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Chow, et. al.: Vanishing Fireflies: A Citizen Scientist Project 23 science education and civic engagement 6:1 winter 2014
Abstract
Fireflies are a unique part of the natural landscape. Urban
development and changes in forestry practices have altered
the landscape, causing a decline in firefly distribution and
abundance. Assessment of firefly abundance through counts
of bioluminescence flashes provides an environmental quality
indicator that can be easily observed and quantified by citizen
scientists. Researchers at Clemson University, collaborating
with resources managers, educators, and teachers from local
non-profit organizations and schools, have conducted firefly
surveys in the state of South Carolina (SC) since 2010. is
community-based project begins with the incorporation of
scientific inquiry into service-learning to promote sustain-
ability and ultimately environmental stewardship. is paper
describes project activities and summarizes the results and
observations of the four-year-old program. Lessons learned
from this project can be applied to citizen-science projects in
other regions to monitor different organisms such as cicadas,
dragonflies, and frogs.
Introduction
Citizen-science projects call on individuals to gather data for
use by scientists to investigate research questions (Bonney et
al. 2009). While these projects can produce large databases,
it is possible that their benefits extend further (Trumbull et al.
2000). By engaging citizens in authentic science, some argue
that these projects can have an impact on participants’ un-
derstanding of science content, understanding of the process
of science, and attitudes toward science and the environment
(Cohn 2008). Although citizen-science projects are growing
in popularity, there is little published evidence on the impacts
of such projects on the participants (Druschke and Seltzer
2012).
Fireflies (Coleoptera: Lampyridae), sometimes called light-
ning bugs, produce bioluminescence to attract mates or even
prey (Barrows et al. 2008; Viviani et al. 2010), and they can
be easily observed during the spring and summer (Frick-Rup-
pert and Rosen 2008; Lloyd 1972). Citizens of all ages exhibit
an interest in, and have fond memories of, observing these
amazing insects (Ho et al. 2009). Many adult citizens have
inquired about the recent rarity of firefly flashes, which are
PROJECT
REPORT
Vanishing Fireflies: A Citizen-Science
Project Promoting Scientific Inquiry
and Environmental Stewardship
Alex T. Chow
The Belle W. Baruch Institute of Coastal Ecology
and Forest Science, Clemson University
David White
Director of Environmental Informatics,
CITI, Clemson University
Michelle Cook
Eugene T. Moore School of
Education, Clemson University
Juang-Horng Chong
The Pee Dee Research & Education
Center, Clemson University
Chow, et. al.: Vanishing Fireflies: A Citizen Scientist Project 24 science education and civic engagement 6:1 winter 2014
perceived as having been ubiquitous in their childhood. Such
interest has provided environmental science educators an op-
portunity to use fireflies as a charismatic and easily observed
educational tool (Faust 2004).
Environmental indicators are used to communicate in-
formation about the health of ecosystems and the impacts
of human activity to school children, the general public, and
government policy makers (Turcu 2013; Conway et al. 2009).
ese indicators can reflect biological, chemical, and physical
aspects of ecosystem health. Fireflies are reliable indicators of
environmental health because their abundance is correlated
with the availability of healthy habitats (Kazama et al. 2007;
Takeda et al. 2006). e habitat of fireflies can be significantly
impacted by changes in land use patterns and structures, such
as converting forested areas into open lawns, residential gar-
dens, and agricultural fields (Kazama et al. 2007; Jusoh et al.
2010). Indiscriminate use of insecticides in lawns and urban
areas can kill many non-target insects, including fireflies. Pol-
lution from commonly used chemicals (e.g., pesticides and
fertilizer) and biological pollutants (e.g., pet waste) can also
alter the quality of the habitat (Lee et al. 2008; Leong et al.
2007). Strong, bright artificial light can outshine firefly flashes
and interfere with mating behavior (Viviani et al. 2010). All
these factors work in concert to reduce the quantity and qual-
ity of habitat, thus reducing the abundance of fireflies.
