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Exclusion and inclusion of women in Norwegian agriculture: Exploring different outcomes of the ‘tractor gene’
Abstract
Forty years after the Norwegian Allodial Law was amended to give firstborn girls and boys equal rights to succeed their parents as farmers, only 14 percent of Norwegian farmers are women. Gender relations on farms are still shaped by adherence to patriarchal inheritance practices and the masculine designation of the occupation ‘farmer’. This article draws on in-depth interviews to explore how Norwegian farmers' assumptions of gendered competence and the notion of a ‘good farmer’ can have different outcomes. Many farmers—both male and female—ascribe an innate interest in machinery, a metaphorical ‘tractor gene’, to boys and see girls as better at caring for animals. This set of gendered notions has complex consequences. It can be used as a rationale to exclude daughters from agriculture, as has often been observed. At the same time, farmers who hold these ideas apply and reinterpret them in ways that allow the inclusion of women. In order to question hegemonic gender power that is based on a devaluation of qualities that are constructed as feminine and the belief that specific abilities are innate, they must see competence as something that can be learned and/or value competencies regarded as feminine as useful for agriculture.
... Central to much gender scholarship in farming and forestry contexts was the continued relevance of the farm family as a way of organising agricultural lives and production practices. With changes to gender studies more generally, and to rural studies in particular, scholars began to explore the family farm through more specific themes, such as embodiment (Brandth 2006a;2006b), the gendering of machinery, skills, and competences, and the gendering of succession patterns (Heggem 2014b). Other themes related to family farming were the meaning and implications of divorce , as well as farming men's changing domestic roles and fathering practices (e.g. ...
... Heggem found that parents' beliefs relating to 'innate gender differences' were associated with children's abilities to become farmers. In particular, girls were thought to be competent in handling animals, whilst boys were thought to be competent with machinery and born with a 'tractor gene' (Heggem 2014b). Heggem identified different discourses on how such beliefs translated into whether or not boys or girls were considered appropriate farm successors. ...
... Second, 'they diverge in how they evaluate caring for animals in relation to tractor work', and third, they divide on the question of whether a successor should exhibit the competencies perceived to be required by the main farm operation […] or [whether] the type of production should be adjusted towards the farmer's preferences so that feminine competencies could be utilised. (Heggem 2014b, 269) Whilst the farmers she spoke to held similar views on the innate abilities of men and women, they differed in how they assigned significance to those masculine and feminine competencies for becoming a farmer (Heggem 2014b). Heggem (2014b, 270) suggested the implications of those findings was that 'Daughters are excluded because of their natural lack of mechanical competence, but they may be included by giving them the opportunity to learn how to operate machinery and by valuing the supposedly feminine task of caring for animals.' ...
Much feminist rural geography to date has centred on understanding gender issues in rural space. Norwegian scholars have been leading the way in identifying new themes and approaches to examining the positions of women and men on farms and in farming communities, which has contributed to important contextual knowledge of gender relations on Norwegian farms, as well as conceptual understandings of farming lives more broadly. The article has the same objective. The authors review the extensive body of literature and identify themes, trajectories, approaches, and concepts used since the 1990s. They find that there were three main periods: 1990s to 1997, with early work that sought to describe gender roles; 1994–2005, when constructivist approaches were used; and the mid-2000s onwards, when researchers ‘branched out’ to study more specific themes. To encourage a widening of feminist perspectives in Norwegian farming and forestry, the authors suggest taking up (1) an intersectional approach in attending to gender, sexuality, class, ethnicity, and ability, (2) a decolonial approach, and (3) a focus on the ‘green transition’. They conclude that, together, these could help to address pressing issues relating to equity, sustainability, and the future of agriculture and forestry in Norwegian contexts.
... Internationally, the number of daughters identified as successors is low (Lobley et al., 2010;Sippel, 2016). Forty years after Norway amended its Allodial Law to give first born girls and boys equal rights to farm succession, only 14 per cent of Norwegian farmers are women (Heggem, 2014). The first order themes to emerge from these studies included sons being given preferential treatment (Cassidy and McGrath, 2014), while daughters were dismissed as irrelevant and a woman's access to farming was through her husband (Annes and Wright, 2015). ...
... Women are constructed as deficient and as other in relation to the universal male, and this manifested in different ways across the studies. Heggem (2014) captured it neatly in her framing of this line of argument as women being seen as missing the 'tractor gene'. Glover (2014) similarly found women in the UK were seen as too weak to dominate animals and machinery and as likely to be hurt when engaging in farm work. ...
... Whether the legal systems in the different countries facilitated or constrained the potential to keep the farm intact varies. In those countries where changes to inheritance laws have sought to break down the privileging of the male successor, the tension between equal inheritances as required by law and concern for farm viability are evident (Heggem, 2014;Ramos, 2005). Further, the emergence in Ireland of formal, legal arrangements of joint farming ventures (JVF), without necessarily co-owning the land, has enabled succession and increased opportunities for farm women to have decision making roles on farms (Cush et al., 2018). ...
This article explores gender and intergenerational farm succession, with a particular focus on the Australian context. We conducted a systematic literature review (SLR) of extant research in gender and farm succession patterns internationally, coupled with a systematic sampling of legal databases to see how farm succession has been addressed in the Australian legal system. From the SLR, we established that internationally there are changing roles on farms; proactively addressing succession is recognized as contributing to the ongoing viability of the family farm; gender norms continue to privilege sons and dismiss daughters; and the commitment to maintaining the family farm intact is a priority. From the legal databases we found limited attention has been paid to gender and farm succession in the Australian context. Challenges to legal arrangements for farm succession are usually made on the grounds of unfair distribution of assets between siblings (adequacy of provision) rather than a claim to farm inheritance, and these cases rarely rest on accusations of gender discrimination. We argue that succession disputes are either largely resolved through mediation, or never attempted, as the family farm remaining intact trumps gender in succession planning. Through drawing the SLR and legal cases together, we provide insights for the farm advisory community to better inform future intergenerational farm transfer.
... However, in the last few decades, the young people migration from rural to urban areas, the aging of rural population, and the lack of farm successors have been a trend in different countries, including Brazil, which has a negative impact on the continuity of family farming (Bednaríková et al., 2016;Bertoni and Cavicchioli, 2016a;Cavicchioli et al., 2018;Foguesatto et al., 2016;Morais et al., 2018;Zou et al., 2018). The pattern of migration is unbalanced in terms of gender: women are more likely to leave rural areas than men (Heggem, 2014;Johansson, 2016;Leibert, 2016;Price, 2012), which, in turn, have negative consequences for rural development. Such consequences include: female skills shortages, the perforation of social networks, and social erosion (Fischer and Weber, 2014;Wiest et al., 2013). ...
... In our study, we are particularly interested in the elements influencing women to migrate from rural areas. On this topic, previous studies have found that such elements include labor market structures in rural areas favoring men and poor educational facilities in rural areas (Johansson, 2016), cultural aspects that relies on a discourse that farming is a men job (Heggem, 2014), and women's growing independence (Kaberis and Koutsouris, 2012). In addition, a patriarchal succession pattern contributes to the invisibility of the role of rural women in farming and succession (Alston, 2004;Luhrs, 2016). ...
... Other research also supported the idea that autonomy in decision making is important for the inclusion of successors in rural areas (Góngora et al., 2019). However, a patriarchal succession pattern predominates in most western countries (Heggem, 2014;Grubbstrom and Soovali-Spepping, 2012;Saugeres, 2002;Silvasti, 2003;Price, 2012), including Brazil (Lima et al., 2013), which indicates that family members are more likely to support and accept male heirs in farm succession. In addition, it is unlikely that rural women will have autonomy in decision making if a patriarchal succession pattern remains. ...
In the world, the majority of farms are family-based. However, migration of young people from rural to urban areas, and a lack of farm successors negatively impact on the continuity of family farming. The pattern of migration is unbalanced in terms of gender: women are more likely to leave rural areas than men, which has negative consequences for rural development. The objective of this study was to identify rural women’s viewpoint about the elements that would facilitate them to eventually take over the family farm. Q-methodology was used to identify rural women’s viewpoints. Data were collected individually from 28 women, face-to-face with each woman, using a transportable board game to enable friendlier dynamics. Our findings showed five women’s viewpoints: rural attractiveness, family support, recognition, working and living conditions, and financial autonomy. The identification of these different viewpoints could provide insights that can be used to design public and private interventions aimed to favor female heirs to take over the family farm.
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... In seeking to contribute to this literature, this article has drawn inspiration from research on assumptions about the kinds of competence that are required in farming. Legitimizing male dominance, farmers tend to ascribe different abilities and interests to women and men (Heggem, 2014). Drawing on Solheim's (2002) claim that competence connected to particular persons is one of the most important elements in the construction of gender hierarchies, Heggem (2014) demonstrates how this plays out in farmers' construction of gender and may work to exclude women from the industry. ...
