for storage under climacteric condition of Assam. Freshly harvested seeds of paddy grain (Ranjit) were stored under different storage conditions for a period of twelve months beginning in January. Based on the results of the study, it was found that the easily moisture permeable structures (T 2 , T 3 , T 6) showed the maximum change in the physiological and biochemical parameters followed by permeable (T 1 and T 4) and impermeable (T 5 and T 7). The rate of change in the values of parameters in paddy stored in the prototype of a Grain safe™ in-store dryer (T 7) was found slowest and sluggish, and maintained highest mean values amongst all the storage receptacles in respect of germination percentage, seed vigour index, head rice recovery, moisture content, total soluble protein content, starch content, total soluble sugar content, reducing sugar, non-reducing sugar and amylose content. Significant superiority of hermetic storages (T 5 and T 7) over traditional storage structures (T 1 , T 2 , T 3 , T 4 and T 6) in Assam irrespective of all the parameters studied was noticed. Hermetic storage was effective at blocking the effects of external humidity fluctuations as well as the spread of fungi and insects. The solar in-store drier was found to be best amongst all storage structures, in all quality aspects of the long-term storage of paddy.
... The empirical literature on agricultural technology adoption continues to ignore its dynamics (Montes de Oca Munguia et al., 2021). Considering adoption as a one-off static decision, many studies (e.g., Baoua et al., 2014;Chigoverah and Mvumi, 2016;Sudini et al., 2015) assessed the effectiveness of airtight storage containers in reducing PHLs based on ex-ante data and onstation experiments. However, technology adoption is not a one-off static decision but a dynamic process that entails information gathering and learning (Jabbar, 1998). ...
... Outra opção aos silos metálicos é a armazenagem de grãos em sacos tipo PICS, capazes de manter a umidade estável durante o período de armazenamento de 6,5 meses. Além disso, os sacos PICS preservam bem as sementes de milho contra o ataque de insetos como P. truncatus, S. zeamais e R. dominica (Baoua et al., 2014). ...
Mudanças técnicas e estruturais estão ocorrendo nos segmentos do agronegócio, inclusive na cadeia brasileira do milho, em decorrência da preocupação dos consumidores e das agências reguladoras por produtos considerados sustentáveis e socialmente corretos. O objetivo deste artigo foi identificar, na literatura, as práticas que indicam estas mudanças e contextualizá-las em relação à realidade da agricultura brasileira. Para tanto, pelo prisma dos estudos prospectivos, aplicou-se um questionário a 72 produtores rurais, e efetuaram-se 23 entrevistas com especialistas da cadeia de produção de milho. Os questionários envolveram produtores de milho que cultivam em 206 mil hectares, espalhados por 15 estados brasileiros. As respostas indicaram que os produtores já fazem rotação de 13 culturas, praticam o plantio direto e a segunda safra, usam produtos biológicos, fazem plantio de cobertura e a integração lavoura-pecuária. Concluiu-se que o Brasil está relativamente bem posicionado no que diz respeito às práticas agrícolas sustentáveis e à adoção de tecnologias. No entanto, ainda é preciso avançar quanto nas questões de rastreabilidade, combate ao desmatamento ilegal, estímulo à indústria ecológica e ao processamento sustentável, controle da contaminação dos lençóis freáticos, estímulo ao consumo sustentável e redução de perdas e desperdícios.
... This finding highlights the high efficacy of hermetic storage in preserving grain quality. Ref. [117] tested the effectiveness of Purdue Improved Crop Storage (PICS) bags in Benin, Ghana, and Burkina Faso. They found that PICS bags achieved 95-100% mortality of adult P. truncatus and S. zeamais, indicating their efficacy in controlling these pests. ...
COVID-19 poses a significant threat to the present and future of mankind. The emergence of diverse strains during the pandemic creates uncertainty regarding their disappearance or resurgence. Lockdown measures and travel restrictions impact national and household food systems, hindering the movement of people and goods. Effective COVID-19 control requires science-based preventive measures and consideration of food availability. In Tanzania, resource-constrained farmers rely on the self-storage of food crops. Precise pest control information and tailored detection/storage systems are essential for preserving major staple foods such as maize and beans, which face frequent infestation by beetles and moths. Traditional methods used before the pandemic are insufficient compared to advanced global alternatives. This paper reviewed about 175 publications from different databases, dated from 1984 to 2023 (2023 to 2014 = 134, 2013 to 2004 = 26 and 2003 to 1984 = 15), assessing storage management for maize and beans. Identifying gaps between Tanzania and global advancements aiming to empower farming communities with the latest technologies and ensuring food security amid the pandemic.
... In a study conducted by Baoua et al. (2014), it was shown that the use of (now known as PICS -Purdue Improved Crop Storage) bags effectively safeguards corn crops against insect pests. The field trials conducted over a period of 6 months revealed that the utilization of PICS bags did not result in any deterioration of corn quality. ...
... Many of these methods expose the maize to insect, rodent pest damage, and mold (aflatoxin) contamination when the maize is not dried to the appropriate moisture content level before storage Manu et al., 2019). These existing methods of maize storage cause both quantitative and qualitative losses (Baoua et al., 2014), which can result in a decrease in farmers' income and contribute to the country's food insecurity (Manu et al., 2019;Sheahan & Barrett, 2017). To strengthen food security and increase farmers' income, reducing post-harvest loss of grain is critical for developing countries (Kumar & Kalita, 2017). ...
... It is referred to as "the cereal of the future" for its nutritional value and the utility of its products and by-products [2] . Corn has various uses, including food processing, animal feed and ethanol production [3] , which is a basic staple food grain for large parts of the world, including Africa, Latin America and Asia [4,5] . Second only to the US, China contributes to 22% of global corn production. ...
Objective: This study is to determine the main parameters influencing the storage of shelled corn with slightly high moisture content (MC) so that its quality can be maintained. Methods: The intergranular air properties and chemical changes was determined in 4,169 tonnes of shelled corn bulk with an average MC of 15.3% and a height of 5m, which was stored for 90 days in a large warehouse in Shandong Province, China, from winter to early spring. The intergranular air property
parameters were calculated with self-compiled software. Results: Fans were used to achieve temperature-equalizing aeration at a low rate (5.87m3/h/t) after warehousing, which decreased the bulk temperature from 6.8 to 4.7℃. Afterwards, with the increase in ambient temperature, the surface-layer grain temperature increased drastically, while that of the bottom layer increased slowly and those of the middle layers increased even more slowly. The minimum and mean cumulative dry-bulb, wet-bulb and dew-point temperatures (DPT) increased in the order of middle layer˂ bottom layer˂ surface layer. Free fatty acid content, kernel breakage percentage, water adsorption rate, gelatinization enthalpy, peak enthalpy, and fatty acid profiles (C16:0, C18:0, C18:3n3, C20:0 and C20:1) were significantly related to the cumulative intergranular air properties of grain bulk. Conclusion: The above physio-chemical parameters were significantly influenced by the minimum and
mean cumulative values of relative humidity, humidity ratio and DPT in the bulk, and can be used to evaluate the quality of shelled corn with slightly high MC during short-term storage.