Forested land makes up 66 percent of South Carolina’s
total land area (Conner 1993) and fireflies are commonly ob-
served in the natural areas (Barrows et al. 2008; Frick-Rup-
pert and Rosen 2008). South Carolina, similar to many states
in the U.S.A. and many parts of the world, has experienced
significant population and economic growth, which has re-
sulted in a significant loss of natural habitats. For instance, ur-
ban areas surrounding the city of Charleston have increased
sevenfold in the last 40 years, from 180 km2 in 1973 to 1,300
km2 in 2010, and they are expected to increase to 2,250 km2
by 2030 (Allen and Lu 2003). e population of several
coastal counties in South Carolina is approaching one million,
a 25 percent increase in the last decade (US Census Bureau
2010). Commercial and residential development and resultant
land-use changes undoubtedly modify the landscape and alter
the environmental quality of coastal areas (Pouyat et al. 2007).
To protect the natural environments in South Carolina while
providing for economic growth, sustainability and environ-
mental stewardship have become important concerns to local
communities.
e combination of civic concerns and the value of fire-
flies as an educational tool led to the development of Clemson
University’s Vanishing Firefly Project in 2010. Firefly surveys
have been promoted worldwide as citizen-science projects
(Ho et al. 2009; Masaki 2011). e Clemson Vanishing Firefly
Project has four primary project goals: (1) Science Inquiry—
Engage citizens in scientific practices to understand the im-
pacts of urbanization on environmental quality; (2) Service-
Learning—Increase the skill of citizens in making critical,
scientific, and informed decisions through community and
service activities; (3) Sustainability—Protect natural habi-
tats through effective land and resource management prac-
tices; (4) Stewardship—Provide opportunities for citizens to
participate in environmental and sustainability studies and
activities. is paper summarizes activities carried out since
2010, the impacts on participant understanding of scientific
inquiry and attitudes toward science and the environment,
and the difficulties encountered during the organization of
the project.
Project Activities
e Clemson Vanishing Firefly Project, which began in 2010,
is a collaborative effort by researchers from Clemson Univer-
sity, land and resource managers from Hobcaw Barony Na-
ture Reserve, educators from Hobcaw Barony Discovery Cen-
ter, teachers from local schools, and leaders of local nonprofit
organizations. Researchers from Clemson University focus
on research about environmental quality and firefly biology
and lead the field investigations and data analysis. Land and
resource managers manage the 12 study sites in Hobcaw Bar-
ony and provide historical and geographic information on the
study sites. Teachers and educators serve as mentors to the
students and other participants during the service-learning
experience. e Hobcaw Barony Discovery Center and Ba
-
ruch Institute of Coastal Ecology and Forest Science provide
long-term opportunities to participants who are interested
in continuing the research and who volunteer to work at the
Hobcaw Barony. All parties work together in promoting and
advertising the Clemson Vanishing Firefly Project to local
communities.
e Clemson Vanishing Firefly Project was composed of
two service-learning activities each year: (1) a Firefly Field Day
and (2) a South Carolina Statewide Firefly Survey. Both ac-
tivities occurred in May or early June during the peak season
Chow, et. al.: Vanishing Fireflies: A Citizen Scientist Project 25 science education and civic engagement 6:1 winter 2014
of firefly activity in coastal South Carolina. e Firefly Field
Day was conducted at Hobcaw Barony, a 17,500-acre wild-
life refuge and a member of the National Estuarine Research
Reserve System. Twelve sites on Hobcaw Barony represent-
ing different land uses and forest management practices were
selected as survey sites during the Firefly Field Day (Figure
1). Activities during the field day included a half-day program
that included a one-hour orientation with classroom instruc-
tion, a two-hour daytime field survey and sample collection,
and a two-hour nighttime firefly abundance assessment.
