Reduced impact logging: benefits and constraints

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Sustainable Collaborative Forest Management: Meeting the Challenges of Decentralization in the Bulungan Model Forest
MANAGING FOREST RESOURCES IN
A DECENTRALIZED ENVIRONMENT
Lessons Learnt from the Malinau Research Forest,
East Kalimantan, Indonesia
TECHNICAL REPORT OF ITTO PD 39/00 Rev. 3(F)
TECHNICAL REPORT OF ITTO PD 39/00 Rev. 3(F)
Editors
Petrus Gunarso, Titiek Setyawati, Terry Sunderland and Charlie Shackleton
Decentralization has become an important reform process of forest management in many parts of the
world. It is unfortunate that in Indonesia, decentralization has been rather abruptly implemented due
to the fact that the process of decentralization was parallel with the government reform from highly
centralized New Order Government into more democratic decentralized government.
The project “Managing Forest Resources in a Decentralized Environment: Lessons Learnt from the
Malinau Research Forest, East Kalimantan, Indonesia” is the technical report of ITTO Project PD
39/00 Rev.3(F) so called Sustainable Collaborative Forest Management: Meeting the Challenges of
Decentralization in the Bulungan Model Forest. This book documents the situation just prior to the
reform era, the tumultuous reform era, and post reform era. This period is where the processes of forest
governance have been somewhat chaotic, but at the same time provide an interesting opportunity for
research on the implementation of SFM at the district level of government.
The reports reveals some emerging issues namely: Implementing decentralization policies, securing
forest livelihoods, alternative uses for forest resources, intensification of forest use, prompting
conservation of forest and resources, forest and health and the role of research in managing forests for
livelihoods.
Petrus Gunarso was the project coordinator of ITTO Project PD 39/00 Rev.3(F), a scientist seconded
from the Ministry of Forestry to the Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) in Bogor,
Indonesia. Titiek Setyawati is a Scientist of Forestry Research and Development (FORDA) of the Ministry
of Forestry of the Republic of Indonesia. Terry Sunderland is a Scientist at CIFOR, specializing in issues
surrounding conservation and development and Charlie Shackleton is a Professor of Environmental
Science at Rhodes University in South Africa.
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TECHNICAL REPORT OF ITTO PD 39/00 Rev. 3(F)
Sustainable Collaborative Forest Management: Meeting the Challenges
of Decentralization in the Bulungan Model Forest
MANAGING FOREST RESOURCES IN
A DECENTRALIZED ENVIRONMENT
Lessons Learnt from the Malinau Research Forest,
East Kalimantan, Indonesia
Editors
Petrus Gunarso, Titiek Setyawati, Terry Sunderland and Charlie Shackleton

© Copyright 2007 CIFOR & ITTO
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted,
in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise) without the prior
permission of the publishers.
Cover photos by Hari Priyadi, Eko Prianto and Ryan Woo
Graphic design and layout by Eko Prianto
Gunarso, P. et al. (eds.)
Managing forest resources in a decentralized environment: lessons learnt from the Malinau research forest, East
Kalimantan, Indonesia/edited by Petrus Gunarso, Titiek Setyawati, Terry Sunderland and Charlie Shackleton.
Bogor, Indonesia: Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), 2007.
ISBN: 978-979-24-4688-3
190p. (Technical Report of ITTO PD 39/00 Rev. 3(F))
CABI thesaurus: 1. natural resources 2. forest management 3. decentralization 4. local government
5. urbanization 6. forests 7. utilization 8. nature conservation 9. land use planning 10. reduced-impact logging
11. wildlife conservation 12. health 13. social change 14. East Kalimantan 15. Indonesia 16. research projects
Published by:
Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR)
Jalan CIFOR, Situ Gede, Bogor Barat 16115
Indonesia
Tel.: +62 (251) 622622; Fax: +62 (251) 622100
E-mail: cifor@cgiar.org
Web site: http://www.cifor.cgiar.org
Mailing address:
CIFOR (Center for International Forestry Research)
P.O. Box 0113 BOCBD, Bogor 16000
Indonesia
Disclaimer
The views expressed in this document can in no way be taken to reflect the official opinion of ITTO,
Ministry of Forestry Republic of Indonesia, District Government of Malinau-East Kalimantan,
PT Inhutani II, DfID, BMZ, the John D. And Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, the Ford Foundation,
IRD, EU and IFAD.
This document has been produced with the financial assistance of ITTO, Ministry of Forestry
Republic of Indonesia, CIFOR, District Government of Malinau-East Kalimantan, PT Inhutani II,
DfID, BMZ, the John D. And Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, the Ford Foundation and IRD.
Part of this document has been produced with the additional financial assisstance of EU and IFAD.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS V
FOREWORD VI
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS VIII
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION 1
CHAPTER 2
TRADE-OFFS AND ALTERNATIVE LIVELIHOODS OF FOREST-DEPENDENT PEOPLE
IN THE MALINAU RESEARCH FOREST 9
CHAPTER 3
EXAMINING THE CONSERVATION SIGNIFICANCE OF LOCAL PEOPLES’ PERCEPTIONS
AND USES OF DIFFERENT FORESTED LANDSCAPES 27
CHAPTER 4
WILL FORESTS REMAIN IN THE FACE OF OIL PALM EXPANSION?
A SIMULATION MODEL FOR MALINAU, INDONESIA 47
CHAPTER 5
FACILITATING COOPERATION DURING TIMES OF CHAOS:
SPONTANEOUS ORDERS AND MUDDLING THROUGH IN MALINAU DISTRICT, INDONESIA 65
CHAPTER 6
INTERACTIVE LAND-USE PLANNING IN INDONESIA RAINFOREST LANDSCAPES:
RECONNECTING PLANS TO PRACTICE 75

