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Permission to fly: Creating classroom environments of imaginative (im)possibilities
Abstract
This article is located in current debates about how English teachers can create classroom environments that promote creative writing. It focuses on two senior primary teachers’ conceptualisations and enactments of imagination and imaginative writing pedagogy. The article illustrates how these different conceptualisations translate into different creative writing pedagogies. I propose that key variables which facilitate or limit creative writing include the teachers’ school writing histories, conceptualisations of imagination, classroom discourses and pedagogy. The article shows how the interaction of these key variables results in the two teachers creating different sites of imaginative possibilities. Conceptually, the article explores the relationship between imaginative/creative writing, freedom and constraints, cognition and affect. I conclude that it is critical for teachers to find a balance between unlimited freedom and excessive structure. The concepts of structured freedom and enabling constraints provide a space for imaginative writing pedagogy between the two extremes of unlimited freedom and excessive structure.
Keywords: (5-6) imagination; creativity; writing; structured freedom; pedagogy; enabling constraints; discourses; cognition; affect.
... A total number of 13 articles were about what students can do to be more creative in their writing (Mendelowitz, 2014;Steele, 2016) and how teachers' and students' personal characteristics relate to the development of creative writing. These articles were mainly focussed on the personal emergent aspects of writing (Alhusaini & Maker, 2015;Barbot et al., 2012;Cremin et al., 2020;DeFauw, 2018;Dobson, 2015;Dobson & Stephenson, 2017, 2020Edwards-Groves, 2011;Healey, 2019;Lee & Enciso, 2017;Macken-Horarik, 2012;Ryan, 2014 Fig. 1 The personal, structural, and cultural conditions surrounding creative writing thinking, (3) writer identity, (4) learner motivation and engagement, and (5) knowledge and capabilities. ...
... In addition, Mendelowitz's (2014) study argued that nurturing teachers' own creativity assisted their ability to teach writing more generally. She noted several 'interrelated variables and relationships that still need to be given attention in order to gain a more holistic understanding of the challenges of teaching creative writing' (p. ...
... 164). According to Mendelowitz (2014), elements that impacted on these challenges include teachers' school writing histories, conceptualisations of imagination, classroom discourses, and pedagogy. Documenting teachers' work through interviews and classroom observations by the researcher, the study found that teachers need to be able to define imagination and imaginative writing and know what strategies work best with their students. ...
Teaching writing is complex and research related to approaches that support students’ understanding and outcomes in written assessment is prolific. Written aspects including text structure, purpose, and language conventions appear to be explicit elements teachers know how to teach. However, more qualitative and nuanced elements of writing such as authorial voice and creativity have received less attention. We conducted a systematic literature review on creativity and creative aspects of writing in primary classrooms by exploring research between 2011 and 2020. The review yielded 172 articles with 25 satisfying established criteria. Using Archer’s critical realist theory of reflexivity we report on personal, structural, and cultural emergent properties that surround the practice of creative writing. Implications and recommendations for improved practice are shared for school leaders, teachers, preservice teachers, students, and policy makers.
... This concept encapsulates the relationship between freedom, constraints and imagination. Structured freedom facilitates intellectual and affective engagement and imposes structure that opens up possibilities of learners' cognitive and imaginative engagement rather than structure that invites replication (Mendelowitz 2010(Mendelowitz , 2014. The course discussed in this study explicitly scaffolded the space of structured freedom through a rich range of specific writing and reading activities. ...
... The imagination-audience nexus (the mechanisms and processes through which young writers imagine and invent stories and audience) is beginning to receive some attention. Mendelowitz (2010Mendelowitz ( , 2014 argues that imagining audience can entail four imaginative moves: imagining the story for oneself and for an unfamiliar audience, using linguistic resources to create the story and enabling an outsider to imagine the scene. Learners are encouraged to make something to: present, through opening their imaginative capacities and the use of evocative language. ...