Wei Z, Jiang Y, Li X, Zhao M, Wu J, Yan E. Changes in Intergranular Air Properties and Chemical Parameters of Short-term Stored Bulk Shelled Corn with Slightly High Moisture Content. J Mod Agric Biotechnol, 2023; 2(4): 22. DOI: 10.53964/jmab.2023022.
... Grain storage was completely ineffective and unsafe when WPB were used. However, the hermetic bags were effective at protecting the stored grain against S. zeamais, as similarly reported earlier Baoua et al., 2014;Suleiman et al., 2018). ...
The main insects that deteriorate stored maize grain in the tropics are maize weevils (Sitophilus zeamais). S. zeamais can cause significant post-harvest losses (PHL) in maize during storage. The objective of this study was to help farmers in Ghana appreciate and understand the benefits of using GrainPro bags compared to woven polypropylene bags (WPB) for storing maize grain. Eight farmers participated in the study, where 25 kg bags were loaded with 20 kg of naturally S. zeamais-infested white maize grain. The sealed bags were stored for 6 months at 28±6°C. A representative sample of 1 kg was taken from each bag for further analysis after homogenization. Percentages and ANOVA were calculated for all the quality parameters measured. The results showed that all the WPB bags were damaged, while the GrainPro bags remained intact. The damaged grain in WPB bags ranged from 91.9 to 94.4%, whereas in GrainPro bags, it ranged from 0.2 to 0.7%. Approximately 0 g of maize powder (fines) were produced within the GrainPro bags, compared to up to 73.7 g in WPB bags. S. zeamais mortality was 90% higher in GrainPro bags than in WPB bags. Therefore, GrainPro bags are suitable alternatives to WPB for maize storage.
... El muestreo de campo se realizó entre los meses de febrero y marzo del 2022 como se muestra en la Tabla 1, las referencias para la toma de muestras. El análisis del grado de deformidades se realizó midiendo la densidad de granos con deformaciones y la calidad del grano de maíz de la siguiente manera: 1. Se usó un frasco para recolectar muestras de maíz de la parte superior, media y baja de los contenedores de almacenamiento; 2. Posteriormente, se mezclaron completamente, se guardaron y etiquetaron 500 gramos para su análisis; 3. Las impurezas, granos quebrados o con defectos se separaron y pesaron para determinar un comparable proporcional en relación con el peso de la muestra base (Baoua et al., 2014); 4. Para el cálculo de granos con deformaciones se utilizó la siguiente ecuación: ...
The article explores the use of convolutional neural networks, specifically ResNet-50, to detect weevils in corn kernels. Weevils are a major pest of stored maize and can cause significant yield and quality losses. The study found that the ResNet-50 model was able to distinguish with high precision between weevil-infested corn kernels and healthy kernels, achieving values of 0.9464 for precision, 0.9310 for sensitivity, 0.9630 for specificity, 0.9469 for quality index, 0.9470 for the area under the curve (AUC) and 0.9474 for the F-score. The model was able to recognize nine out of ten weevil-free corn kernels using a minimal number of training samples. These results demonstrate the efficiency of the model in the accurate detection of weevil infestation in maize grains. The model's ability to accurately identify weevil-affected grains is critical to taking rapid action to control the spread of the pest, which can prevent significant economic losses and preserve the quality of stored corn. Research suggests that the use of ResNet-50 offers an efficient and low-cost solution for the early detection of weevil infestation in corn kernels. These models can quickly process large amounts of imaging data and perform accurate analysis, making it easy to identify affected grains.
... These methods expose the maize to insect and rodent damage, pest infestations, and mold contamination detrimental to human health (Danso et al., 2018;Manu et al., 2019). This causes both quantitative and qualitative losses (Baoua et al., 2014) ...
Finding Disciplinary Literacy Capacities Between Cultures: An Inquiry in United States
Secondary School Agriscience Education Classrooms Between English Language
Learners and Native English Speakers
... Smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) store their grains in traditional containers such as polypropylene bags, granaries, clay containers and baskets (Gitonga et al., 2013;Abass et al., 2014;Bwambale et al., 2020). These containers can be easily infested and therefore are unable to prevent the action of post-harvest pests (Baoua et al., 2014;Bwambale et al., 2020;Luo et al., 2022). Synthetic pesticides such as Actellic® dust (Pirimiphosmethyl (1.6%) + Permethrin (0.3%)) and Sofagrain® (Pirimiphos-methyl (1.5%) + Deltamethrin (0.5%)) have been used to control insect infestation in stored grain (Njoroge et al., 2014). ...
The study evaluated the performance of polypropylene bag (PP), polyethylene drum (PD), polyethylene silo tank (PST), and super grain bag (SGB) on preserving maize quality. The trials were conducted on-station and on-farm. Insect density, grain damage, weight loss, and grain moisture content were determined monthly for six months for on-station trials. For on-farm, insect density and grain damage were assessed every two months for eight months, and the acceptability test of the grain was performed after the storage period. The initial insect density of the grain was 26 insects/kg (natural infestation), and the percentage of damaged grain was 1.6%. After six months, for grain stored in PP, the insect density increased by 31-fold, whereas damaged grain increased by 10-fold, resulting in a 31-fold increase in grain weight loss. In contrast, the insect density did not increase significantly in SGB, PD, and PST over six months of storage. Grain stored in SGB presented the highest acceptability, while grain stored in PP was considered unfit for human consumption. The on-farm trials confirmed the effectiveness of the SGB, PD and PST on minimizing insects' multiplication and grain loss, making them suitable for reducing maize losses during long-term storage under smallholder farmers' conditions.
... The PICS bag has a three liner with two liners (high density polyethylene bags) fitted inside a woven sack (polypropylene bag) and enable grains to be stored for more than one year [14]. Since the introduction of the PICS bag, there have been several studies that assess the effect of PICS bag on postharvest losses (PHL), food security, and aflatoxin control (see Refs. [15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22]. These studies show that PICS bags are highly effective and efficient in protecting grains from storage insect infestation. ...
This study applies a simple financial model to compare the profitability of selected grain storage protection technologies (PICS and Poly sacks) in Ghana. To address the objectives, market survey data of soybean traders who represent a section of the soybean supply chain was used. Per the model, the price seasonality for profitable soybean storage was estimated by accounting for costs related to storage (protectants, maintenance, supervision, and labor), the opportunity cost of capital, and storage technologies (PICS and Poly sacks). Results indicated that the profitability associated with poly sacks was higher than the PICS bags over the entire support of seasonal harvest prices and consistent across the different trader types. Secondly, less than 20% of the traders were willing to invest in storage protection technologies since the value of their storage losses is higher than the value of the investment cost.
... Abdoulaye et al. (2016) report that more than 75% of farmers in Ghana, Tanzania, and Benin identified insects as the major cause of postharvest loss, while most farmers in Ethiopia, Uganda, and Nigeria complained about rodents and moisture as the main causes of postharvest loss. Baoua et al. (2014) and Compton et al. (1997) show that each percentage point of insect infestation results in between 0.6% and 1% depreciation in the value of maize. Finally, Delgado et al. (2021b) identify pests and disease as the major reasons for preharvest losses in five of the six crops studied; they are also mentioned as an important cause of postharvest losses. ...