... Legitimizing male dominance, farmers tend to ascribe different abilities and interests to women and men (Heggem, 2014). Drawing on Solheim's (2002) claim that competence connected to particular persons is one of the most important elements in the construction of gender hierarchies, Heggem (2014) demonstrates how this plays out in farmers' construction of gender and may work to exclude women from the industry. Solheim's (2002, p. 116) term 'hegemonic gender power' describes the hierarchical ranking of competence, skills and knowledge attributed to women and men. ...
... Solheim's (2002, p. 116) term 'hegemonic gender power' describes the hierarchical ranking of competence, skills and knowledge attributed to women and men. The dominant competence in agriculture is understood as masculine (Heggem, 2014). The agricultural business sector objected to gender quotas for corporate boards because its male leaders anticipated difficulties in recruiting sufficiently qualified women. ...
This article explores the processes by which gender is given meaning through social interaction in boardrooms. In Norway, alongside mandatory quotas regulating the composition of Public Limited Company boards, voluntary quotas were designed to increase women's membership on the boards of agricultural co-operatives. This radical step to secure a minimum of 40 per cent women makes these boards an interesting site for investigating the construction of gender in a traditionally male-dominated organization. In the debate, arguments in favour of a quota accentuated diversity and differences between women's and men's competences, opinions and values. The analysis of interview data from the boards of four agricultural co-operatives suggests that equal representation is a muted, taken-for-granted value. Equality and diversity are not understood as incompatible ideas, and gender is produced dynamically through practice rather than constituted as an inherent, fixed attribute. Gender as difference is less pervasive than expected as women tend to be recognized as belonging to the gender-neutral category of a board representative despite any recognized differences. The study demonstrates that voluntary quotas may change the context and both challenge old assumptions and promote new understandings of gender in local situations.
... In Spain, as in most other countries, fishing is heavily masculinized; however, there are a higher number of women working in the sector (European Commission 2002, 2018. Galicia, in the North West of the Iberian Peninsula, is the Spanish region with the highest concentration of female employment in the fishing sector, at approximately 67% of Spain's total (European Commission 2019a, b). ...
... As has been said, the process of masculinization of shellfishing on foot is a relatively recent phenomenon, which has not been previously addressed in literature. The literature on the masculinization of feminized jobs has focused on professionalized fields, such as agriculture or nursing (Heggem 2014;Rochlen et al. 2009). In the case of shellfishing on foot, the process has been quite different since masculinization has occurred after professionalization. ...
Fishing resources, as well as fishing activities and policies, are in a state of permanent change, therefore transforming the living and working conditions of coastal and fishing populations. The gender perspective is relevant to understand the challenges faced by men and women in the fishing sector. Galicia (Spain) is one of the main fishing regions in the EU and with the largest number of women working in the fishing sector, especially in shellfishing on foot. Shellfishing on foot, an artisanal and traditional activity for the cultivation and extraction of mainly bivalve molluscs, represents 7% of gross value added (GVA) and 17% of the employment of the Galician fishing sector as a whole. Since the 1960s, a process of regulation and modernization of shellfishing on foot—more than 95% of which is carried out by women—has led to a sharp decrease in the number of shellfish gatherers. The regulatory processes and the professionalization of the sector have resulted in a strong decline in female employment, but, at the same time, women feel empowered and regard their jobs as dignified work. Our objective—through the analysis of the local permits granted to carry out this activity—focuses on the study of the consolidation of this process and has tried to highlight the ways in which patriarchy perpetuates the hegemonic position of men evidenced, for example, by a progressive masculinization of this activity with increasing economic profitability and social prestige.
... Traditional views about gender disadvantage women when farmers consider successors. For example, men are viewed as innately suited to handling machinery, a biological difference ascribed to the "tractor gene," whereas women are viewed as suited to handling animal care (Heggem, 2014;Grubbström et al., 2014). Brazil has traditional views, and women are less likely to be chosen as successors to the farm. ...
... Carneiro (2001) notes that women's role in agriculture is viewed more as a matrimonial status than as a profession. In Brazil, as in other settings, cultural norms declare that farming is a man's job, and belief in the "tractor gene" is widespread (Heggem, 2014). Because of these attitudes, Brazilian parents in agriculture encourage daughters to study and to prepare for non-agricultural work (Brumer, 2008;Carneiro, 2001;Kischener et al., 2015). ...
Smallholder agriculture plays a key role to promote food security in Brazil. Population ageing together with fertility decline and expanded educational opportunities for youth present challenges for the continuation of family agriculture across generations, and those challenges are especially difficult for smallholder farmers. This paper examines farm succession decisions in Western Paraná, Brazil using survey data collected through face-to-face interviews with 205 soybean farmers chosen randomly to be representative of the region's soybean farmers. Approximately 64% of the soybean farmers reported planning to pass on their farm business to the next generation. Traditional gender norms hinder succession plans. The empirical analysis using linear probability models shows that the probability of succession decreases by 37 ppts if the households do not have any male children. Farms with more than 72 ha are more likely to have a family successor than smaller farms. Farmers with college education are less likely to pass on their farms to their children than farmers with less education. Participation in federal government programs that provide subsidized credit such as Pronaf, which is aimed at smallholders, is associated with a higher probability of succession to a son or daughter. Government programs that provide subsidized credit and encourage families to make succession plans might increase succession rates. In an environment of decreasing fertility, adhering to traditional gender roles limits the probability that a farm will be continued successfully across generations.
... Women identify with the farm first and see other threats as more overriding than their own oppression as women.' (Brandth, 2002, 184) Although Brandth (2002) refers to studies on 'detraditionalisation' (such as by Bryant, 1999), there is not much evidence that traditional gender roles has been changed in the last decades (Franić and Kovačićek, 2019). Even after formal inheritance laws have changed, gender roles in family farming stayed traditional, such as in Norway, where 40 years after introduction of a law allowing equal access of first daughters and sons to inheritance of the family farm, only 14% of the farmers are women (Heggem, 2014). The EUROSTAT figures on land holdings in Europe also suggest that only 14% (13.7%) of the EU's farmland was held by women in 2016. ...
... Many authors describe that there is a difference between the law on paper and the way how land is transferred between generations in practice. The already mentioned practice of tendency of male succession of the farm is just one of the examples (Heggem, 2014). The current institutions on the land market provide, in practice, unequal access to land for females compared to males. ...
RURALIZATION deliverable D6.3 ‘Technical Report on Quantitative Analysis of Land Holdings and Land Market Trends, short hand out with main results’ Part A provides an overview of relevant developments in land holdings and of land market trends that are relevant for access to land for new generations in rural areas. This fits to the broader aims of RURALIZATION (a project funded by the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement 817642). RURALIZATION is concerned with understanding how to facilitate rural regeneration and generational renewal. In this context, its key focus areas are: rural foresight and trend analysis; the future dreams of rural youth; facilitating rural newcomers; farm succession; new entrants into farming; and access to land.
... Akin to the observation by Croppenstedt et al. (2013), this masculinization of particular farm implements could in part be reinforced by the age-old traditional norm that women should not meddle with the farm tools of men since that is perceived to result in poor harvest. Emphasizing how technology and masculinity are mutually constructed in the agricultural trajectory, Brandth (1995) and Heggem (2014) also demonstrate male centeredness in the uptake of modern agricultural technologies underscoring how tractors represent several qualities important to the masculinity of rural men. In what they term 'conceptual lock in', Farnworth and Colverson (2015) describe how policy makers continually frame farmers in SSA as men and characterize their target groups based on male-dominant structures such as 'household headship'. ...
... Several studies have shown the effectiveness of such gender-transformative approaches in generating beneficial social synergies and addressing longstanding gender inequalities in smallholder farming contexts (Bezner Kerr, Hickey, Lupafya, & Dakishoni, 2019;Kansanga, Luginaah, Bezner Kerr, Lupafya, & Dakishoni, 2019). Given the potential for men to crowd out women in agriculture if female farm roles become mechanized in contexts where the operation of agricultural machinery is framed as the domain of men (see Brandth, 2006;Heggem, 2014;Saugeres, 2002), these local level gender transformative approaches must also prioritize equipping women with technical knowledge to operate agricultural machinery. Community-level efforts must also be complemented with national policies that liberalize the credit market in order to enhance women's access to credit facilities. ...