This study explores how collaborative writing for a digital platform can enable students to (re) imagine audience. Although in the context of process writing peer feedback is foreground, in practice, its effectiveness is uneven. The digital revolution offers new opportunities for alternative peer feedback through collaborative writing and re-imagining self and other in the process. This study examines data from a creative writing course in which pre-service teachers wrote collaborative short stories for the FunDza digital site and individual reflective essays about the process. The study’s research questions are the following: (1) what were the affordances of this multilayered audience for engaging the students’ imaginations? (2) How did this process of (re)imagining audience impact on students’ conceptions of themselves as writers? The data set comprised 16 collaboratively authored stories (published on the site) and 34 individual reflective essays. Six of the latter were selected for detailed analysis. Hence, the data for this study encompass detailed analysis of two groups’ reflective essays on the process of writing their stories. These groups were selected because they exemplified contrasting collaborative, imaginative writing processes. Group 1 was familiar with the FunDza audience and context, while Group 2 struggled to imagine it. Thematic content analysis was used for analysis. Each essay was read first in relation to the entire data set, then in relation to the other reflections in the author’s group. The combination of gearing stories towards the FunDza audience and writing stories collaboratively created two sets of audiences that writers needed to hold in mind simultaneously. Analysis indicates that both audiences challenged students to make imaginative leaps into the minds of an unfamiliar audience, deepening their understanding of the writing process. It also highlights students’ mastery of writing discourses and increasing awareness of the choices authors make for specific audiences. Theoretically, this study theorises audience in relation to imagination. A number of concepts have emerged from this research that may enable a more fine-tuned analysis of the audience – imagination nexus. Structured freedom is an important thread that connects the central concepts of audience, imagination and collaboration, foregrounding the idea that imaginative freedom needs to be understood and worked with in nuanced ways. While freedom and imagination are closely related, the provision of free pedagogic spaces with specific constraints in creative writing courses can be extremely productive, as illustrated by the data analysed in this study.
... One outcome of teachers' tendency to dichotomise creativity, higher level functioning and criticality is that creativity is frequently located outside the mainstream of learning in the English classroom (Mendelowitz, 2014). Vygotsky's work provides a valuable lens for understanding this relationship between higher level thinking, affect and imagination. ...
Purpose
This article argues that critical literacy researchers have not paid sufficient attention to the role of imagination. It aims to synthesise the imagination and criticality in the context of critical literacy, both theoretically and empirically and in doing so to illustrate what form a critical writing pedagogy that foregrounds the critical imagination might take.
Design/methodology/approach
This argument is illustrated through analysing two sets of data that contain embodied enactments of contested gender issues across different modes and genres. Data from student teachers’ embodied enactments of contested gender issues and from their writing on these issues were analysed thematically.
Findings
A crucial aspect of the critical imagination entails creating pedagogical spaces that mobilise affect and empathy alongside criticality. Embodied literacy work across different modes and genres, can play a significant role in facilitating the critical imagination by enabling students to enact, perform and immerse themselves in different discourses, ultimately generating new insights and ways of seeing.
Research limitations/implications
Data were drawn from relatively small sample of thirty assignments in the context of teacher education in South Africa. More empirical research needs to be conducted across a wider range of contexts.
Practical implications
The article provides a theoretical framework and practical ideas for implementing a critical writing pedagogy that foregrounds the critical imagination and thus could be used in both teacher education contexts and school literacy classrooms.
Originality/value
This article challenges critical literacy researchers to rethink the relationship between criticality and imagination and its implication for a critical writing pedagogy.
This study aims to present how collaborative writing as a pedagogical practice has developed over the last decade. We conducted a synthesis of published research that has investigated collaborative writing from a variety of perspectives, in first and second languages, and in diverse contexts internationally including students in primary, secondary schools, and universities. Three general claims, supported by evidence, emerged from our analyses of 68 empirical studies published in refereed journals from 2006-2016: (1) technology has facilitated collaborative writing tasks; (2) most students are motivated by an improvement in their writing competencies in collaborative writing tasks; and (3) collaborative writing is effective in improving accuracy of student writing and critical thinking. Pedagogical implications will be briefly discussed.
This article outlines the ENaCT educational design for Digital Ensemble, an innovative approach to English assessment integrating drama pedagogy with mobile computing (e.g. iPad). ENaCT represents the key themes that framed and informed the research: ensemble, narrative, collaboration and technology. Starting with ENaCT as a prototype concept design for the development and evaluation of technology-enhanced embodied assessment in English, the research developed and refined the model through collaborative cycles of design with post-primary schools. The design-based research study reported here was undertaken in three significant design iterations, totalling 15 weeks and 85 teaching hours. 131 Irish Senior Cycle students, aged 15 to 17 participated: 45, 46 and 45 pupils respectively in iterations one, two and three. Two teachers participated throughout. The article outlines for English teachers and educational designers the adaptable ENaCT framework for Digital Ensemble, including design and assessment criteria and evaluation rubrics, illustrated by exemplars of pupils’ work.