In 2015, the United Nations and the G20 put food loss and food waste on the global agenda. While progress has been made since then, the scale of the problem persists because food loss and food waste are measured together, not separately. The paucity of data also poses a challenge. This article reviews the measurements, causes, and determinants of food loss as well as the interventions to reduce it. The review finds that food loss is considered in isolation, even though it is one of the causes and results of how agrifood systems function. The review calls for improved microdata collection and standardized measurements to separate food loss from food waste. Such efforts would help integrate feedback loops and cascading effects across the value chain with agrifood systems to identify intervention hot spots, trade-offs, and synergies of interventions as well as the effects of food loss reduction on socioeconomic, environmental, and food security goals.
Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Resource Economics, Volume 15 is October 2023. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
... These methods expose the maize to insect and rodent damage, pest infestations, and mold contamination detrimental to human health (Danso et al., 2018;Manu et al., 2019). This causes both quantitative and qualitative losses (Baoua et al., 2014) leading to a decrease in farm income and food insecurity (Manu et al., 2019;Sheahan & Barrett, 2017). ...
... Unfortunately, none of these measures has been able to protect stored grains against pests and pathogens for several years. A USAID-funded research project of "Feed the Future" evaluated branded hermetic grain storage (HGS) bags, also known as Purdue Improved Crop Storage (PICS) bags, for the management of pests and aflatoxins on stored grains in East African countries, Niger, and Ghana, among others (Baoua et al., 2014;Hohenberger, 2016;Williams et al., 2017;Baributsa and Njoroge, 2020). This project created a pervasive awareness that HGS bags are simple and appropriate for storing well-dried grains for several years in rural areas (Hohenberger, 2016). ...
Hermetic grain storage (HGS) bags are simple and appropriate to effectively protect stored grains against pests and aflatoxins in areas where effective facilities are lacking. This study assessed farmers’ knowledge and perceptions associated with current practices, awareness-facilitating agents, and HGS bags in interior southern Ghana. The main objective was to provide information that can be included in sensitization and awareness creation programs to increase adoption of HGS bags for sustainable production of grain crops, food security, income-generation, and livelihood improvement across farming communities in selected areas in southern Ghana. Therefore, 925 smallholder farmers were randomly selected and interviewed across three districts (or municipals), which included West Akim Municipal, Ayensuano District, and Suhum Municipal in southern Ghana, using a semi-structured questionnaire for data collection and analysis. The results showed that 95.24% of farmers were still using ineffective grain storage approaches to store grains. Average awareness level about HGS bags among farmers was ≤30%, whereas adoption of HGS bags was very low (4.76%). However, awareness and adoption were mostly observed in West Akim Municipal. Although awareness was significantly dependent on numerous demographic and farming factors, it had significant positive correlations with ‘female farmers’ and respondents’ age-range (36–50 years) only; it suggests that if these two factors are considered in sensitization programs, they will increase awareness about HGS bags. The most performing awareness-facilitating agent was the Ministry of Food and Agriculture, followed by famers’ neighbors. Nonetheless, farmers (who were aware of or adopted HGS bags) were facing challenges or limitations. Hence, the need for training smallholder farmers has been discussed.
... Evidence has shown that when tied shut, PICS technology ensures effectively airtight lowoxygen (less than 5% by volume) environment are generated through the respiratory action of the seeds and enclosed pests . The modified atmosphere (enriched carbon dioxide (CO2) environment) suppresses the survival of insects and reduce damage caused by their feeding (Baoua et al., 2014;Tubbs et al., 2016). This will provide smallholder farmers with the flexibility to store grain for several months (Swathi and Rajanikanth, 2017), thus allowing them to tap into better grain prices during the lean season. ...
Insect infestations impose serious challenge to cowpea storage and negatively affect trade and utilization of cowpea in Nigeria. Purdue improved cowpea storage (PICS) technology provide effective control against these storage pests, thus allowing farmers to tap into better grain prices during the lean season. The study assessed the profitability of cowpea grains stored with Purdue improved cowpea storage technology in Benue State, Nigeria. The objectives of the study include; to determine the effect of PICS technology use on cowpea loss and to estimate the returns to cowpea stored with PICS technology. Two hundred and forty (240) respondents were identified and interviewed using snowballing non-random sampling techniques. The analytical tools used for the study were the gravimetric (count and weight) method and marketing margin analysis. The result of the study revealed that storing with PICS technology reduced weight loss in cowpea by 15.3%, valued at N3,450 per bag per season. The use of PICS technology gave a higher marketing margin of N11,297.88/bag with farm-to-retail price spread of 45.5% than N8,285.83/bag and farm-to-retail price spread of 37.8% in woven bag. It is recommended that; farmers group should be used as a platform to promote and create awareness on the economic benefits of PICS technology use.
... Evidence has shown that when tied shut, PICS technology ensure effectively airtight lowoxygen (less than 5% by volume) environment are generated through the respiratory action of the seeds and enclosed pests . The modified atmosphere (enriched carbon dioxide (CO2) environment suppresses the survival of insects and reduce damage caused by their feeding (Baoua et al., 2014;Tubbs et al., 2016). This will provide smallholder farmers with the flexibility to store grain for several months (Swathi & Rajanikanth, 2017), thus allowing them to tap into better grain prices during the lean season. ...
Cowpea is a food security crop and a main source of income for farmers in Nigeria. However, postharvest storage remains a major challenge due to insect pest attack. Infestations impose serious challenge to cowpea storage and negatively affect trade and utilization of cowpea in Nigeria. Purdue Improved Cowpea Storage (PICS) technology provides effective control against these storage pests, thus, allowing farmers to tap into better grain prices during the lean season. The study analysed the gains in cowpea stored with PICS technology in Madagali Local Government Area of Adamawa State, Nigeria. The objectives of the study include; determining the effect of PICS technology use on cowpea loss and to estimate the returns to cowpea stored with PICS technology. Two hundred and forty (240) respondents were identified and interviewed using networking or snowballing non-random sampling technique. The analytical tools used for the study were the gravimetric (count and weight) method and marketing margin analysis. The result of the study showed that storing with PICS technology reduced weight loss in cowpea by 16.3%, valued at N3, 450 per bag per season. The use of PICS technology gave a higher marketing margin of N11, 297.88/bag with farm-to-retail price spread of 45.5% than N8, 285.83/bag and farm-to-retail price spread of 37.8% in woven bag. The study recommends that, farmers association be used as an avenue to promote and create awareness on the economic benefits of PICS technology.
... PP bags and jute sacks are not air-tight and thus allow air exchange between the environment and the stored product. The two inner liners of PICS bags impede such gaseous exchange resulting in shea nuts maintaining a relatively stable moisture content (Baoua et al., 2014;Ndegwa et al., 2016;Afzal et al., 2017). A key consideration is that safe storage moisture content must be achieved before storage is initiated. ...
... Studies have assessed hermetic storage of wet maize to preserve grain quality [15][16][17]. Though the use of hermetic storage technologies (e.g., Purdue Improved Crop Storage-PICS, GrainPro SuperGrainbag) may prevent losses due to fungal and insect pests on dried grain [16,[18][19][20][21], they have resulted in a loss of quality when wet maize was stored for a month or more. Hermetic storage of wet grain can result in high respiration rates of grain which may compromise germination as well as other quality factors (e.g., discoloration) [6,22,23]. ...