Although agricultural mechanization is central to the renewed agenda for achieving an African Green Revolution, the increased deployment of mechanized technologies has been without critical analysis of the impacts on traditional agrarian labor division practices. Drawing on the experiences of smallholder farmers (n = 60) in northern Ghana using in-depth interviews, we examined the gendered labor implications of agricultural mechanization and how women and men may be responding to evolving on-farm labor dynamics. Our findings reveal a skewed deployment of mechanized technologies in favor of the culturally ascribed on-farm roles of men. This situation has produced a disproportionate labor burden on rural women who are compelled to endure manually in their non-mechanized culturally ascribed roles of sowing and harvesting even as farms are expanding. Although, generally, rural women bear the brunt of these incipient labor demands, certain intersecting vulnerabilities such as belonging to a monogamous household and having fewer or no female children tend to worsen the plight of some women. While gendered labor substitution could balance the disproportionate workload on women, the prevalence of strict culturally constructed gendered labor norms forestalls this potential. Given the painful routine choices rural women make to balance household labor demands, we highlight the need for gender-sensitive mechanization models and policy approaches that address prevailing social inequalities.
... The analysis of labor outpouring is an analysis of the supply of labor, which in principle, discusses the decisions of household members in choosing their working hours or the total working time of the workforce [16]. The large proportion of individuals in the workforce who work is not always followed by a large proportion of working time [17]. The amount of work time depends on the type of work being done [18,19]. ...
The study aimed to determine the characteristics of farmers and to calculate the allocation of family work time in the management of an integrated Bali cattle business in oil palm plantations to be carried out in October-December 2022 in Wiwirano District, North Konawe Regency, Southeast Sulawesi. The research location was determined intentionally, and the respondents were determined by accidental sampling by taking 15 respondents in each village so that 60 respondents were obtained. The results of the survey and identification show that the characteristics of farmer-breeders in Wiwirano District, North Konawe Regency, are generally dominated by productive age (83%), a low education level (50%), main job as a farmer (98%), experience in farming livestock (57%), experience in oil palm plantations >20 years (73%), and the number of family dependents is 4-6 people (68%). The average time spent on family labor in the Bali cattle business is 3.65 HOK (11%), while the average time spent on family labor in the oil palm plantation business is 30.6 HOK (89%).
... Como consequência, tem-se a população rural cada vez mais envelhecida em muitos países e um grande número destes profissionais parece não ter sucessor (EC, 2012). Esta tendência parece ser mais forte para as mulheres jovens (LEIBERT, 2016;JOHANSSON, 2016), pela persistência da cultura patriarcal nestas atividades (PRICE, 2012;HEGGEM, 2014). Apesar do conhecimento gerado sobre gênero no setor, pouca atenção tem sido dada especificamente à sucessão feminina (CASSIDY, 2018). ...
A renovação geracional é uma questão relevante no contexto do futuro da agricultura familiar e pesca artesanal, pois está relacionada com a migração rural e juvenil, e o envelhecimento da população rural. Compreender os fatores por trás da disposição de sucessores em potencial de assumir o controle da entidade familiar é crucial para a continuidade das atividades agropecuárias. Nesse contexto, o estudo tem por objetivo identificar os diversos pontos de vista das filhas de agricultores e pescadores, sobre a possibilidade de assumir o controle das atividades rurais realizadas por seus pais nos municípios de Bragança, Viseu e Augusto Corrêa, no estado do Pará. Os dados foram coletados por meio de uma dinâmica presencial, similar a um jogo de tabuleiro, elaborado a partir de diretrizes da Q-Methodology e de entrevista semiestruturada com 60 filhas destes profissionais, sendo 20 em cada município, sobre os fatores que afetam a possibilidade das mulheres de continuarem os negócios da família. Sete principais pontos de vista foram identificados: condições de trabalho, condições de vida, atratividade de socialização, apoio familiar, organizações associativas, amparo institucional e atratividade do meio rural; e autonomia financeira. Os resultados sugerem que existem diferentes pontos de vista que precisam ser considerados ao se avaliar a probabilidade de sucessão nas comunidades rurais. Esses diferentes pontos de vista devem ser empregados por formuladores de políticas para ajustar os princípios atuais e desenvolver programas para encorajar essas mulheres a assumirem o controle das atividades, buscando sua permanência nas zonas rurais.
... Don't stress them" (272). That farmers perceived women as having special competence when it came to caring for animals was also reported by Heggem (2014) who interviewed 17 male and ten female Norwegian farm owners and noted that women were more likely to state that they were drawn to farming because of the animals and men acknowledged that they were better milkers. ...
Concerns regarding the welfare of farm animals continue to grow. Traditionally, research efforts have largely focused on refining existing management practices to improve welfare. However, the incorporation of views from those directly involved in animal care is equally, if not more, important. This study investigated the perspectives of Canadian dairy farmers on animal welfare. We conducted 16 interviews with a total of 22 participants from four provinces across Canada. Recorded audio files and field notes were transcribed, anonymised, and coded using deductive and inductive thematic analysis. The interview data revealed two major themes: (1) animal dimension of animal welfare, including views related to biological functioning, naturalness and affective states; and (2) dairy farmer identity, including, the voice of the ‘city’, what it means to be a good ‘cow-man’, and the nature of human-animal relationships. Dairy farmers emphasised biological functioning, but they made numerous references to the emotional and natural living aspects of their animals’ lives. Our work also provides evidence that farmers believed it was their duty to care for their animals beyond simply milking cows and making a profit. In terms of the larger debate, this study identified potential shared values with members of the public: opportunities for natural living and agency, attentiveness to individual animals, and the value of life over death. Finally, the emotional relationship that farmers developed with their animals highlights the values dairy farmers have for their animals beyond simply utilitarian function. Overall, these shared values could contribute to constructive dialogue.
... Women's participation is increasing, but the slow growth rate and low starting point imply that the gender imbalance persists. History shows that the more mechanised the sector, the more it becomes associated with masculinity (Heggem 2014). This exemplifies one of the challenges which needs to be acknowledged and addressed to ensure an inclusive development of the Nordic bioeconomy. ...
With digitalisation, the male-dominated bioeconomy sector becomes intertwined with the male-dominated tech sector. We focus on the effects on gender equality within the bioeconomy sector when these two gender unequal sectors are merged. We review the existing literature by studying three concepts – bioeconomy, digitalisation and gender – as a way to highlight the current state of knowledge on gender in the Nordic digitalised bioeconomy. Through this investigation we provide directions for future research and suggest actions to be taken. The contemporary literature discusses two major areas of focus: the impact of history on today’s situation and gender inequality as a women’s issue. We propose four areas of future research focus: moving beyond a historical perspective, understanding the effectiveness of women-only activities, focusing on men’s role in gender equality work, and developing sustainability. We identify four points of action for practitioners in the literature: female role models, mentorship programmes, networks for young professionals and students and incorporating gender into bioeconomy-related education. However, together with the proposed future research, we suggest two considerations when practitioners in the Nordic digitalised bioeconomy take action: being mindful of the purpose and structure of women-only activities and including men when working with gender issues.
... The dominance of intra-family successions is a global phenomenon, and it is likely that other global farm succession patterns involve the farm successors being first-born children [36][37][38], and more often than not, they are male [39][40][41]. Heggem [42] explains the latter phenomenon in relation to the perception by parents of the "tractor gene" of their male descendants. ...
It is common sense that it needs social and economic perspectives to understand structural changes in agriculture. The current study asserts that, likewise, the integration of the farm level (micro), the sectoral level (meso), and the societal level (macro) are needed to gain insight into the system of agricultural structures. Following a review of the literature, these three levels were integrated in a cycle in which the interdependencies between different units of analysis were evaluated. The study concludes that it enhances the understanding of structural change on each level if the other levels are also taken into account. It therefore contributes not only to the literature on agriculture, but also to the discussion about the rationale of an analytical meso-level between the analysis on micro- and macro-levels.
... For example, in Australia, where there is a strong focus on professionalizing agriculture, the sector is characterized by a marked marginalization of not just women but anything relatively feminine in agricultural occupations, science and positions of authority (Lockie, 2000;Pini, 2005). A similar ruralised masculinity is evident in the US and Europe, where-mediated by occupation, class, sexuality, race and place, among other factors (Leap, 2017)there has long been pride and confidence in a certain assertive mode of maleness (Heggem, 2014;Gahman, 2015;Katherine, 2018). Given the international agricultural research and extension landscape remains strongly shaped by Anglo male scientists and the "big men" of philanthro-capitalism (Berman, 1983;Ekbladh, 2011;Antle et al., 2017), it is important to consider whether and how the exportation of Western agricultural knowledge also exports problematic gender norms and relations, and associated attitudes to the environment. ...