Advances in technology, changes in communication practices, and the imperatives of the workplace have led to the repositioning of the role of writing in the global context. This has implications for the teaching of writing in schools. This article focuses on the argumentative essay, which is a high-stakes genre. A sample of work from one Grade 10 student identified as high performing in a township school in Cape Town (South Africa) is analysed. Drawing on the work of Ormerod and Ivanic, who argue that writing practices can be inferred from material artifacts, as well as critical discourse analysis, we show that the argumentative genre is complex, especially for novice first additional language English writers. This complexity is confounded by the conflation of the process and genre approaches in the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) document. Based on the analysis we discuss the implications of planning, particularly in relation to thinking and reasoning, the need to read in order to write argument and how social and school capital are insufficient without explicit instruction of the conventions of this complex genre. These findings present some insights into particular input needed to improve writing pedagogy for specific genres.
In the light of international interest in teachers’ literate identities and practices, this paper addresses the under-researched area of teachers’ writing identities. It examines the multimodal interactive discursive practices at play in the writing classroom of a teacher in the UK who, in order to support the pupils, consciously positions herself as a writer in this context; seeking to model engagement through demonstrating writing in whole class sessions and composing alongside pupils in groups. Drawing on previous empirical work which explored the fluid identities performed and enacted by this teacher (Cremin and Baker, 2010), the paper, examining video material, affords detailed analysis of the multimodal interactive discourses indexed in demonstration writing and writing alongside. It maps specific instances of discursive practice onto a model for conceptualising teachers’ writing identities: a teacher-writer, writer-teacher identity continuum. It reveals on-going conflict between the teacher’s intended discourse positions/identities and the recognition (Gee, 2005) and acceptance of these attempts by the pupils. The paper, in contributing new understandings about the microscopic, fluid and conflictual dimensions of identity positioning in these particular practice contexts, highlights the importance of the embodied discoursal voice of the pedagogue. Additionally, it offers a new analytic tool for understanding how teacher behaviour opens and constrains identity positions and argues that multimodal interaction in teaching writing deserves increased methodological attention.
Teachers who have participated in Summer Institutes of the National Writing Project (NWP) have often claimed "it changed my life." What do teachers mean when they say this? What does it mean to "transform" in a professional development setting, and what might researchers and professional development providers gain from an understanding of teacher transformation as a kind of teacher learning? And how, if at all, does the writing that teachers engage in at the Summer Institute matter for transformation? This article addresses such questions through a study of teacher participants in one NWP Summer Institute involving analysis of interview, observation, and textual data. The author offers a model of teacher transformation that high-lights the influence of writing groups and feedback.
In the international context of concerns about standards in writing, this article addresses the role of grammar in the teaching of writing. It considers both current and historical perspectives on the teaching of grammar and offers a critique of research which attempts to determine the impact of grammar teaching on writing, but which does not investigate how the grammar teaching was pedagogically linked to teaching writing. The article argues that there has never been a critical theorisation of how grammar might support the development of writing, and thus there has been very limited research which has explored this relationship. Drawing on the findings of a current research enquiry, the article offers a possible theorisation for a pedagogically robust role for grammar in the teaching of writing. Children's success or failure in writing, and effective pedagogies for the teaching of writing, are both issues of concern at present in many English-speaking countries. In England, the introduction of the National Literacy Strategy (NLS) into the primary sector in 1998 (DfEE, 1998) and its subsequent extension into early secondary (DfES, 2001) are direct, government-led initiatives to raise standards in literacy, paralleled both in Australia and the US. In Australia, following the 1996 National School English Literacy Survey, the Minister for Schools noted that "a disturbingly high number of Australian school children are failing to meet a minimum acceptable standard in literacy", (Masters & Forster, 1997, p. 4) prior to announcing initiatives to counter the shortcomings. National test results in England persistently reveal that achievement in writing is lower than achievement in reading; findings which are replicated in the US, and have led to a call for a writing revolution (National Commission on Writing, 2003) to address the awareness that "most students are producing relatively immature and unsophisticated writing" and "cannot write with the skill expected of them today" (NCW, 2003, p. 16). However, our understanding of the cognitive and social processes involved in learning to write and its rootedness in a secure research base is still developing. Unlike learning to read, which is well-supported by a considerable body of well-respected research, writing is a relatively new area of empirical enquiry. Psychological models of the writing process, for example, only began to be developed in the 1980s (Hayes & Flower, 1980; Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1987; Kellogg, 1994). We need to extend our ways of knowing about how best to teach writing, and to extend children's understanding of how to write.