Maize is a major crop grown in many regions of the world for human consumption, starch production, and animal feed. After harvest, maize is dried to avoid spoilage caused by fungal growth. However, in the humid tropics, drying maize harvested during the rainy season poses challenges. In such instances, temporary storing maize under hermetic conditions may preserve grain quality while waiting for conditions suitable for drying. Wet maize at the moisture contents (m.c.) of 18, 21, and 24% was stored for up to 21 days in both hermetic and non-hermetic jars. The stored maize was assessed, every 7 days, for germination and related parameters, presence of visible mold, and pH. After 21 days of storage at 18, 21, and 24% m.c., maize germination decreased by 28.5, 25.2, and 95.5 percentage points, respectively, in hermetic jars; and by 28.5, 25.2, and 94.5 percentage points in non-hermetic jars (control). There was visible mold on maize stored in non-hermetic jars after 21 days regardless of m.c. Maize at 21 and 24% m.c. stored in hermetic conditions underwent lactic acid fermentation that reduced the pH. The findings suggest that maize at 18 and 21% m.c. can be stored for 14 and 7 days, respectively, under hermetic conditions without significant loss of quality. Further research is needed to thoroughly assess the application of these findings for temporarily storing and subsequently drying maize on farms and along the grain value chain.
... Once the PICS bag is closed, the liners significantly reduce oxygen supply from outside to the contents inside the bag, and by doing so stop insect feeding activities and eliminate losses during storage of dry grain in addition to maintaining moisture content (Murdock et al., 2012;Williams et al., 2017b). Although the PICS technology was initially used in cowpea storage, it has also been effective in other crops (Baoua et al., 2014, Baoua et al.,2016Vales et al., 2014;Mutungi et al., 2015). Different studies report on the storage of other grains in various modifications of PICS technology. ...
Coffee quality is generally evaluated through cupping, a technique based on sensory perceptions. Trained cuppers assign scores to ten quality attributes on a scale of 1 to 10. Exposure of coffee to moisture and/or oxygen during storage and/or transportation can affect the sensory evaluation and reduce the price received by farmers. This paper has two objectives. First, it estimates the effect of sensory scores and water activity on coffee price and its price differential from the market price. Second, it explores coffee sensory scores sensitivity to storage duration and water activity under two methods of application of the Purdue Improved Crop Storage (PICS) bags - the standard three layers PICS bag (PICS-3L) and the two layers PICS bag (PICS-2L). Data were collected for ten months from an experiment conducted in Manizales, Colombia. Results suggest, on average, that an additional point in the score of flavor or body increases the price of coffee by at least 66 COP/kg (0.015 USD/kg). If coffee has an additional point in aftertaste or uniformity from what is expected from other coffees of the same origin, then its price differential is reduced by at least 8 COP/kg (0.002 USD/kg). Using a PICS-3L bag instead of a PICS-2L bag does not affect the coffee price or sensory scores, but it reduces the price differential by approximately 18 COP/kg (0.004 USD/kg). On the other hand, water activity reduces coffee price but not its price differential. Storage time affects coffee sensory scores in some attributes, which may impact the coffee bean price.
... The availability of a cheap and effective storage structure is considered to have a positive impact on farmers. This would encourage the farmers to store their cereals and thus they can obtain high prices instead of selling just after harvest, which is a normal trend observed in places where they do not have facilities for storing for long periods (Baoua et al., 2014;De Groote et al., 2013).Construction of improved storage structures as well as technological interventions helps to reduce losses in various stages be in warehouses, superand hypermarkets, and stores.It is important to understand that the service staff should be given appropriate training. It is also equally necessary to create awareness among the workers and service staff of both large warehouses as well as small stores to adopt new innovative technologies for sustaining the supply along the food chain (FAO 2017b; European Commission 2016a; Kitinoja 2013). ...
Commercializing technology, the process of bringing an innovation from the laboratory to the marketplace, is a significant challenge in developing countries. The Purdue Improved Crop Storage (PICS) technology, an airtight bag, was designed to mitigate postharvest storage losses of grains and other commodities. PICS bags, a chemical-free storage method, reduce losses caused by insect pests from an estimated 30% to less than 1%. Additionally, the technology helps mitigate mold development, which leads to aflatoxins. PICS bags have been disseminated in over 40 countries across sub-Saharan Africa, South and East Asia, Latin America, and the Caribbean. More than 12 million farmers have been trained in using PICS bags through village demonstrations. In addition, media has been utilized to increase awareness among farmers and other users. To date, over 50 million bags have been sold by manufacturers, distributors, and vendors. By 2023, the return on investment for farmers is estimated to be around $3.0 billion.
Reducing postharvest losses offers a significant opportunity to enhance food availability without requiring extra production resources. A substantial portion of cereal grain goes to waste annually due to a lack of science-based knowledge, unconscious handling practices, suboptimal technical efficiency, and inadequate infrastructure. This article extensively reviews losses occurring during postharvest operations across various crops, examining diverse postharvest operations in different countries. Recent advancements in postharvest technology research are thoroughly discussed. The primary obstacles and challenges hindering the adoption and implementation of postharvest technologies are also explored. The appropriate postharvest technology relies on specific factors, including the kind of crops, production locales, seasons, and existing environmental and socioeconomic conditions.
As women's empowerment is critical for the adoption of agricultural technologies by farmers, some governments have over the last three decades adopted a gender equality approach to food security. In Ghana, women play a vital role as farmers and food processors, which means they impact household nutrition in important ways. In this article, we explore women's empowerment in maize‐producing sites in Ghana by drawing on original data collected from over 400 farmers and service providers as part of a United States Agency for International Development‐funded Feed the Future project. We employ a quasi‐“women's empowerment in agriculture index” to measure the extent to which men and women maize producers are either empowered or disempowered in the domains of production, access to resources, control over income, leadership, and time allocation. Our study reveals that cost and time poverty are the main factors that influence the adoption of technologies to reduce postharvest losses. We also find that women are disproportionately disempowered in the areas of control over the use of income and time poverty. Importantly, we further find that researchers need to account for perceived versus actual empowerment when examining gender inequality in agriculture. Our study findings and policy recommendations will be of interest to policymakers, scholars, and development practitioners.