During the orientation and classroom instruction, experts
in entomology, forestry, and soil science provided some brief
background information on firefly biology, methods for firefly
counting and identification, methods for soil and litter sam-
pling, general field safety, environmental impacts from coastal
developments, and importance of sustainability.
e objective of the daytime survey was to provide hands-
on experiences to participants about the methodology and
principles of environmental and forest research. All partici-
pants were asked to inspect all 12 survey sites. ey learned
about the impacts of forest management practices, land use
patterns, and natural disasters (e.g., hurricanes) on vegeta-
tion and the soil carbon cycle in forests. In addition, they par-
ticipated in a soil carbon study (Figure 2) by collecting soil
and litter samples in three selected field sites (sites 1, 4, and 9
listed in Figure 1), representing burned, actively managed, and
natural forests. is exercise, which required participants to
measure and interpret their data, illustrates the amount of
anthropogenic disturbance in each forest ecosystem (Dale et
al. 2002). e nighttime survey was intended to assess firefly
abundance and provided a unique opportunity for the partici-
pants to learn first-hand the biology and ecology of fireflies in
the field, as well as to observe the amazing bioluminescence
display of fireflies. Participants revisited the 12 field sites after
dark in vans provided and driven by staff of the Hobcaw Bar-
ony Discovery Center and Clemson University. A data sheet
was given to each participant for recording his/her observa-
tions. At each site, the participants were then asked to count
the number of fireflies in front of their windows within a one-
minute period. e participants were also asked to identify
the firefly species based on flashing patterns, as discussed in
the classroom instruction, when they were able to do so. At
the end of the survey, researchers collected all data sheets and
summarized the results at a debriefing session.
Participants of the South Carolina Statewide Firefly
Survey were asked to collect data on firefly abundance ob-
served on one night in May or early June and submit their
observations through the project’s web page. e method of
collecting the data was similar to the one used in the Firefly
Field Day—each participant counted the number of fireflies
across his/her field of vision within a one-minute period.
Background information, study objectives, and a detailed
sampling procedure were posted on the web page. e web
page also included pre-set options for land use selection,
which included farm, forest, home lawn and garden, marsh
edge, wood-bordering lawn and garden, and other. e result
of the statewide survey, presented as GIS–marked locations
on a map, was posted on the Vanishing Firefly Project web
page and disseminated to local newspapers.
In 2013, the field day and statewide survey were both con-
ducted on June 1. In addition to the field day, researchers
conducted several one- to two-hour workshops with school
and community groups. Participants for the statewide survey
were recruited through local and statewide media, and their
ages ranged from eight to 76 years of age. While more than
1,000 participants uploaded firefly count data to our website
or through our smartphone app, the findings reported in
this paper focus on the 26 participants who attended either
figure 1. Aerial view of the 12 study sites at Hobcaw
Barony, Georgetown, SC. (1) Managed forest burned in
2009; (2) Natural forest; (3) Clear-cut recovery area; (4)
Managed forest; (5) Salt marsh; (6) Hurricane damage
recovery area; (7) Active logging area; (8) Natural forest;
(9) Natural forest; (10) Open and abandoned housing area;
(11) Forest thinning area; and (12) Low density housing area
Chow, et. al.: Vanishing Fireflies: A Citizen Scientist Project 26 science education and civic engagement 6:1 winter 2014
a workshop or the field day prior to their participation in the
firefly field survey.
Participants attended workshops sometime during the
month prior to the day of the firefly field survey date. Work-
shop attendees were asked to complete an initial question-
naire. e questionnaire asked for demographic information
and the participant’s knowledge of firefly biology, understand-
ing of the process of science, and attitudes toward science and
the environment. During the workshop, participants engaged
in discussion and activities related to firefly biology, methods
for firefly counting and identification, methods for soil and
litter sampling, general field safety, environmental impacts
from coastal developments, and the importance of sustain-
ability. Following their firefly field survey, participants were
asked to complete a second questionnaire online. Many of
the items on this questionnaire were identical to items on
the first one.