KATHLEEN HEUGH questions why the Department of Education has not insisted on the implementation of a new language in education policy. She writes that despite the investment in education in South Africa, we are not contributing towards the validation of African languages through the education system
Whilst the existence of 'possibility thinking' has been acknowledged in some of the educational research literature on creativity in the UK (e.g. Craft, 2001; Craft and Jeffrey, 2004), as yet its role, as manifest in the pedagogical strategies of teachers and learning engagement of young children, has not been fully illuminated. It has been conceptualised as being core to creative learning (Jeffrey, 2005) and could be seen as representing an articulation of the 'being imaginative' part of the current policy framework for creativity in England (QCA, 2005a). Drawing on existing work in this area, this research project sought to identify and analyse what characterises possibility thinking in young children's creative learning and in the pedagogies of practitioners in the early years. In addition, the project aimed to develop innovative methodological ways of identifying and recording the existence of possibility thinking in teacher pedagogies and the learning experience of young children. The research team, comprised staff in an early childhood centre, in an infant school and in a primary school, all of whom worked collaboratively as co-participant researchers with the three university-based researchers. The 12-month long study posed considerable challenges for the team who worked to capture the complex interplay between learning and pedagogy making use of video stimulated review, observation and micro event analysis in the process. This paper shares the conceptual frameworks created, the key insights developed thus far and reflects upon the complexity involved. The team aimed to provide an informative analysis in relation to possibility thinking that would resonate with the everyday experiential evidence of other early years practitioners and would extend both theoretical and practical understanding of possibility thinking in action.
• using picturebooks and graphic novels to stimulate multimodal responses;
"This clear yet authoritative book affirms the vital role of creativity in writing and considers and encourages flexible, innovative practices in teaching. Importantly, the book reflects upon teachers' imaginative and artistic involvement in the writing process as role models, collaborators, artists, and as writers themselves. Arguing that children's creative use of language is key to the development of language and literacy skills, this book focuses on the composition process and how children can express their own ideas. In addition, the authors consider the many forms of creative language that influence the inner and outer voice of children, including reading, investigating, talking and engaging in a range of inspiring activities. Illustrated throughout with many examples of children's writing and drawing, this book also provides suggestions for classroom activities and is a source of inspiration and practical guidance for any teacher looking to deepen their understanding of literacy theory and practice."
The perspectives of children, teachers and professional writers are often absent in the pedagogy of writing. Writing Voices: Creating Communities of Writers responds to such silent voices and offers a text which not only stretches across primary and secondary practice, but also gives expression to these voices, making a new and significant contribution to understanding what it means to be a writer.
Drawing upon recent research projects undertaken by the authors and others in the international research community, this fascinating text considers the nature of composing and the experience of being a writer. In the process it:
• explores the role of talk, creativity, autonomy, metacognition, writing as design and the shaping influence of literature and other texts;
• examines young people’s composing processes and attitudes to writing;
• considers teachers’ identities as writers and what can be learnt when teachers engage reflectively in writing ;
• shares a range of professional writers’ practices, processes and perspectives;
• gives prominence to examples of writing from children, teachers, student teachers and professional writers alongside their reflective commentaries.
This thought-provoking text offers theoretical insights and practical directions for developing the teaching and learning of writing. It is an invaluable read for all teachers and trainees, as well as teacher educators, researchers and anyone with an interest in the pedagogy of writing.
We call any activity of a person that creates anything new, creative activity. This includes the creation of any kind of inner world or construction of the mind that is experienced and observed only in humans. Looking at human behavior, we can distinguish two basic forms of construction. One form of activity can be called reproductive, and is closely connected with memory, its essence consisting in a person's reproducing or retrieving traces of previous impressions. When I remember the house in which I spent my childhood or a remote country I sometimes visit, I reproduce traces of the impressions I obtained in early childhood or at a time of a journey. In general, in all these cases this activity of mine is not creating anything new; basically, it is more or less just a return of what was.