Sustainable food systems require sustainable agriculture. To achieve this, we argue, inclusive approaches are required that incorporate the voices and lived experiences of diverse social groups. In agriculture-based international development efforts (known as Agriculture for Development or A4D), it is increasingly being recognized that sustainable agriculture requires attention to gendered power relations. In the past, gender inequality has been a major barrier to developing inclusive, sustainable food systems, and continues to be so today. At the same time, however, gender is increasingly “on the agenda” in A4D. Yet what sort of agenda is being promoted and to what extent does it reflect progress in feminist scholarship? We examine the burgeoning “gender agenda” through the lens of policy materials produced by prominent A4D organizations. In doing so, we find problematic narratives that instrumentalise women in the name of sustainable agricultural development. However, we also find other more transformative discourses that, in troubling the drivers of gender inequality and promoting shared responsibility for change, reflect a deeper awareness of feminist scholarship. In any effort to advance sustainable agriculture, further progress is needed to address the myriad ways gender pervades not just development settings but development institutions and donor nations, and contributes to the production of as well as responses to global A4D challenges.
... With agricultural employment no longer resting solely on physical prowess and the gendered construction of farming around physical strength and dominance (Brandth, 1995), and therefore masculinity, but on analytical and problem solving skills, women's increasing education is vital for the future of agriculture. As new technologies replace farm labor, physical strength and having "the tractor gene" (Heggem, 2014) are no longer seen as the necessary conditions for being valued in the sector. ...
Agriculture has traditionally been framed as men’s work, while women’s contributions to the sector have largely been rendered invisible. This article examines the emerging agricultural professional services sector, asking how a changing environment for agriculture may be disrupting traditional gender norms framing agricultural employment. Drawing together the literature in gender and agriculture, professional services and entrepreneurship and interviews with 22 women who have built businesses in agricultural professional services in Australia, our analysis identifies that a confluence of macro and micro activities are shaping new opportunities for women in agricultural employment. Through leveraging a changing industry environment, exercising agency, (valuing) local matters and communion, participants are disturbing traditional gendered patterns of agricultural employment. Our analysis highlights how, as participants build their businesses and demonstrate agency in a dynamic environment, they value the integrating, reconciling and synthesising they experience from supporting the flow of activities in their communities. In claiming their space in the changing landscape of agricultural professional services, they exemplify communion enriched by agency (Marshall 1986), and we see a tempered disruption of the gendered norms in agricultural employment. The article contributes to scholarship on agricultural professional work and identifies how historical patterns of employment and masculine privilege are being disrupted.
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... In Brazil, as in other settings, cultural norms declare that farming is a man's job and that, due to biology, men are more capable of managing farm equipment than women, an attitude that is referred to as "the tractor gene" (Heggem 2014). Because of these attitudes, Brazilian parents in agriculture encourage daughters to study and to prepare for non-agricultural work (Brumer 2008;Carneiro 2001;Kischener et al. 2015). ...
Smallholder agriculture plays a key role to promote food security in Brazil. Population ageing together with fertility decline and expanded educational opportunities for youth present challenges for the continuation of smallholder agriculture across generations. This paper examines smallhold-ers' farm succession decisions in Western Paraná, Brazil using survey data collected from soybean farmers. Approximately 64 percent of soybean farmers reported planning to pass on their farm business to the next generation. Traditional gender norms hinder succession plans. The probability of succession decreases by 31 percentage points if the households do not have any male children. Farms with more than 100 hectares are more likely to have a family successor than smaller farms. Farmers with college education are less likely to pass on their farms to their children than farmers with less education. Participation in Pronaf, a program that provides subsidized credit to smallholders , is associated with a higher probability of succession to a son or daughter. Government programs that provide subsidized credit and encourage families to make succession plans might increase succession rates. In an environment of decreasing fertility, adhering to traditional gender roles limits the probability that a farm will be continued successfully across generations. JEL Classification: Q12, J16, J62, D1
... The ideal of the mother-carer and the father-provider has practically disappeared and been replaced by a dual earner/dual carer model (Ellingsaeter and Leira, 2006). This development may have affected farming and contributed to a narrative of gender equality in farm families, although rural societies and farm communities are sometimes seen as lagging behind in regard to gender equality (Heggem, 2014b). ...
This book explores how rural gender relations are changing in a globalizing world. It integrates experiences across the globe through the discussion of four key themes in rural gender research: agriculture, international development, gender identities and mobility. The first section (chapters 2-6) examines how mobility affects men and women in rural areas. It explores gender differences in mobility patterns and analyses how mobility affects rural gender identities and relations. The second section (chapters 7-11) focuses on agricultural change, the response of individuals within farm households and the implications for gender relations in rural areas. The third section (chapters 12-17) focuses on the construction of identities and the changes occurring in the definition of rural femininity and masculinity as a result of rural transformations. The fourth section (chapters 18-23) examines the role of international development policies in advancing women's well-being in the less developed parts of the world and some of the unintended consequences of such interventions. The contributors to this book present empirical work from the global North and South.
O projeto MAIs.Mulheres agricultoras em territórios do interior surgiu com o objetivo de aumentar a participação cívica e associativa das mulheres agricultoras nas regiões do interior, através da sua capacitação e da visibilização do seu papel social, fatores que podem contribuir para promover a igualdade entre homens e mulheres (em concordância com a Carta das Nações Unidas, Agenda 2030 (5.5. e 5.a) e Declaração Universal de Direitos Humanos) e ao mesmo tempo para estimular a cidadania ativa e a participação social das mulheres agricultoras na esfera pública e no desenvolvimento local, conforme objetivo da Estratégia Nacional para a Igualdade e Não Discriminação e do Programa de Conciliação e Igualdade de Género das EEA grants.
A participação das mulheres no crescimento económico é estratégico para os objetivos da EU2020, com particular relevo em territórios de baixa densidade onde o seu papel é de enorme importância. A importância das mulheres na agricultura é reconhecida pela sua capacidade de inovação, adaptação e diversificação de atividades; força motora na manutenção, conservação e desenvolvimento das zonas rurais; preservação de memórias e saberes tradicionais e garantia de uma alimentação e nutrição saudáveis. No entanto, as estatísticas agrícolas, a nível nacional e internacional, não traduzem, até à data, o contributo das mulheres na agricultura, dos territórios rurais e das dinâmicas económicas e sociais daí decorrentes. Tal invisibilidade, expõe estas mulheres a fortes vulnerabilidades, ao nível das desigualdades de género, dependência económica, fraca representatividade nas estruturas associativas locais e nos lugares de decisão.
O MAIs, um projeto de intervenção baseado na Teoria da Mudança, procurou através de uma intervenção participativa, desde a fase de diagnóstico, à intervenção e avaliação, construir uma experiência piloto baseada num conjunto de ações locais desenvolvidas em dois concelhos do interior centro de Portugal – São Pedro do Sul e Sabugal - que possa vir a ser replicada em outras regiões, onde as condições sociais, económicas e culturais sejam similares.
As atividades foram estruturadas de acordo com o diagnóstico inicial realizado com um grupo de mulheres rurais em São Pedro do Sul e Sabugal, através de
inquéritos por questionário e grupos focais. A partir daqui, desenharam-se um conjunto de atividades de capacitação e promoção das mulheres agricultoras, sempre com a participação conjunta das beneficiárias com as entidades parceiras, que visam contribuir para o empoderamento e aumento da participação cívica das mulheres agricultoras.
The aim of this article is to examine female participation in farming and more specifically, the reasons for the low rate of female farm ownership in Ireland where only 13% of Irish farm owners are female. Females are excluded from the occupation of a farmer because land ownership is the key needed in most instances to being a farmer in one's own right. Females are farming, but too often, they are not owners of the farms they work on. We investigate the structural and cultural factors that alleviate or contribute to the inequality in Irish farm ownership. To address the research question, a qualitative study involving 35 semi‐structured interviews was carried out with both women and men in the Irish farming sector. This research recognises the positive role the state can play, as supported by cultural and institutional theory, by making legal and financial policy changes that can help effect change.
The global empowerment of women has been, and remains to be, a continuing issue, especially within the workplace. The agribusiness industry is no exception, where continuation of gender bias and stereotypes positions women as under-represented. Whilst the significance of women in farm businesses is evidenced, their relative invisibility in policy discourse is clear, despite the number of women developing careers in the industry increasing. This qualitative study examines the self-identified roles of women in United Kingdom (UK) farm businesses by interviewing individual participants in the sector (n = 8). The literature highlights four roles: the farmer, farm manager, off-farm income careerist and entrepreneur with an on-farm diversified business which forms a theoretical framework to structure the interviews. Findings show five emergent self-identification of role characterisations as being the mother, a decision-maker, a supporter, a labourer and an entrepreneur within a personal role profile. Thus, whilst externally identified roles consider women's status and contribution in a siloed job role structure, the multiplicity of roles that women undertake are much more nuanced and contiguous. The research contribution is an understanding of the variance and multiplicity of tasks undertaken which indicate the extensive work and contributory efforts that women instinctively provide to the farming business and the farm household structure. Findings contribute by establishing a new conceptualisation of the contributions of women to farm businesses informing rural policymakers, to consider the roles of women at farm household level rather than simply focussing on the gender characteristics of the principal farmer.