Project Findings
Data collection and analysis by the Clemson Vanishing
Firefly Project are ongoing; therefore, we do not report the re-
sults of firefly counts in this paper. In brief, firefly abundance
assessments during the Firefly Field Day suggest at least three
Photinus species were observed at Hobcaw Barony. Results
also indicate high between-year and between-site variations
in firefly abundance at the 12 sites. Data from the South
Carolina Statewide Firefly Survey suggest great differences in
firefly abundance among locations and land use pattern, even
within a single city. e observation that certain urban parks
or reserves provide refuge and habitats for the firefly popula-
tions is an encouraging sign in the conservation of these in-
sects. In the 2011 South Carolina Statewide survey, 42 percent
of participants observed no fireflies, 32 percent reported one
to 10, 14 percent reported 11 to 49, and 12 percent observed
more than 50 fireflies in a minute. Most of the participants
chose lawn and garden land use patterns, indicating that most
participants reside in urban or suburban environments.
Questionnaire responses indicated some changes in un-
derstanding of the process of science from before the work-
shop to after the firefly field survey (Table 1). While partici-
pants agreed that the scientific method is used in all research
studies, they better understood that there is no single correct
approach to scientific research. ey better understood that
scientists have their own biases and perceptions, and also that
those scientific ideas can be changed.
Participants also responded to several open-ended ques-
tions about the process of science, such as “What does it mean
to study something scientifically?” A 1–7 scoring scheme
was used to code responses on the degree of scientific literacy
(Brossard et al. 2006). e scores on both the initial and
the final questionnaires showed that most of the participants’
responses described hypothesis testing, use of controls, and
conclusions based on data.
Questionnaire responses indicated that participant atti-
tudes toward science and the environment changed little as
a result of the firefly field survey (Table 2). However, there
were significant differences in responses to the item “Humans
have a large impact on their environment,” and differences
approached significance on the item focused on participant
interest in protecting the environment.
While surveys of fireflies and participants have been in-
formative, there have been other lessons learned as a result
of this project. e firefly counts used in data analysis could
be higher than actual observations. ere is always doubt
concerning the reliability and repeatability of data collected
by volunteers (Cheung and Chow 2011; Fogleman and Curran
2008). Despite the introduction and training, firefly identifi-
cation using flash patterns was difficult for most participants.
Double counting of the same firefly was the most common
problem for non-experienced participants, since fireflies move
around while flashing. It is difficult to track its flying path in
the dark, particularly in areas with large numbers of fireflies.
Based on the individual recording sheets, participants some-
times recorded higher numbers than the technical staff, and
figure 2. The two high school students on the right worked
with two senior participants on litter collections during a
daytime survey
Chow, et. al.: Vanishing Fireflies: A Citizen Scientist Project 27 science education and civic engagement 6:1 winter 2014
younger students recorded higher numbers than adults.
Unfortunately, the number of participants in each group
(i.e., technical staff, adults, and students) was too small to
statistically verify these observations.
Students and adults appeared to have different at-
titudes towards this service-learning exercise. Students
were primarily interested in field activities such as fire-
fly counts and vegetation and soil sample collection and
less interested in the introduction and group discussions.
In contrast, adults expressed strong interest during the
introduction in understanding the causes of firefly oc-
currence and disappearance. Despite the differences in
behavior, both groups were excited and enjoyed the expe-
rience of observing fireflies during the nighttime surveys.
Conclusions and Implications
e findings indicate that the project had a small impact
on participants’ understanding of the process of science.
ere were significant differences on several of the Likert
items addressing the nature of science from initial to final
administration. e initial to final comparison for the
items related to attitudes toward science and the environ-
ment showed almost no differences. It is possible that cit-
izens interested in a workshop and field survey related to
fireflies already have an interest in science and protecting
the environment. Our future directions include encourag-
ing participation for school-aged citizens as well as having
participants engage with the project for a longer period
of time. In order to impact the citizens who participate
in the project, citizen-science projects should encourage
collaboration with scientists versus merely collecting data
for scientists. In order for participants to feel like collabo-
rators, this project will begin to encourage all participants
(whether on-site during a field day or off-site doing the
statewide survey) to participate in long-term data collec-
tion for two to four weeks. At the end of the data collec-
tion period, participants will be invited back (either in
person or online) to view a visualization of the long-term
firefly count data as well as other data such as land use
Likert item
initiaL
Questionnaire mean
(sD)
finaL
Questionnaire
mean (sD) p vaLue
The scientific method is used in all scientific research
studies.