Polypropylene and jute bags are widely used for grain storage across the developing world. The permeability of clear polypropylene bags (PP-C), opaque polypropylene bags (PP-O) and jute bags were determined using the ASTM E96 Standard Test Methods under three temperature and relative humidity combinations (25°C / 65%, 28°C / 75% and 30°C / 80%) that resulted in three vapor pressure deficits of 1.11, 0.95, and 0.85 kPa. The water vapor transfer rate (WVTR) and the interaction between water vapor permeability (WVP) of the materials were determined. WVTR ranged from 216 g m-2 day-1 for opaque polypropylene (PP-O) exposed to air conditions of 30°C / 80% to 478 g m-2 day-1 for jute exposed to air at 25°C / 65% WVTR decreased with vapor pressure deficit for all materials. There was no significant difference in the WVTR between the polypropylene bags (PP-C and PP-O). WVP values ranged from 4.7 × 10-5 g (m day Pa)-1 to 6.4 × 10-4 g (m day Pa)-1 at 25°C / 65% for PP-O and jute, respectively. WVP of PP-C and PP-O decreased slightly as the vapor pressure deficit increased. The permeability of jute was significantly different from both polypropylene bags under these test conditions (p<0.05). The change in corn moisture content with initial moisture at 10% and 12% (wb) were investigated using mini bags constructed from the three materials. Environmental condition, initial grain moisture, and the interaction among the parameters, had a large impact on the moisture change. There was a weak positive interaction between WVP of bag materials and change in corn moisture. This study demonstrates that environmental condition affects moisture redistribution in grain stored in woven bags, thus adequate monitoring is required to maintain grain quality during storage. Citation: Omodara, M.A., S.G. McNeill, and M.D. Montross. 2021. Water vapor permeability of bag materials used for corn storage. Agricultural Engineering International: CIGR Journal, 23(4): 329-340.
This study was conducted in order to evaluate leaf powder botanical products of Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus macrorhyncha F. Muell), pawpaw (Carica papaya L.), neem (Azadirachta indica A. Juss) and lantana (Lantana camara L.) against the infestation of maize weevil, Sitophilus zeamays (L.) on stored maize grains. These botanicals were compared with synthetic chemical (Actellic Super Dust) and without insecticides application as controls. All tested plant products performed well in the reduction of live insects during maize storage as compared to the no insecticide application. However, pawpaw leaf powder was the most effective in reducing the number of live insects. Similarly, number of damaged maize seeds was relatively less in grains treated with pawpaw leaf powder. This also reflects on the weight loss where the maize grains treated with pawpaw leaf powder were lowest. The weight loss was also less in grains treated with neem and eucalyptus leaf powders. This study suggests that pawpaw, neem and eucalyptus leaf powders can be used as good alternatives to synthetic pesticides against S. zeamays.
Maize was artificially infested with either 10 or 25 individual Prostephanus
truncatus (Horn) and Sitophilus zeamais (Motschulsky) or a mixture of both, and stored in a
hermetic grain bag (HGB) or a woven polypropylene bag (WPB) for 150 days. Population
growth of P. truncatus and S. zeamais during storage was low in HGB, while in WPB, the
insect population increased significantly with storage duration. Mortality rate during
storage was significantly higher in HGB than in WPB. After 60 days of storage, the average
mortality rate of 99.50% was observed in HGB infested with 25 P. truncatus, and 100% for
S. zeamais at the same infestation density after 90 days of storage. Grain losses were
significantly lower in HGB compared with WPB. Less than 0.5 and 6.0% losses were
obtained, respectively, for S. zeamais and P. truncatus in HGB infested with 25 individual
insects after 150 days of storage, whereas losses of 19.2% (infestation with S. zeamais) and
27.1% (infestation with P. truncatus) were observed in WPB. HGB seems to be resistant to
the perforation of S. zeamais, but not to P. truncatus. The moisture content of maize grains
stored in HGB remained practically the same during storage, compared with the levels in
WPB, which reduced with storage time. HGB could be used for maize storage, protecting
it against insect infestation without the need for insecticide use.
Oxygen (02) depletion and carbon dioxide (C02) enrichment of the intergranular atmosphere fonn the basis for suppressing and controlling insect infestations during hennetic storage of dry grain. Traditional methods and recent improvements are reviewed, and modem structures designed for hennetic storage at the com-mercial and fanner levels are described. Improvements needed to render the hennetic concept more widely acceptable are enumer-ated, and the development of hennetic storage within flexible plastic liners is evaluated on the basis of more than a decade of experience in hot climates. A preliminary model is employed to simulate the interdependent changes in gas concentrations, insect populations and amounts of grain consumed. A theoretical ingress rate of 0.05% 02/day was found sufficient \0 arrest development of residual insect infestations. Potential niches for hermetic storage applications in developing and technologically advanced countries are identified. In tropical climates aeration for cooling of grain is not feasible, reinfestation is frequent and the available contact insecticides degrade rapidly because of high temperatures. The advantages of long-tenn hermetic stomge in technologically advanced countries, and as a medium-term, user-friendly technol-ogy in developing countries, are stressed. In sharp contrast to the use of chemicals, hermetic storage is environmentally sound and poses no risk to storage operators, consumers or non-target organisms.
Traditional storage practices in developing countries cannot guarantee protection against major storage pests of staple food crops like maize, leading to 20-30% grain losses, particularly due to post-harvest insect pests and grain pathogens. As a result, smallholder farmers end up selling their grain soon after harvest, only to buy it back at an expensive price just a few months after harvest, falling in a poverty trap. The potential impact on poverty reduction and greater livelihood security will not be realized, however, if farmers are unable to store grains and sell surplus production at attractive prices. Apart from causing quantitative losses, pests in stored grain are also linked to aflatoxin contamination and poisoning. To address this problem, a metal silo was developed as a valid option and proven effective in protecting stored grains from attack by storage insect pests. A metal silo is a cylindrical structure, constructed from a galvanized iron sheet and hermetically sealed, killing any insect pests that may be present. The impact of metal silo technology in Africa. Asia and Latin America includes, improving food security, empowering smallholder farmers, enhancing income opportunities and job creation, and safeguarding the agro-ecosystems. The metal silo can be fabricated in different sizes, 100 kg-3000 kg holding capacity by trained local artisans, with the corresponding prices of 375. The use of metal silo, therefore, should be encouraged in order to prevent storage losses and enhance food security in developing countries. (c) 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
An experiment was conducted to determine the importance of husk covering on field infestation of maize by the maize weevil, Sitophilus zeamais, at Bako, western Ethiopia. Five maize genotypes, G1 (SZSYNA99-F 2 -33-4-2 X SC 22), G2 (CML-197 X SZSYNA99-F 2 -33-4-1), G3 (SZSYNA99-F 2 -79-4-3 X CML-197), G4 (BH-140) and G5 (Bukuri) were used. There were differences among the maize genotypes in their resistance to the maize weevil. The genotypes, G2, G3 and G5 had good husk characteristics (extended tip and tight husk) and flint grains resulted in low number of weevils and damaged ears. On the contrary, the genotype G1, with dent-flint-grain, poor husk characteristics (bare tipped and loose husk cover), harbored the highest number of weevils and suffered ear damage followed by the genotype, G4. Therefore, husk tip extension and husk tightness were the two most important characters conferring resistance to maize ears against the maize weevil in the field.
Restrictions due to the adverse effects of pesticide residues in food and the environment resulted in the imposition of strict limitations on pesticide registration by regulatory agencies. Consumer demand for chemical-free and insect contamination-free products increased the attention to the application of non-residue organic technologies for the protection of stored grain. Among the new gaseous application technologies that have successfully replaced fumigants are the manipulation of modified atmospheres (MAs) through the use of biogenerated MAs, for insect control and for quality preservation of seeds, stored paddy, polished rice, wheat, pulses, cocoa or coffee beans, and high moisture corn. This takes advantage of the atmospheric gas composition produced by the respiratory metabolism of the biological agents of the grain bulk to prevent insect development and suppress microflora activity. Sufficiently sealed structures enable insects and other aerobic organisms in the commodity, and/or the commodity itself, to generate the MA by reducing the O 2 and increasing the CO 2 concentrations. Further moisture levels stay constant preventing mold growth.