This article fills a gap in the existing literature by focusing on one of the internal determinants of successful farming continuity – human values. The problem relates not only to succession on the family farm, but also to continuity of labour on the farm. This article aims to provide an ex-post assessment of the value determinants of generational change in farming. The article focuses not only on family farms, but more broadly on continuing agricultural production. A logistic regression was applied to a sample of 1,043 descendants of Czech small farmers. The descendants with the human values of scouts and traditionalists have a higher chance of successful farming than other descendants. While traditionalists represent persistence-oriented offspring who believe it is important to do what they are told and follow the rules, follow traditions and customs, and behave properly, scouts lay on responsibility for stakeholders’ welfare and have strong socioemotional wealth. In addition, the larger household size and longer commute time to the regional centre of the labour market greatly increase the chance of farming continuity. The results are valuable for farmers who are making a long-term plan for the continuation of their farm for their offspring.
This article explores the family organization of work in small-scale dairy farms in Mexico. By drawing attention to the division of labour by sex, the paper explores how gender norms and tradition interplay with economic interests of profitability in defining who is able and accountable to perform each task. The article builds on ethnographic research in family dairy farms in Los Altos de Jalisco (Jalisco Highlands), Mexico. Based on qualitative data collected by in-depth interviews, focus groups and observation, the analysis focused on the division of labour by sex and age in the dairy, the fields, and the house. Findings suggest that family well-being emerges as a significant criterion in the allocation of tasks. The production of goods and services and the production of life convey in a unified process that overlap functions of the farm, containing productive activities, and the house, as the realm of the reproduction of life. Welfare emerges as a legitimate element for the analysis of the family economy, downplaying profit maximization and self-interest as the sole elements in decision making.
Thoroughly revised and updated, the third edition of The Sociology of Food and Agriculture provides a cutting-edge, comprehensive introduction to the study of food and society. The book begins by examining the food economy, with chapters focusing on foodscapes, the financialization of food, and a new chapter dedicated to food and nutrition (in)security. In Part II, the book addresses community and culture. While some books only look at the interrelationships between food and culture, this section problematizes the food system from the standpoint of marginalized bodies. It contains chapters focusing on agricultural and food labor and the peasantries, topics which are often overlooked, and gender, ethnicity, and poverty. Part III examines food and the environment, with chapters addressing important topics such as agro-ecosystems, food justice, sustainable food, and agriculture and food sovereignty. The final part focuses on food futures and includes a brand-new chapter on sustainable diets and ethical consumption. The book concludes by showcasing how we can rethink food production and consumption in a way that can help heal social, political, and cultural divisions. All chapters draw on international case studies and include learning objectives, suggested discussion questions, and recommendations for further reading to aid student learning. The Sociology of Food and Agriculture is perfect for students of food studies, including food justice, food and nutrition security, sustainable diets, food sovereignty, environmental sociology, agriculture, and cultural studies.
The agricultural sector in developed countries has been experiencing a growth in the percentage of women, yet very little economic research documents the role and contribution of farm women across these countries. Through an interdisciplinary systematic literature review of 184 international peer-reviewed, English-language studies between 1970 and 2020 we investigate the economic contribution and visibility of women working in the agricultural sector in the United Kingdom (UK). Differences within farm women as a group are explored and used to develop a framework characterising the different economic classifications of farm women across a spectrum of economic contribution and visibility. A comparison of the economic contributions of farm men and women also reveals key differences between farming practices and outcomes. As such, the study reveals key barriers to women's economic participation and visibility in agriculture to be associated with access to land, education and organisations. These factors are evaluated in the context of wider policy. The outcomes of this study increase understanding of factors shaping women's economic contribution and visibility in UK agriculture and will inform further research investigating female participation in agricultural business management and decision making. As the UK formulates its own domestic agricultural acts, UK-wide research will be needed to inform policy and overcome barriers facing women in farming.
À partir d’une enquête conduite auprès de quinze jeunes agriculteurs installés « hors cadre familial » en France, cet article montre comment, dans un contexte de transition agricole et d’évolution de la profession, de nouvelles formes de masculinité émergent. L’analyse des pratiques et des discours des agriculteurs suggère l’émergence de trois formes de masculinité : une première tournée vers les relations aux autres et les activités de service, une deuxième vers la figure du manager et une troisième partiellement réflexive et laissant la place au doute. Ces formes, qui ne remettent en cause que partiellement les rapports de pouvoir au sein des exploitations agricoles, peuvent être qualifiées d’hybrides puisqu’elles présentent des caractéristiques renvoyant à la fois à des formes de masculinité déjà identifiées dans le milieu agricole mais aussi à de nouvelles.
In this article we examine the influence of rurality on the construction of masculinity and femininity for, and by, pupils in a rural secondary school in Scotland. Using data from semi-structured interviews with male and female pupils and a teacher, as well as observations of classroom interactions over a period of 12 months, we highlight how girls take up multiple and complex gendered identities in a rural context and we emphasize the tensions they experience as they negotiate a feminine identity in a rural space constructed and described as masculine. Findings suggest that this construction is, at times, supported by teachers’ practices and their interactions with pupils. We conclude by discussing the implications for teachers in rural schools and point to the need to support girls to ensure that their educational opportunities are not limited by the deep-rooted associations that exist between rurality and masculinity.
Despite contextual differences, the future of smallholder farming faces many similar challenges worldwide. This introduction to the special section previews case studies from Australia, Austria, Ireland and Japan of generational transmission of smallholder farms in late capitalism. It frames key issues in the generational reproduction of smallholder farming, combining perspectives from agrarian studies and youth studies. The cases include intrafamilial succession and extrafamilial transmission to “newcomer” farmers. Intergenerational farm transfers are a two-way interaction between the older and the younger generations, in which neither fully controls the process.
Farm succession is a relevant issue, as it is related to rural and youth migration, sustainability and the ageing of the agricultural sector. Understanding the factors behind the willingness of potential successors to take over the family business is crucial for farm continuity. We examine the factors affecting children's likelihood of carrying on the family business in a sample of 216 potential heirs of Italian horticultural farms. Using local labour market conditions (income gap and employment rate) and surrounding context variables (population density), we plug the farm labour migration/occupational choice theory into farm succession analysis. This approach allows us to treat child succession as the opposite of the choice to migrate out of the farm sector. While farm labour migration theory predicts linear negative effects of labour market/contextual variables on farm transfer, we find that the income gap, employment rates and population density exert both negative and positive effects on child succession, according to their intensity. The pro-succession effects we find suggest that, despite potential threats, the proximity to wealthy areas may represent an opportunity for farm continuity and thriving. We also examine explicitly the effect of child characteristics (gender and birth order), finding that male and first-born potential successors are more likely to take over the family farm, in accordance with results from previous firm succession studies. This finding suggests a persistence of traditional normative beliefs in the agricultural sector.
In this second edition of The Sociology of Food and Agriculture, students are provided with a substantially revised and updated introductory text to this emergent field. The book begins with the recent development of agriculture under capitalism and neo-liberal regimes, and the transformation of farming and peasant agriculture from a small-scale, family-run way of life to a globalized system. Topics such as the global hunger and obesity challenges, GM foods, and international trade and subsidies are assessed as part of the world food economy. The final section concentrates on themes of sustainability, food security, and food sovereignty. The book concludes on a positive note, examining alternative agri-food movements aimed at changing foodscapes at levels from the local to the global. With increased coverage of the financialization of food, food and culture, gender, ethnicity and justice, food security, and food sovereignty, the book is perfect for students with little or no background in sociology and is also suitable for more advanced courses as a comprehensive primer. All chapters include learning objectives, suggested discussion questions, and recommendations for further reading to aid student learning.
The Norwegian Ministry of Agriculture states that beyond its primary role of producing food and fibre, agriculture also contributes to the viability of rural areas, food security, cultural heritage and environmental benefits such as the agricultural landscape, agro-biological diversity, land conservation and high standards of plant, animal and public health. These are all contents of a notion of sustainability that contains elements of economy, people and nature. The goals are
highly recognised as ‘good’ by Norwegian farmers and by the population in general. But what is recognized as a “sustainable” agriculture by the farmers? What is engaging Norwegian farmers? How do different groups of farmers explain their way of farming, their motives and concerns for agriculture? Do the farmers recognize the values of a ‘politically correct’ definition of sustainability involving the triple bottom line definition of sustainability where the economy, society and environment are considered equally? These questions are explored through analysis of interviews of Norwegian farmers. The analysis rests on assumptions based on Bourdieu’s concepts of field and habitus whereby farmers are viewed as reflexive and creative, but at the same time constrained by their social inheritance. In such a perspective, differences in farmers’ interpretations of sustainable farming are revealed, and how those interpretations correspond to traditional farming values and practices.