3.6 (1.2) 3.5 (1.1) 0.74
No experiment can fail if the scientific method is
followed.
2.6 (1.1) 2.1 (0.9) 0.01*
Conducting an experiment is difficult. 2.9 (1.0) 2.9 (1.1) 0.84
The results of an experiment will be the same each time
it is conducted.
2.2 (0.9) 1.9 (0.5) 0.03*
Once a study is completed, the answer to the research
question will be known.
2.4 (1.0) 2.1 (0.6) 0.13
Scientists stay objective as they work. 3.6 (0.9) 3.1 (0.8) 0.04*
Scientific ideas can be changed. 4.0 (1.0) 4.3 (0.5) 0.05*
I only counted a few fireflies so the data are not useful. 1.7 (0.9) 1.5 (0.5) 0.26
taBLe 1. Results of questionnaire measuring participant understanding of the process of science
An (*) asterisk indicates a statistically significant difference.
Chow, et. al.: Vanishing Fireflies: A Citizen Scientist Project 28 science education and civic engagement 6:1 winter 2014
patterns, soil and litter quality, and other environmental
indicators. Participants in the callback meeting at Hob-
caw Barony will participate in a discussion of the results,
while participants online will be asked to consider ques-
tions intended to guide their thinking about the results.
Being more engaged in the project and contributing more
to data collection and discussion of the results might lead
to more gains in content knowledge, understanding of
science processes, and attitudes toward science and the
environment.
e Vanishing Firefly Project is in the final stages of
integrating mobile device technology. Participants at-
tending the Firefly Field Day will begin collecting data
using a newly developed mobile phone app to record
the distribution and abundance of fireflies. is mobile
phone app will make data collection more efficient and
will encourage the general public to participate (Teacher
et al. 2013; Johnson and Johnson 2013).
While our preliminary results on the impact of the
project on participants are encouraging, we need to de-
velop a more rigorous data collection plan. Specifically,
we want to investigate the impact the project has on the
participants’ knowledge of fireflies, their understanding of
the process of science, their attitudes toward science and
scientists, and their attitudes toward the environment
and conservation. After their participation in the project,
a long-term post-activity survey will also gauge partici-
pants’ engagement in community service, participation in
sustainability and environmental stewardship activities,
scientific literacy, and career goals (depending on their
age). rough surveys, field observations, and interviews
Likert item
initiaL
Questionnaire mean
(sD)
finaL
Questionnaire
mean (sD) p vaLue
Decisions about the environment should be made based
on science.
4.0 (0.8) 3.8 (1.0) 0.13
Science is useful for solving problems of everyday life. 4.4 (0.6) 4.4 (0.7) 0.60
I am interested in science. 4.4 (0.8) 4.5 (0.7) 0.80
Science can make our lives healthier, easier, and more
comfortable.
4.4 (0.6) 4.2 (0.7) 0.13
I usually understand what I read and hear about science. 3.9 (0.7) 4.0 (0.7) 0.58
I enjoy talking to other people about science. 4.0 (1.0) 4.1 (0.7) 0.54
It is not important to know science to get a good job. 2.5 (1.0) 2.3 (0.9) 0.48
I am interested in protecting our environment. 4.4 (0.7) 4.6 (0.5) 0.07
Humans have a large impact on their environment. 4.2 (0.7) 4.8 (0.5) 0.01*
It is important for me to share my views on the
environment with others.
3.9 (0.8) 3.9 (0.9) 0.91
taBLe 2. Results of questionnaire measuring attitudes toward science and the environment.
An (*) asterisk indicates a statistically significant difference.