Maize remains crucial for food security in Sub-Saharan Africa. In some regions, the predominance of the crop in farming systems and diets implies that yield gains have the potential to jump-start a Green Revolution like those experienced in Asia for rice and wheat. However, despite episodes of success, the evidence compiled here suggests that very little progress has been made toward achieving this potential in recent years. Reversing this condition remains crucial to agricultural growth and food security in Africa.
Over the long term, large investments and sustained political commitment are needed to ensure strong plant breeding and seed systems to serve smallholders, predicated on improved crop management practices to protect soils and cope with unreliable rainfall, and access to appropriate labor-saving technologies. More innovative extension and advisory systems are also needed to facilitate farmer learning and adapt techniques and technologies to local environmental and social conditions. Better financial services, perhaps including new forms of insurance, are needed for smallholders.
In April 2004, one of the largest aflatoxicosis outbreaks occurred in rural Kenya, resulting in 317 cases and 125 deaths. Aflatoxin-contaminated homegrown maize was the source of the outbreak, but the extent of regional contamination and status of maize in commercial markets (market maize) were unknown. We conducted a cross-sectional survey to assess the extent of market maize contamination and evaluate the relationship between market maize aflatoxin and the aflatoxicosis outbreak. We surveyed 65 markets and 243 maize vendors and collected 350 maize products in the most affected districts. Fifty-five percent of maize products had aflatoxin levels greater than the Kenyan regulatory limit of 20 ppb, 35% had levels > 100 ppb, and 7% had levels > 1,000 ppb. Makueni, the district with the most aflatoxicosis case-patients, had significantly higher market maize aflatoxin than did Thika, the study district with fewest case-patients (geometric mean aflatoxin = 52.91 ppb vs. 7.52 ppb, p = 0.0004). Maize obtained from local farms in the affected area was significantly more likely to have aflatoxin levels > 20 ppb compared with maize bought from other regions of Kenya or other countries (odds ratio = 2.71; 95% confidence interval, 1.12-6.59). Contaminated homegrown maize bought from local farms in the affected area entered the distribution system, resulting in widespread aflatoxin contamination of market maize. Contaminated market maize, purchased by farmers after their homegrown supplies are exhausted, may represent a source of continued exposure to aflatoxin. Efforts to successfully interrupt exposure to aflatoxin during an outbreak must consider the potential role of the market system in sustaining exposure.
Insect species and damage levels were evaluated and related to aflatoxin content in maize sampled from farmers' stores in four agroecological zones over a two-year period in Benin, West-Africa. In 1993, no aflatoxin was detected in maize that was free of insect damage. In the same year, in maize with more than 70 % of cobs damaged by insects 30.3 % were aflatoxin-positive, with a mean aflatoxin contamination of 77.8 ppb (parts per billion or μg/kg). Grain moisture increased with damage levels. The mean aflatoxin content of maize infested with Carpophilus dimidiatus Fabricius (Coleoptera: Nitidulidae) was significantly higher than maize free of this pest (F = 5.05, P ≤ 0.05). In 1994/95, the density of Mussidia nigrivinella Ragonot (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), was significantly higher in the Northern Guinea Savanna than in the other zones, and the presence of this pest was positively correlated with the cob area visibly infected with Aspergillus flavus Link (Deutoremycetes: Monoliales) (r = 0.239, P ≤ 0.05) early in storage. Six months later, damage levels due to insects were significantly lower in the Sudan Savanna than in the other ecozones. The infestation level of the most common storage pest, Sitophilus zeamais Motschulsky (Coleoptera: Curcilionidae) decreased from the south to the north. After six months of storage aflatoxin level was positively correlated with the cob area damaged by Sesamia calamistis Hampson (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) (r = 0.25, P ≤ 0.05), the number of Cryptophlebia leucotreta (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) observed on maize (r = 0.26, P ≤ 0.05) and cob area damaged by S. zeamais (r = 0.22, P ≤ 0.05).
Cowpea is the most economically and nutritionally important indigenous African grain legume, grown by millions of resource-poor farmers. It is a key cash crop in areas too dry to grow cotton or other export crops. Most of the over 3 million t of cowpea grain produced annually in West and Central Africa is grown on small farms. Storage is often identified as the key challenge for small scale cowpea growers. Many farmers sell cowpea grain at low harvest time prices rather than risk losses by bruchids during storage. Some traditional methods are effective for small quantities (e.g., 10 kg), but are difficult to scale up. Some effective storage chemicals are available, but they are regularly misused by farmers and merchants. The Purdue Improved Cowpea Storage (PICS) Project is addressing these problems through promotion of hermetic storage in triple layer sacks which have an outer layer of woven polypropylene and two liners of 80 μ high-density polyethylene. Village demonstrations with more than 45, 000 PICS sacks have shown the technology to be effective. Good quality affordable sacks have been produced by manufacturers in Nigeria, Burkina Faso and Mali. Over the past three years more than one million sacks have been produced and sold. Despite the success with the outreach activities and the farmer adoption, the challenge remains to develop sustainable sack distribution networks. Issues identified include reluctance of wholesalers to order sacks due to risk associated with a new product, inability of wholesalers to develop effective distribution networks due to difficulties with enforcing contracts, and limited access to capital. The PICS project is exploring new ways to address some of these issues, including using non-traditional distribution systems for PICS sacks such as agro-dealers networks, and adapting distribution systems that have worked for cell phones and other products.
There are many challenges facing small scale farmers especially in Africa and other developing countries that lead to grains post-harvest losses. Amongst these are inadequate storage facilities, rodents, insects and birds. It was predicted that the world's population will increase to about 9.1 billion people by the year 2050 and most of this increase will occur in developing countries. Hence, the need of investing much to the agricultural sector is necessary in order to produce more food to feed the world. Furthermore, increasing agricultural productivity must go hand-in-hand with improved storage in order to reduce post-harvest losses. Promoting small scale agriculture is the key to achieving food security in developing countries. In this work, metal silo technology for small and medium scale farming was developed for more comfortable and effective grains protection. Air-tightness of the silo was achieved by adding rubber stopper under grains-inlet and discharge lids. Locking points on grains inlet and discharge covers with padlock was designed. Larger size of this silo was modernized to be mobile facilitated with wheels-metal-frame stand for easy repositioning, which replaced the ordinary method of concrete stands and pallets. Cheaper methods of grains moisture control, cleaning and safe emptying of the silo were also provided. Metal silo can be fabricated as cylindrical, square or rectangular prism in shape, also in different sizes of 50 to 3,000 kg holding capacity of grain such as rice, maize, wheat, guinea-corn, millet and beans.