Keywords: Norwegian Agriculture, Sustainable Farming, Farming Motives, Farming Values, Bourdieu, Field, Habitus, Practice
One of the most significant changes in our society in recent decades has been the changing working pattern of women. Paid work and a work identity have become important for women. Their educational level has increased, and most women are employed their whole adult life. Many changes have taken place in the status and relationships of men and women, as well as norms regarding gender. Even though sex segregation of work is still prevalent, women are increasingly crossing gender barriers and participating in male-dominated areas. This article focuses on women farmers, women who have the main or sole responsibility for the operation of a farm, and thereby throwing into relief the established stereotype of a male farmer. They can be seen as agents who through their practices might challenge existing gender expectationsand cnstruct new gender identities in agriculture.
A livelihoods approach positions individuals, situated within households, as active agents within processes occurring at various scales. Environmental conservation efforts represent one such process with direct implications for local sustainable livelihoods and the gendered nature of livelihood strategies. In this article, I examine collective processes of socio-environmental identity construction as gendered sustainable livelihood strategies, articulated in and through the activities of women's agricultural organizations in communities bordering the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve in rural southern Mexico. I present group histories and visual evidence from group activities – adapted from participatory rural appraisal (PRA) methodology – to highlight two important concepts. These are: (1) that gendered livelihood strategies are outcomes of negotiations within households and communities, in response to specific gendered opportunities and constraints; and (2) that gendered livelihood strategies consist of linked material and ideological aspects.
Women's farm work and the gendered nature of the farm space and farm practices have been important intersecting themes within feminist enquiry over the last 30 years. Much research has tended to underplay the wider evolution of these gender relations - leaving under-explored the longer-term formation and contestation of the gendered activities, spaces and identities observed in the present. This article draws on research on 64 farms in the Peak District (UK) to take a wider temporal view of farm gender relations. Utilising a farm life history approach the article considers three key moments within farming histories to explore the active role(s) played by women in shaping farms and farming practices. In doing so the article adds complexity and nuance to understandings of both processes, such as the 'masculinisation' of agriculture, and to the gendered geographies of the farm space.
The son as a successor is a strong cultural model (script). It is intertwined with the script of gendered division of labour. If there is a son in the family, daughters are usually brought up according to these two models of the traditional role of woman on farms. Since the management of the farm is ‘men's work’, daughters seldom obtain the skills needed to take over the farm. Even if the everyday life of farmers is organised through the traditional scripts, attitudes of farmers are changing. More often parents hand a farm down to the daughter. Successing women usually work as independent farmers. This means that women break away from the traditional script of gendered division of labour. Here the position of woman is studied by analysing two exceptional autobiographies. It is shown how these women construct their identities as farmers and, by doing so, reconstruct a peasant way of life. However, it is not necessarily enough for a daughter to take over the farm even if she is supported by her family: it is still possible that a female successor's life is more strongly determined by body than life politics.
Recent trends indicate that more farmers will diversify their activities, leading to 'pluriactivity'. Farmers that develop their farming enterprise by building tourism businesses based upon the resources of the farm can be seen as farm entrepreneurs who are entering the service sector. Based on a representative statistical data set from a survey conducted in 2006, where 1677 farmers responded to a broad set of questions, this paper identifies the characteristics of farm-based tourism and farmers as tourism entrepreneurs. Furthermore, this paper explores the impact of the additional activities associated with farm-based tourism for both the farm economy and the work situation for the farm household. The data set presents a unique opportunity to combine sociocultural data with data on alternative farm economic activities in the form of tourism. Trondheim. Her research themes focus on work, life quality, images of the rural life and rural tourism. She has published in international journals and books in the area of gender issues in agriculture and rural communities.
Despite empirical findings on women's varied and often extensive participation in smallholder agriculture in Latin America, their participation continues to be largely invisible. In this article, I argue that the intransigency of farming women's invisibility reflects, in part, a discursive construction of farmers as men. Through a mixture of quantitative and qualitative methods, including interviews with one hundred women in Calakmul, Mexico, I demonstrate the material implications of gendered farmer identities for women's control of resources, including land and conservation and development project resources. In particular, I relate the activities of one women's agricultural community-based organization and the members' collective adoption of transgressive identities as farmers. For these women, the process of becoming farmers resulted in increased access to and control over resources. This empirical case study illustrates the possibility of women's collective action to challenge and transform women's continued local invisibility as agricultural actors in rural Latin American spaces.
Thesis (Ph. D.)--De Montfort University, 1998.
AbstractA certain type of rural support has emerged since agricultural restructuring of the 1980s. The article draws on research from the UK and Canada to suggest that support in both countries is derived from a patrilineal culture that still dominates family farming in both countries. Such a way of life, it is argued, involves the majority of farming men and women across generations working increasingly hard to ensure farm survival in order to facilitate an overall pattern of farm succession via the male or ‘patrilineal’ line. The article begins by providing a conceptualisation of patrilineal family farming drawing on insights from gender‐informed work on farming identities, political‐economy approaches from agricultural geography and the cultural turn in rural studies. This section will provide theoretical direction for discussion of the research findings. Here the article presents a discussion of the context to and typologies of organisations that emerged and five key findings derived from research conducted with members of the organisations in the UK and Canada. This assists in developing the argument that the emergent organisations are responding to and supporting this way of life and highlights some of the potential implications of doing so. The article has two aims. Firstly, it suggests that family farming in the UK and Canada continues to be predominantly structured by a way of life transmitted across generations which has the overall prerequisite of maintaining farm survival to enable patrilineal succession. Secondly, it suggests that a particular type of support for farming families emerged as a response to perceived threats to this way of life and provides evidence of its enduring nature.
Studies of landscape aesthetics based on photographic assessment indicate that farmers have a unique perspective—seeing beauty in the same ordered and controlled arable agricultural landscapes that almost all other publics find monotonous and boring. This paper uses Bourdieu's theory of capital to explore why farmers hold this perspective. Interpretations farmers place on ‘tidy’ features such as straight lines and evenly coloured fields were explored through a cross-cultural study between Germany and Scotland. Results show how farmers ‘read’ agricultural landscapes for signs of skilled farming, and how their interpretation is dependent on knowledge of the connection between efficient farming practices and the appearance of forms and colours in the fields. The implications of agricultural landscape aesthetics for the development of cultural and social capital are discussed.
Women throughout the West are up to three times more likely to be the operator of a farm in sustainable agricultural models than in productivist models. When women assume the role of farmer they transgress traditional gender identities on farms, which dictate that women are ‘farmwives’ and men are ‘farmers’; these gender identities intersect with spaces in the agricultural community to imply appropriate behavior for women as farmwives. This research demonstrates that the sustainable agriculture community provides spaces that promote and are compatible with women's identities as farmers. Feminist analyses of space and agriculture suggest that productivist agricultural models marginalize women from spaces of knowledge, while sustainable agriculture provides spaces of empowerment for women farmers. The fieldwork for this project involved a purposive survey, in‐depth interviews and participant observation with twenty women farmers over an 18‐month period in the sustainable agriculture community of Central Pennsylvania.
This paper explores ideas of masculinity and femininity as articulated in the representation of the rural landscape among farm families in a community of Southern France. It is shown that the local discourses of the farming landscape emphasise the embodied inherited relationship between the farmer and the land. In these discourses, the good farmer is one who has an innate understanding of nature. This sympathetic feel for the land is associated with traditional peasant farming. In contrast, the alienated and exploitative attitude of the bad farmer towards nature is associated with modern agriculture. It is argued that this rhetoric of landscape and identity reproduces patriarchal ideologies which exclude and marginalise women from farming. The real farmer can only be a man because only men are seen as having this natural connection with the land. Women in contrast are defined by their lack of connection to farming and the land. Through an analysis of discourse, it is shown how an imagery of earth and blood constitutes a cultural idiom which legitimates men's mastery over nature and women.
This article argues that the failure of certain theories of reflexive identity transformation to consider more fully issues connected to gender identity leads to an overemphasis on the expressive possibilities thrown up by processes of detraditionalization. By ignoring certain deeply embedded aspects, some theories of reflexive change reproduce the `disembodied and disembedded' subject of masculinist thought. The issues of disembodiment and disembeddedness are explored through a study of the work of Pierre Bourdieu on `habitus' and the `field'. The idea of habitus yields a more dynamic theory of embodiment central to a feminist understanding of gender identity as a durable but not immutable norm. The idea of the `field' provides a more differentiated analysis of the social context in which the reflexive transformation of gender identity unfolds. This in turn offers a way of thinking of possible transformations within gender identity as uneven and non-synchronous phenomena.