iv TECHNICAL REPORT OF ITTO PD 39/00 Rev. 3(F)
CHAPTER 7
REDUCED IMPACT LOGGING: BENEFITS AND CONSTRAINTS 87
CHAPTER 8
COMMUNITY-BASED FORESTRY AND MANAGEMENT PLANNING 107
CHAPTER 9
THE QUANTIFICATION AND USE OF WOOD WASTE
FOR COMMUNITY-LEVEL INCOME-GENERATION INITIATIVES 129
CHAPTER 10
WILDLIFE CONSERVATION IN BORNEAN TIMBER CONCESSIONS 143
CHAPTER 11
BACK TO THE TREES? DIET AND HEALTH AS INDICATORS OF ADAPTIVE RESPONSES
TO ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE: THE CASE OF THE PUNAN TUBU
IN THE MALINAU RESEARCH FOREST 157
CHAPTER 12
TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT AND IMPROVED LIVELIHOODS
IN TROPICAL FORESTS: LESSONS AND CONCLUSIONS 181

CIFOR and FORDA, as the Project Executing Agencies and Project Implementing Agencies respectively,
wish to thank ITTO, the Ministry of Forestry of the Republic of Indonesia, IRD, PT. Inhutani II,
the District Government of Malinau, John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, the Ford
Foundation, WWF-Indonesia, Tropenbos International Indonesia Programme, LIPI, BIOMA, UNMUL,
NC-IUCN, all Steering Committee members, and all partners and collaborators for their support in
the execution of the project. We would also like to extend our gratitude to the people of Malinau
who contributed significantly to the successful implementation of the project.
The editors wish to thank the following people who commented on this book in whole or in part:
Carol Colfer, Edmond Dounias, Patrice Levang, Douglas Sheil and Eva Wollenberg. Two anonymous
referees provide comprehensive and detailed comments and suggestions of the entire manuscript.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The devolution of forest management from central to provincial and district governments has been a
dominant feature in national forestry sectors around the world in recent years.
In Indonesia, decentralization was implemented abruptly as part of many government reforms that
marked the country’s transition from the highly centralized control of the New Order regime to the
democratic and decentralized government of today. Indonesia’s experience with decentralization is
evident in the name of the forest where the research was undertaken. The Bulungan Model Forest of
the first phase had transformed into the Malinau Research Forest by the time the second phase of the
ITTO project began in 2002, given there was a newly-created district.
The Bulungan Model Forest Project documented the decentralization process from just prior to
the reform era, through the tumultuous reform years themselves, and on to the current post reform
period. Forest governance was relatively chaotic, while also offering challenging opportunities to
implement sustainable forest management at the district level of government.
During the second phase, the Malinau Research Forest Project implemented an approach based on
integrated natural resource management (INRM), and included research on reduced-impact logging
(RIL), community based forest management (CBFM), community health, and conflict resolution. The
four years of research during this phase delivered a broad array of outcomes, especially in the area
of balancing the national and local development role of forests with their important conservation
and environmental service roles.
The invitation to link the Malinau forests with the international network of Model Forests along with
the local government’s decision to declare Malinau as a Conservation District, are all indicators of
the positive ancillary impact of the project has had on the district. It is all the more significant when
considered in terms of what has happened in other districts where local governments often seek
income through the short term extraction of natural resources, rather than looking towards the longer
term sustainable provision of environmental services.
FOREWORD