Hermetic or airtight storage of grain to suppress development of destructive populations of storage insect pests is an ancient technology that is finding modern applications in developing nations. Unprotected cowpea grain can be destroyed by unchecked growth of the bruchid, Callosobruchus maculatus (Walp). If the grain is kept in triple-layer hermetic plastic bags, losses are averted. The history, development and mode of action of triple-layer bagging for cowpea storage is reviewed here, as are lessons learned while bringing the technology to low-resource farmers in the developing nations of West and Central Africa. The success of the technology owes in part to the engagement of low resource farmers at virtually all stages of development, testing and extension of the technology.
Aflatoxin B1 is a potent hepatacarcinogen that occurs in corn worldwide. The aflatoxin‐producing fungus Aspergillus flavus can grow and produce aflatoxin on corn preharvest and in storage. Within the U.S., aflatoxin contamination of preharvest corn has been reported in 23 states, and contamination is chronic in the southeastern U.S. where hot, drought conditions often favor the fungus and the production of aflatoxin. Management practices have been developed to reduce aflatoxin contamination, but in years when environmental conditions are extremely favorable for the fungus, no control strategy is effective. Resistance to aflatoxin accumulation appears to be heritable, but no commercial hybrids are available with adequate resistance. This review covers the epidemiology of A. flavus in preharvest corn from the infection process to the factors that influence aflatoxin formation. Also discussed are the problems associated with the development of resistant varieties and new strategies that are being developed for control of aflatoxin contamination.
Grain of maize, infested as well as uninfested with Prostephanus truncatus Horn, was stored for 15 days at 27°C under hermetic and non-hermetic conditions. Grain moisture content (m.c.) was adjusted to 14, 15, 16 and 17%. Under hermetic conditions at 3 days storage, oxygen levels were 0.8, 0. 6, 0.4 and 0.0% in grain with 14, 15, 16 and 17% m.c., respectively. However, at 6, 9, 12 and 15 days, the oxygen level dropped to 0% in all tested m.c. Insect mortality at 3 days storage under hermetic storage conditions ranged from 5 to 30%. At 6 days, insect mortality was 100% in maize with 14, 15 and 17% m.c. and 95% in grain with 16% m.c.; however, at 9 days of this m.c., mortality was 100%. In open storage, during the whole storage period and under all m.c. tested, P. truncatus manifested 0% mortality. The predominant fungus was Aspergillus ruber. The presence of this fungus was directly related to the m.c. and length of storage. Under hermetic conditions, in all m. c, the percentage of grain invaded by A. ruber ranged from 1 to 3%. In the open system, grain with 14 and 15% m.c. manifested low (1%) and moderate (13%) fungal invasion, respectively. However, at 16 and 17% m.c., the grain became strongly infested at 9, 12 and 15 days (61–97% infection). The reduction in grain germination was similar in both storage systems for all grain m.c., except for 17% at 12 and 15 days, since under hermetic conditions grain germination rates were higher than in the open system. Hermetic storage is an effective low cost-effective system for grain produced in the rural areas of developing countries.
An overview of information on damage caused by the larger grain borer is provided, including details of early studies examining commodities that might be attacked and the importance of LGB field infestations in relation to storage losses. In addition, examples are given from published information on the weight losses that can result from LGB infestation in maize and cassava, with case studies. Problems in applying conventional methods of loss assessment to commodities attacked by LGB are highlighted, to suggest the need to develop alternative techniques. Experiences in developing and applying novel approaches to loss assessment for LGB are reported. Examples are also given to show how loss and damage estimates have been used to describe the impact of the pest on farmers, and on local, regional and international grain trading.
Abstract The International Institute of Agriculture (IITA) is among,the major,suppliers,of genetic materials,to national agricultural,research,and,extension,systems,in West and,Central Africa for the development,of improved,maize,varieties. This paper presents the results of a survey of the impact of germplasm,from IITA on maize production and food security in 11 countries, which together contain over 90% of the area cultivated to maize in West and Central Africa. Between 1965 and 1998, the public ,sectors of these ,countries ,released ,a total ,of 186 varieties while ,the private sectors released 86 varieties. In the 1990s, IITA was the major source of
From 2007 through 2011 experiments were conducted and observations made in the West African country of Niger to address questions or concerns raised by farmers and extension workers about the Purdue Improved Cowpea Storage (PICS) triple bagging technology being widely disseminated in the country. When 518 triple bags stored by farmers in different villages across southern Niger were studied, the airspaces within the bags typically contained reduced levels of O2 while CO2 was increased. Bagged stored cowpea grain was much less damaged and had higher market value compared to grain for sale in the local markets. Two HDPE plastic liners rendered the system substantially airtight and improved preservation of the grain compared to a single HDPE liner. The concentrations of O2 and CO2 were similar along the length of the triple bag, in top, bottom and middle sections. Cowpea grain stored for 18 months in PICS bags retained high rates of germination. Briefly opening bags that had been closed for long periods did not affect the preservation of the grain. Treating the contents of the triple bag with phostoxin did not enhance preservation. Leaving the triple bag containing infested cowpea open for several days prior to closure increased the risk of blemishes or holes in the HDPE liners caused by cowpea bruchid, Callosobruchus maculatus (F.) adults.
During the two years research 1983–1985 on traditional maize granaries in Togo, we studied three methods for loss assessment which are discussed by the FAO: the count and weigh method, the standard volume/weight method and the thousand-grain mass method.In general, between 80 and 90% of the overall losses were caused by insect feedings. Besides Prostephanus truncatus (Horn), the most important storage pests were Sitophilus zeamais (Motsch.), Tribolium spp. and Cathartus quadricollis (Guèr.). Best results were given by the count and weigh method. The significantly highest losses of dry weight (12–13%) were found after 6 months in stored hybrids. At the same time, local varieties appeared much more adapted to traditional storage methods, exhibiting losses of only 3% under the same conditions. Lowest level of losses (<1%) were observed in regularly smoked granaries in the mountain regions. The mean losses of dry weight during primary season were found to be 6.4% after 6 months, while after a storage period of 4 months during the secondary season, losses were as high as 8%. In Togo, P. truncatus was observed for the first time in spring 1984. Because of the different damage P. truncatus causes on corn, a newly developed sample weight method was examined in an additional test. After 6 months of observation, this dangerous pest caused serious losses up to 30.2%.
Temperature, relative humidity (r.h.), food density, and maize (corn) cultivar (CV) influenced oviposition, development and intrinsic rate of increase of Prostephanus truncatus (Horn). The lower and upper limits for complete development were 25 and 32°C at 40% r.h.; 18 and 37°C, at 70% r.h.; and 20 and 32°C at 90% r.h. The shortest developmental periods were 25.4 ± 0.2 days in ground maize, CV Golden Beauty, at 32°C, 70% r.h., and 24.1 ± 0.2 days in whole kernel maize, CV Pride 1108, at 32°C, 80% r.h. Ground maize at a density of 750 mg/cc promoted rapid development of larvae accompanied by lower mortality and fewer malformed adults than ground maize at a density of 450 mg/cc. P. truncatus laid 430 eggs per female in blocks of maize consisting of 6-cemented kernels during 22 weeks compared with 205 eggs per female in ground maize during 15 weeks, and 36 eggs in loose maize kernels during 4 weeks. Viable eggs were laid at 18°C, 70% r.h., and 32°C, 70–80% r.h. The rate of self-multiplication and the intrinsic rate of increase per week, were: 1.94–2.24 and 0.665–0.806, respectively, at 30–32°C, 70–80% r.h. The highest rate was on field maize, CV Pioneer 3993, at 30°C, 70% r.h. The wide range of temperatures and relative humidities at which P. truncatus can develop in maize favor its establishment in tropical and subtropical regions where maize is grown and stored.