Creativity in writingIn the context of recent and on‐going changes in the National Curriculum, this article outlines an initiative collaboratively undertaken by PGCE English tutors at three neighbouring universities in the South West of England; with their 70 Secondary English trainees, they challenged themselves as creative writers, guided by a T. S. Eliot Prize‐winning poet and a professional story teller and writer. The article explores their quest to translate the renewed emphasis derived from policy to (re)–introduce creativity into the English classroom. Their inter‐university collaboration sought to develop their PGCE trainee teachers’ self confidence as creative writers; provide an experimental experience of how to stimulate the creative process in the classroom; and encourage them in turn to nurture their students as creative writers and appreciative, critical readers of others’ creative writing. We offer a case study which has the focus of teaching for creativity whilst simultaneously being an act of creative teaching. Finally, questions which emerged during the enterprise are posed about the role of creative writing in the secondary English classroom.
During the 1980s in Australia considerable attention and effort was directed to literacy education, particularly writing pedagogy. In the late 1970s and early 1980s process writing was promoted into schools by a group of teachers, teacher educators and academics. Teachers were encouraged to take a renewed interest in the teaching of writing and something of a ‘revolution’ was taking place in primary schools by the early 1980s. By the mid‐to‐late 1980s process models of literacy education were rejuvenated by the development of whole language. As process writing spread into the schools and became a new orthodoxy in many places, another group of academics, linguisticians and teachers began to offer critiques of process pedagogy. Throughout the 1980s this group has attempted to identify and linguistically describe the various genres children are asked to write in schools and to propose a curriculum model for the teaching of this genre‐based view of writing. The two groups have often locked horns in defence of their positions which, at the theoretical level, appear to be irreconcilable. At the present time, the genre‐based group has been successful in drawing the attention of politicians and in securing funding for the development of the genre‐based pedagogy. The debate will continue well into the new decade as each State Department or Ministry of Education develops literacy curricula in response to the policies of the respective State governments.
Although teacher-thinking research is now well established, the specific mechanisms through which teachers construct new understandings of their teaching have not been closely examined. This paper presents four interrelated concepts—teachers' conceptions of practice, tensions in their practice, articulation, and local and professional language—which emerged as grounded categories from a longitudinal study of change in teachers' practice. The study focused on how a group of foreign language teachers integrated new ideas, encountered in an inservice masters' degree program, in their thinking about and activity in the classroom. The analysis traced the ways in which the teachers reconstructed their classroom practice, using professional discourse to rename their experience and thus to assign new or different meanings to their actions. The concepts, presented with illustrations from the study and accompanying analysis, have implications for research on teaching and teacher education as well as the design and execution of teacher education programs.
This book is about a unique school. It is a school that, despite the increasing pressure put upon it by changes in the curriculum and the organisation of education, has managed to successfully maintain the creative values that have won it international and governmental recognition. Written for teachers and headteachers who want to encourage creativity in their schools and classrooms, the book describes: the school's culture of holism its use and appreciation of its grounds and environment for learning its innovative approaches to curriculum organisation its appropriation of national initiatives such as the literacy and numeracy hours its creative teaching and learning through the eyes of observers, teachers, children and parents. The success of Coombes School shows that it is possible to combine externally imposed prescription with a set of personal beliefs and values - making a real difference to the quality of teaching and learning. This is a truly inspirational read.
Book description: A rounded, comprehensive, guide to issues of practice, pedagogy and policy concerned with creative education.
This is a postprint of an article whose final and definitive form has been published in Educational Studies© 2004 Copyright Taylor & Francis; Educational Studies is available online at http://www.informaworld.com The distinction and relationship between teaching creatively and teaching for creativity identified in the report from the National Advisory Committee on Creative and Cultural Education (NACCCE, 1999), is examined by focusing on empirical research from an early years school, known for its creative approach. The examination uses four characteristics of creativity and pedagogy identified by Peter Woods (1990): relevance, ownership, control and innovation, to show the interdependence of the NACCCE distinctions. We conclude that although the NACCCE distinction between teaching creatively and teaching for creativity has been useful as an analytical tool, it may, at the same time, have dichotomised an integrated practice and we suggest that a more useful distinction for the study of creative pedagogies would be the relationship between teaching creatively and creative learning.
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