This paper discusses some principles of critical discourse analysis, such as the explicit sociopolitical stance of discourse analysts, and a focus on dominance relations by elite groups and institutions as they are being enacted, legitimated or otherwise reproduced by text and talk. One of the crucial elements of this analysis of the relations between power and discourse is the patterns of access to (public) discourse for different social groups. Theoretically it is shown that in order to be able to relate power and discourse in an explicit way, we need the `cognitive interface' of models, knowledge, attitudes and ideologies and other social representations of the social mind, which also relate the individual and the social, and the micro- and the macro-levels of social structure. Finally, the argument is illustrated with an analysis of parliamentary debates about ethnic affairs.
Internationally, the gender relations of the family farming ‘way of life’ have been shown to be stubbornly persistent in their adherence to patriarchal inheritance practices. This article demonstrates how such ‘agri-cultural’ practices are situated both within the subjective sphere of farming individuals’ and within global agri-economics, bringing new challenges to patrilineal farm survival. It is suggested here that the recent tendency for post-structuralist theorisation in rural studies has underestimated the existence and impact of patrilineal patterns in family farming. Such patterns mean that women are shown to largely occupy relational gender identities as the ‘helper’, whilst men are strongly identified as the ‘farmer’. Drawing on repeated life-history interviews conducted with farming men and women from Powys, Mid Wales, the aim of this article is to generate debate as to the extent to which men can be brought into feminist research practice in order to reveal patriarchy to a greater degree. The article begins by situating the near-exclusion of men from feminist research practice within theoretical developments in feminist geography. This discussion also assists in deriving issues of research methods, positionality and interpretive power which focus the integration of empirical material in the methodological reflections provided in section three. In section two, the rationale for the epistemological stance taken in the research is provided. The article provides an example of the successful integration of men into a feminist research frame, suggests avenues for theoretical development and identifies future research directions which can be informed by ‘doing it with men’.
This article pinpoints the ways in which gender identities have been constructed in the literature on gender relations and farming published over the past twenty years. It identifies three significant discourses in the research literature, namely the discourse of the family farm, the discourse of masculinisation and the discourse of detraditionalisation and diversity. The discourse of the family farm is hegemonic in agricultural gender research. It positions men as head of the family farm enterprise; women in the subordinate position of ‘farm wives’ defined by their dependency, their marriage and family related responsibilities. The second discourse accounts for the masculinisation of agriculture. Gender positions are transformed and men and masculinity are loosing power and dominance, while women are pictured as taking action and adjusting themselves to late modern life. The “discourse of detraditionalisation and diversity” focuses on the various positions that contemporary women and men have in relation to the farm.
Abstract Gender analyses of farming have become well established in rural sociological literature. In recent years, however, increasing attention has been given to the discursive processes influencing gender relations and identities. In the current paper I continue this trend by exploring how a range of key agriculture-related masculinities are constructed and articulated in Australia and New Zealand. First, a conceptual discussion identifies the need to consider discourse and creation of knowledge and truths about masculinity. An outline of the research is provided. Then I report on two broad fields in which masculinity is constructed, namely the farm arena and industry politics. Finally, I make closing comments in relation to the possibility of alternative genderings of agriculture.
This paper explores cultural constructions of masculinities and femininities among farming families in a French community. In particular, it shows how, with the development of agricultural technology, the tractor has become a symbol of male power and spatial domination over women. Drawing on life–history interviews and ethnographic observations, it is argued that farmers have appropriated agricultural technology and used it to construct and reaffirm their masculine identities. As a result of this appropriation,women’s work in agricultural production has become limited to carrying out menial tasks which are seen as secondary to farming.Focusing on narratives revolving around men, women and tractors, the paper shows that the tractor,as a symbol of male domination,is directly opposed to images of femininity. However, it is argued that the tractor can also become the expression of struggle and contention over masculine power and patriarchal gender relations on the farm.
Abstract This paper explores the operation of gender relations in the context of rural policy. Framed by debates on new rural governance, it considers how both the content and the culture of recent rural regeneration policy reflect highly masculine values and the maintenance of traditional power relations. New forms of decision making in rural areas promote a style of policy making that values and grants priority to male networks in the construction of elite groups and styles of management, and devalues community participation. We use examples from the United Kingdom to demonstrate the implications of shifts in the mechanisms and practice of policy making and implementation for men's and women's differential involvement and experience with rural regeneration. We go on to show how gender relations are also reflected in the content of contemporary rural regeneration policy. Decisions concerning the most appropriate types of initiative are predicated on a male-oriented view of previous economic activity and local labor markets, and represent a highly masculinist approach to regeneration.
Studies throughout Europe have suggested that voluntary agri-environmental programmes often engender very little change in attitudes towards productivist agriculture among conventional farming communities. This study examines why this may be so, using case studies from Hessen, Germany and Aberdeenshire, Scotland. By constructing a conceptual framework based on Bourdieu's notions of capital we explore how farming activities are able to generate symbolic capital, and compare this with the symbolic value of conservation work. We find that voluntary agri-environmental work returns little symbolic capital to farmers as, by prescribing management practices and designating specific areas for agri-environmental work, such schemes fail to allow farmers to develop or demonstrate skilled role performance – thus inhibiting the development of embodied cultural capital. We conclude by suggesting that entrepreneurial production-target based agri-environmental schemes may be ultimately more effective in changing long-term behaviour.
This paper discusses the so-called masculinization hypothesis which states, in the Norwegian context, that the female share of the agricultural labour force has been declining for the past four decades. Historically, the female contribution of agricultural labour has been under-estimated, but in recent times, social scientists and politicians have ‘discovered’ the important role of women in agriculture. Nevertheless, women are still leaving the farming industry and, while gender equality is on the political agenda as never before, it has not been easy to mobilize rural women to enter the troubled farming sector. The female exodus from farming is deeply embedded in changing gender roles. While the role of Norwegian women in the labour market saw major changes in the 1970s and 1980s, changes that gave women a greater share in wages and welfare benefits, the inequality between agriculture and other industries is growing again. Young rural women seem reluctant to join a low-paid industry in which they have to work on their own most of the day, without enjoying the recent social gains of women employed in other industries.
The article investigates stability and change in images of masculinity in a technologically well-developed agriculture. By analysing tractor advertisements, it is shown how agricultural machinery is a male arena, and how tractors represent many qualities important to rural men and their masculine identity. The article also shows how technology and masculinity are mutually and simultaneously constructed. The users, the men farmers, give the tractor gender, and the tractor makes the farmers into real men. As the tractor is becoming computerized and more comfortable, new images of masculinity are in the process of evolving. The ideal of the farmer as a strong, dirty, manual mechanic is giving way to a more business-like masculinity. A question is whether the traditional, hegemonic type is being replaced, reconstructed or whether the two types will coexist peacefully, as variation in the meaning of gender is a general feature of late-modern culture.
This paper is about constructions of embodiment in farming families in a community of the Aveyron region in Southern France. More particularly, it explores how the discursive representation of women's bodies both reproduces and legitimates unequal gender relations between women and men on the farm and in the local community. It is argued here that gender is constituted through the ways in which individuals live and construct their bodies within a particular social, cultural, and economic context. But because what is constructed as masculine is valued over what is constructed as feminine, women's bodies and abilities are inferiorised and devalued. In the farming context discussed in this paper, farm women are never seen as having bodies which enable them to farm in the same terms as men. Women's work on the farm is seen as only secondary and complementary to that of farmers in the same way that women's bodies are seen to be lacking in masculine attributes which are defined as central to farming. So that even when women show that they can run farms by themselves and do work which is usually defined as masculine, they are either represented as only being able to do so because they have male help, or because their bodies and attributes do not conform to culturally constructed heterosexual norms of femininity.
Women farmers are underserved in agricultural education and technical assistance. Long held social constructions of farming women as ‘farmwives’ and in some cases ‘the bookkeepers’ rather than farmers or decision-makers influence the direction of most educational programming delivered through extension programs in land-grant universities in the United States. Consequently, many women farmers generally view these spaces as hostile, rather than helpful environments. This paper uses the agricultural training framework developed by Liepins and Schick (1998) to analyze our research on developing educational programming for women farmers. We conducted five focus groups with members of the Pennsylvania Women's Agricultural Network (PA-WAgN) to better understand women farmers’ needs for education. Women farmers reported the kinds of knowledge and information they want, in what kinds of contexts, and through what means of communication. We adapt and extend the original theoretical framework developed by Liepins and Schick to incorporate the seriality of women's identities, their discourses of embodiment and the agency granted to them through social networks. Through a presentation of the results of these focus groups, we discuss both the relevance of gender to agricultural education and the importance of the network model in providing education to women farmers.
We examine the nature of the 'feminization of agriculture' in the semi-subsistence, peasant production sector of southeastern Mexico, as associated with male labour out-migration. Presenting findings from empirical work with smallholder producers, we discuss the impact of men's migration to the United States on women's participation in agriculture and gendered relations of agricultural production. In 2007, we conducted a survey of 155 semi-subsistence, smallholder households in six ejidos. This survey was supplemented by ethnographic research in a single ejido. Our findings demonstrate the need to distinguish between farm labour and management in this sector, and the potentially significant (but focused) changes in the local relations of agricultural production wrought by gendered patterns of labour migration - specifically in tenure, land-use decision-making and the management of hired labour.