Maize grain of hybrid AN 447 was: (a) infested with Sitophilus zeamais and infected with Aspergillus chevalieri; (b) infested with S. zeamais; (c) infected with A. chevalieri; and (d) grain free of insects and fungus (control); the treatments were stored for 30 days at 26°C and 15% moisture content, under hermetic and non-hermetic conditions to monitor the oxygen concentration, insect mortality, insect offspring, grain germination, and fungal growth. The oxygen was depleted to 0% after 6–9 days in those treatments infested with insects, whereas the same oxygen level was reached after 24 days in grain with the storage fungus alone. The oxygen level gradually decreased to 8.4% after 30 days in the control treatment. All insects were dead after 6 days in grain with insects and fungus, and after 12 days in grain with insects alone. A low mortality rate (1.5–3.5%) occurred in equivalent treatments of the non-hermetic conditions. Because oxygen was depleted to 0% after 6 to 9 days in those treatments infested with insects, the weevils of both infested treatments under hermetic conditions produced a significantly lower number of offspring compared with those in the non-hermetic conditions. Under hermetic conditions in grain treated or not treated with fungicide, the storage fungus A. chevalieri invaded a low percentage of grains. A low percentage of fungal invasion occurred in grain stored under non-hermetic conditions also, where the decreased moisture content did not favor fungal growth. The grain germination of those treatments stored under hermetic conditions was significantly lower than those treatments stored under non-hermetic conditions. The insects were the main oxygen consumers, followed by the fungus and finally by the grain. Under sealed storage conditions, insects and fungus combined forces to deplete the oxygen of hermetically stored maize, creating an unfavorable atmosphere for their own survival.
When cowpea grain is stored in airtight containers, destructive populations of the cowpea bruchid (Callosobruchus maculatus) don't develop even though the grain put into the store is already infested with sufficient C. maculatus to destroy the entire store within a few months. The surprising effectiveness of hermetic storage for preserving grain against insect pests has long been linked with the depletion of oxygen in the hermetic container and with the parallel rise in carbon dioxide. With C. maculatus, low oxygen (hypoxia) leads to cessation of larval feeding activity, whereas elevated levels of carbon dioxide (hypercarbia) have little or no effect on feeding. Cessation of feeding arrests the growth of the insects, which don't mature and don't reproduce. As a result, population growth ceases and damaging infestations don't develop. C. maculatus eggs, larvae, and pupae subjected to hypoxia eventually die after exposures of various duration. The cause of death is desiccation resulting from an inadequate supply of water. We demonstrate that blocking the supply of oxygen interdicts the main supply of water for C maculatus. This leads to inactivity, cessation of population growth, desiccation and eventual death.
Life history of immature maize weevils, Sitophilus zeamais Motschulsky. was studied at 10-40 degress C and 43-76% RH. The optimal quantity of corn for minimizing density effects and the optimal observation frequency for minimizing disturbance effects were determined at 30 degrees C and 75% RH. The quantity of corn (32-256 g) provided to five females ovipositing for 24 h did not affect duration of development, but the number of progeny produced increased asymptotically as the quantity of corn provided increased. Frequency of observation (from 1- to 14-d intervals) did not affect duration of development or number of progeny produced. Using moisture contents measured in the life history study, an equation was developed for predicting equilibrium moisture content of corn from temperature and relative humidity. Duration of immature development did not vary with sex, but did vary with test. This suggests that insect strain or chemical composition of the corn must be included as factors in a model predicting effects of environment on duration of immature development. Survival from egg to adult emergence was greatest at 95 degrees C. Sex ratio of emerging adults did not differ from 1:1. The number of multiply-infested kernels was low at all environmental conditions, and survival from egg to adult emergence in these kernels averaged 18%. Maximum daily rate of fecundity, duration of development, and number of progeny produced were optimal at 30 degrees C and 75% RH. An index of environmental suitability indicated that 30 degrees C and 75% RH was the optimal environment for growth of maize weevil populations on corn. Implications of the results for managing maize weevil populations are discussed.
Mycotoxins are considered unavoidable contaminants in foods and feeds because agronomic technology has not yet advanced to the stage at which preharvest infection of susceptible crops by fungi can be eliminated. The aflatoxins have received greater attention than any of the other mycotoxins because of their demonstrated carcinogenic effects in susceptible animals and their acute toxic effects in humans. Since 1965, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has enforced regulatory limits on the concentrations of these toxins in foods and feeds involved in interstate commerce. The FDA routinely monitors the food and feed industries through compliance programs to ensure that the levels of exposure to these toxins are kept as low as practical. This report summarizes data generated from compliance programs on aflatoxins for the fiscal years 1989, 1990, and the first half of 1991. Commodities sampled included peanuts and peanut products, tree nuts, corn and corn products, cottonseed, and milk. Higher than usual levels of contamination were found in corn examined from all areas of the United States in 1989 as a result of the severe drought that affected the 1988 corn crop. The drought in parts of the South and Southeast in 1990 resulted in increased contamination in corn and peanuts from those areas. A review of the surveillance data obtained on deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, ochratoxin A, sterigmatocystin, penicillic acid, and patulin over the years along with available toxicological data for these mycotoxins indicated that no regulatory actions were warranted. The lack of sufficient surveillance data on other mycotoxins that occur in the United States can be attributed in part to the unavailability of reliable analytical methodology.
The combined effects of water activity (aw), storage temperature, headspace oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations on the growth of, and aflatoxin production by Aspergillus flavus on sterile peanuts were examined using a process optimization technique termed response surface methodology (RSM). Regression analysis of the data indicated that aw, storage temperature and initial headspace oxygen concentration were all significant factors (P < 0.001) affecting the growth of, and aflatoxin production by A. flavus. Extensive growth and aflatoxin production occurred during the first week of storage in most treatment combinations. Maximum growth occurred in peanuts with an aw of 0.97, a storage temperature of 25 degrees C and headspace oxygen of 10% (balance 60:40 carbon dioxide:nitrogen), after 21 days of storage while maximum aflatoxin production occurred at a lower aw of 0.94, after 21 days under similar storage/gaseous conditions. In several treatment combinations, where high levels of aflatoxin (> 20 ng/g) were initially detected, aflatoxin concentration decreased during storage to levels less than the current regulatory limit of 20 ng/g. This study has shown that A. flavus can grow and produce aflatoxin in carbon dioxide enriched atmospheres in the presence of oxygen. It also emphasizes the combined effect of several 'barriers' to inhibit and reduce aflatoxin in MAP products containing various levels of residual oxygen.
Environmental factors influencing development and rate of increase of Prostephanus truncatus on stored maize Sub-regional. Assessment of the Maize Value Chain in West Africa
- R J Bell
- F I L Watters
- e
- P Boone
- J D C Stathacos
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