Chow, et. al.: Vanishing Fireflies: A Citizen Scientist Project 29 science education and civic engagement 6:1 winter 2014
we will have a better understanding of the benefits and
limitations of citizen-scientist programs.
Our initial comparison revealed that firefly abun-
dance data collected by participants were different from
those collected by experts. ere are two ways to address
this issue. First, the participants need more training in
the method of assessing firefly abundance and identifi-
cation. Web-based simulations have been successful in
other citizen-science projects (Mulder et al. 2010). We
will develop online simulations of firefly flashing patterns
to better train our participants in identification. We will
also develop different field days or training modules that
are more suited to the different learning behaviors of
adults and children.
e Clemson Vanishing Firefly Project is a citizen-
science project that begins with scientific inquiry incor-
porated into service-learning to promote sustainability
and ultimately environmental stewardship. e Clem-
son Vanishing Firefly Project provides an opportunity
for citizen scientists of all ages to answer an important
science inquiry question—Are the fireflies disappearing?—
through volunteerism, training, and collection of scientific
data (service-learning). e goal of the Clemson Vanish-
ing Firefly Project is to educate and prepare citizens to in-
tegrate sustainability and environmental stewardship into
their future activities. In addition, this service-learning
experience may motivate young participants to improve
their scientific literacy and may encourage enrollment
in post-secondary science programs and possibly even a
career in environmental sciences. Since 2010, the project
has engaged over 1,200 citizens in its annual Firefly Field
Day and South Carolina Statewide Firefly Survey. e
participants have received in-person or online training
and information on firefly biology, environmental science,
scientific methodology, and environmental sustainabil-
ity. e soil characteristic survey and firefly abundance
assessment have given participants hands-on experi-
ence in scientific research. e participants have col-
lected valuable data; however, a more rigorous training
program must be developed to increase the reliability of
abundance and identification data from the participants.
Adults and children have different behavior and attitudes
toward the original program; therefore, different pro-
grams aimed at different age groups will be developed. A
long-term survey will be developed to accurately assess
the engagement of the participants in sustainability- and
stewardship-related activities. If the Clemson Vanishing
Firefly Project is successful in educating and engaging the
citizens of South Carolina using the charismatic firefly,
we hope it will lead to the integration of environmental
sustainability and stewardship into the activities and the
decision-making process of local communities.
Acknowledgments
is research is also based on work supported by
a USEPA P3 Project grant under project number
SU835496 and by a NIFA/USDA grant under project
number SC-1700409 and 1700473. e authors would
like to thank the Hobcaw Barony and all citizen scientists
for their support. Technical Contribution no. 6220 of the
Clemson University Experimental Station.
About the Authors
Alex T. Chow is an Assistant Professor of
Biogeochemistry and Environmental
Quality at Clemson University’s Belle W.
Baruch Institute of Coastal Ecology and
Forest Science in Georgetown, SC. Dr.
Chow’s research interests include the im-
pacts of sea level rise and urbanization on halocarbon
biogeochemistry in coastal ecosystems.
Juang-Horng “JC” Chong is an Assistant
Professor of Ecology at Clemson Univer-
sity’s Pee Dee Research & Education Cen-
ter in Florence, SC. Dr. Chong’s research
interests include the ecology, biodiversity,
and management of insect pests and their natural ene-
mies in turfgrass and ornamental plant systems.
Michelle Cook is an Associate Professor of
Science Education in the Eugene T.
Moore School of Education at Clemson
University. Dr. Cook’s research interests
include environmental education for both
students and K-12 science teachers and the use of repre-
sentations in science teaching and learning.
Chow, et. al.: Vanishing Fireflies: A Citizen Scientist Project 30 science education and civic engagement 6:1 winter 2014
David White is a Research Professor of Electri-
cal and Computer Engineering at Clemson
University. Dr. White’s environmental research
has focused on the effects of land-based activi-
ties and their relation to changes in biological
communities. ese research efforts were integrated with the
use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to address spa-
tial variation and classification issues of the ecological param-
eters under study.
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