This article uses Bourdieu’s concept of habitus and a relational view of agency to illuminate the role of the actor in negotiating moral norms in organizations.
Drawing upon case-study evidence from a major start-up company, the article illustrates how power, time and agency intertwine in a series of ‘moral encounters’. It is argued that the outcomes of these reflexive negotiations feed into the creation of dispositions which inform the creation and interpretation of subsequent action.
In this article the increasing significance of Bourdieu’s social theory is mapped in recent sociological accounts of gender in late-modern societies. What is highlighted in particular is the influence of Bourdieu’s social theory, and especially his arguments regarding critical reflexivity and social transformation, on a specific thesis which is common to a number of contemporary feminist accounts of gender transformations in late modernity. Here it is suggested that in late modernity there is a lack of fit between habitus and field in certain public spheres of action via an increasing transposition or movement of the feminine habitus from private to public spheres, which is linked to a heightened critical reflexivity vis-à-vis gender and to detraditionalization. In this article, however, a number of limits regarding this line of argument are highlighted, especially those flowing from the unproblematic coupling of reflexivity with detraditionalization. This exploration in turn leads to a critical discussion of Bourdieu’s ideas regarding social transformation. In particular it is asked why, when thinking about social transformation, does Bourdieu abandon his own principles regarding practice?
Situert refleksivitet: det narrative selv mellom tilhørighet og distanse. Sosiol. i dag 39, 7e28 Reflexivity: freedom or habit of gender?
- H Aarseth
- L Adkins
Aarseth, H., 2009. Situert refleksivitet: det narrative selv mellom tilhørighet og distanse. Sosiol. i dag 39, 7e28. Adkins, L., 2004. Reflexivity: freedom or habit of gender? Sociol. Rev. 52, 191e210.
Maskulint og feminint på bygda i dag. Paper no
- R Almås
Almås, R., 1983. Maskulint og feminint på bygda i dag. Paper no. 3/. Centre for Rural Research, Trondheim.
Norwegian gender roles in transition: the mascu-linisation hypothesis in the past and in the future Sustainable agriculture in the Norwegian farmers' context: exploring farming habitus and practice on the Norwegian agricultural field Woman's Role in Agricultural Development
- R Almås
- M S E Haugen
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Cam-bridge University Press The Logic of Practice An Invitation to Reflexive Sociology Rural masculinity in transition: gender images in tractor adver-tisements New " Women Farmers and Their Use of Technology. Paper no. 7/91. Centre for Rural Research
- P Bourdieu
- Cambridge
- P Bourdieu
- L J Wacquant
- Cambridge
- B Brandth
Bourdieu, P., 1977. Outline of the Theory of Practice (Richard Nice, Trans.). Cam-bridge University Press, Cambridge. Bourdieu, P., 1990. The Logic of Practice (Richard Nice, Trans.). Polity Press, Cambridge. Bourdieu, P., Wacquant, L.J., 1992. An Invitation to Reflexive Sociology. Polity Press, Cambridge. Brandth, B., 1995. Rural masculinity in transition: gender images in tractor adver-tisements. J. Rural Stud. 11, 123e133. Brandth, B., 2002. Gender identity in European family farming. Sociol. Rural. 42, 181e200. Brandth, B., Bolsø, A., 1991. " New " Women Farmers and Their Use of Technology. Paper no. 7/91. Centre for Rural Research, Trondheim. Brandth, B., Haugen, M.S., 1997. Gender Relations in Forestry Discourse. Paper no. 2/ 97. Centre for Rural Research, Trondheim. Brandth, B., Haugen, M.S., Kroken, A., 2010. Farm Tourism: a Question of Gender and Competence?. Paper no. 1/10 Centre for Rural Research, Trondheim.
Understanding farmers' aesthetic preference for tidy agricul-tural landscapes: a Bourdieusian perspective Central Bureau of Statistics, Norway, 1973. Statistical Yearbook 1973 Narrative inquiry: multiple lenses, approaches, voices
- R J F Burton
- Boktrykkeri
- Oslo
- S E Chase
Burton, R.J.F., 2012. Understanding farmers' aesthetic preference for tidy agricul-tural landscapes: a Bourdieusian perspective. Landsc. Res. 37, 51e71. Central Bureau of Statistics, Norway, 1973. Statistical Yearbook 1973. Grøndahl & Søn Boktrykkeri, Oslo. Chase, S.E., 2005. Narrative inquiry: multiple lenses, approaches, voices. In: Denzin, N.K., Lincoln, Y.S. (Eds.), Sage Handbook of Qualitative Research, third ed. Sage Publications, Newbury Park, CA. Djurfeldt, G., Waldenström, C., 1998. Kvinnor i svenskt jordbruk e några pro-fessionaliseras men fler marginaliseras. Landbruksøkonomisk Forum No 2, 68e 80.
Homo Hierarchicus: the Case System and its Implications. Uni-versity of Chicago Press Essays on Individualism: Modern Ideology in Anthropological Perspective
- L Dumont
Dumont, L., 1980. Homo Hierarchicus: the Case System and its Implications. Uni-versity of Chicago Press, Chicago. Dumont, L., 1986. Essays on Individualism: Modern Ideology in Anthropological Perspective. University of Chigaco Press, Chicago.
Succession on Scottish Family Farms: Socialisation Processes and the Construction of Farmer Identities (Unpublished PhD thesis)
- H Fischer
Fischer, H., 2007. Succession on Scottish Family Farms: Socialisation Processes and the Construction of Farmer Identities (Unpublished PhD thesis). University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen.
Det norske familieskogbruket, dets kvinnelige og mannlige sko-geiere, forvaltningsaktivitet-og metaforiske forbindelser
- G Follo
Follo, G., 2008. Det norske familieskogbruket, dets kvinnelige og mannlige sko-geiere, forvaltningsaktivitet-og metaforiske forbindelser. Report no. 6/08. Centre for Rural Research, Trondheim.
Introduksjon til samfunnsvi-tenskapelige metode
- A Johannessen
- P A Tufte
- L Christoffersen
Johannessen, A., Tufte, P.A., Christoffersen, L., 2002. Introduksjon til samfunnsvi-tenskapelige metode. Abstrakt Forlag, Oslo.
Driftsgranskingar i jord-og skogbruk
- B Kristiansen
Kristiansen, B., 2009. Driftsgranskingar i jord-og skogbruk, Rekneskapsresultat 2009. Norsk Institutt for Landbruksøkonomisk forskning (NILF), Oslo.
Modernization, adjustment, and peasant production: a gender analysis. Lat. Am. Perspect. 23, 118e130. McNay, L., 1999. Gender, habitus and field: Pierre Bourdieu and the limits of reflexivity Landbruket som livsform-enlivsstilsanalyse av norske land-brukseiendom
- B Logstein
Logstein, B., 2012. Trender i norsk landbruk 2012. Frekvensrapport. Centre for Rural Research, Trondheim. Martelo, E.Z., 1996. Modernization, adjustment, and peasant production: a gender analysis. Lat. Am. Perspect. 23, 118e130. McNay, L., 1999. Gender, habitus and field: Pierre Bourdieu and the limits of reflexivity. Theory Cult. Soc. 16, 95e117. Melberg, K., 2002. Landbruket som livsform-enlivsstilsanalyse av norske land-brukseiendom. In: Rødseth, T. (Ed.), Landbruket ved en korsvei. Fagbokforlaget, Bergen, pp. 67e88. O'Mahoney, P.J., 2007. Constructing habitus: the negotiation of moral encounters at Telekom. Work, Employ. Soc. 21, 479e496.
Doing it with men': feminist research practice and patriarchal in-heritance practices in Welsh family farming. Gend. Place & Cult. 17, 81e97. Price, L., 2012. The emergence of rural support organisations in the UK and Canada: providing support for patrilineal family farming
- M Q Patton
- L Price
Patton, M.Q., 1990. Qualitative Evaluation and Research Methods, second ed. Sage Publications, Newbury Park, CA. Price, L., 2010. 'Doing it with men': feminist research practice and patriarchal in-heritance practices in Welsh family farming. Gend. Place & Cult. 17, 81e97. Price, L., 2012. The emergence of rural support organisations in the UK and Canada: providing support for patrilineal family farming. Sociol. Rural. 52, 353e376.
Case Study Research. Design and Methods, fourth ed. Sage Publi-cations, Thousand Oaks
- R K Yin
Yin, R.K., 2009. Case Study Research. Design and Methods, fourth ed. Sage Publi-cations, Thousand Oaks, CA. R. Heggem / Journal of Rural Studies 34 (2014) 263e271