TECHNICAL REPORT OF ITTO PD 39/00 Rev. 3(F) vii
A range of indicators, including stakeholder and communication surveys, suggest the project has
been successful in communicating and restituting results to local stakeholders. There is enhanced
awareness among local government officials of the unique and abundantly rich forest environments
around them.
During Phase II of the project, Indonesia’s highest environmental prize, the Kalpataru Award, was
given to the village of Setulang. It is perhaps no coincidence that of the many villages the project
worked with, nowhere was this partnership more strong than with Setulang. The project’s long-
term presence in Malinau has been strongly supported by the district head and regent, Dr. Marthin
Billa, who has also been awarded the Kalpataru Award in recognition for his efforts to establish
Malinau as a conservation district. Dr. Billa was also honoured by the Biodiversity Foundation for
his commitment to environmental protection and wise management of Malinau. Formal recognition
of the projects activities will help to ensure the future of Malinau will be in the secure hands of an
aware and committed local government.
The findings from the many years of research in Malinau are still being produced, processed and
peer reviewed. It is anticipated both district officials and villagers living in more than 27 forest
communities have benefitted and will continue to benefit from the project’s activities. These benefits
will include the provision of relevant information that enhances local awareness of the importance
of sustainable forest management and contributes to improved coordination at the district level of
government on the issue.
The second phase of the project has increased awareness among researchers and similar stakeholders
of the challenges on the ground and general agreement that more intervention is needed. The
project’s action research model has demonstrated the effectiveness of development interventions.
This approach is expected to improve and develop with increased participation from the Ministry of
Forestry’s Research and Development Agency (FORDA) and from the Malinau district government.
Future phases of the project, with or without external support, will see greater engagement from local
officials in the project and eventually see the local government taking the lead in intervention.
FRANCES SEYMOUR
Director General
Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR)
Ir. WAHJUDI WARDOJO, MSc
Director General
Forestry Research and Development Agency (FORDA),
Ministry of Forestry, Indonesia

ACM Adaptive Co-Management
asl Above sea level
BA Basal area
BMI Body Mass Index
BPS Badan Pusat Statistik (Central Bureau of Statistics)
CBFM Community-Based Forest Management
CIFOR Center for International Forestry Research
CDM Clean Development Mechanism
dbh Diameter at Breast Height
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
FORDA Forestry Research and Development Agency
GIS Geographic Information System
GPS Global Positioning System
ha Hectare
IHH Iuran Hasil Hutan (Forest Product Royalties)
IHPH Iuran Hak Pengusahaan Hutan (Forest Concession License Fee)
INHUTANI Eksploitasi dan Industri Hutan (Forest Exploitation and Industries),
a name of the State-owned forest enterprise active in Malinau
INRM Integrated Natural Resource Management
IPPK Ijin Pemungutan dan Pemanfaatan Kayu (Wood Utilization and Harvesting Permit)
IRD Institut de Recherche pour le Développement
ITTO International Tropical Timber Organization
IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources,
now known as the World Conservation Union
K Potassium
LIPI Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia (The Indonesian Institute of Sciences).
MLA Multidisciplinary Landscape Assessment
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

TECHNICAL REPORT OF ITTO PD 39/00 Rev. 3(F) ix
MOF Ministry of Forestry
MRF Malinau Research Forest
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
NRM Natural Resources Management
NTFP Non Timber Forest Product
P Phosphorus
PAR Participatory Action Research
PES Payments for Environmental Services
PFM Participatory forest management
PSP Permanent sample plot
QFCS Quantitative food consumption survey
RIL Reduced-Impact Logging
Rp Indonesian Rupiah
SD Standard Deviation
SFM Sustainable Forest Management
SPSS Statistical Packages for the Social Sciences©
TFF Tropical Forest Foundation
TPn Tempat Penimbunan Kayu Sementara (temporary log landing)
TPTI Tebang Pilih dan Tanam Indonesia (Indonesian Selective Logging
and Planting System)
WWF World Wide Fund for Nature

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
THE MALINAU RESEARCH FOREST: AN OVERVIEW
Petrus Gunarso

2CHAPTER 1
The district of Malinau lies in the ‘heart of
Borneo”. The district is comprised of over 90%
forest and represents the largest remaining
contiguous area of Dipterocarpus forest in
south-east Asia. Most of the district’s 40,000
inhabitants practise swidden agriculture and
hunting and gathering from the forest. They
include more than 20 ethnic groups, including
the largest group of Punan hunter-gatherers
in Borneo. The district includes a significant
portion of the Kayan Mentarang National Park
and has high conservation value for plants and
animals. As all forest lands are under the control
of the state, timber concessions allocated
through previous central governments, based in
Jakarta, control the rights to timber. However,
the district government has challenged these
rights by allocating its own permits for timber
harvesting and by changing land-use plans. Most
accessible lowland forests are now degraded
as a result of logging and extensive swidden
cultivation. The interactions between the need
for both conservation and development of the
area, underpinned by the complex political and
administrative systems present in Malinau, are
representative of the conditions that characterise
many such landscapes in the tropics. Hence
the findings of integrated and focused research
in such regions has considerable wider
application.
Since the start in 1997 of the first phase of the
International Tropical Timber Organization
(ITTO) project ‘Forest, Science and Sustainability:
the Bulungan Model Forest’, Indonesia has
been through tremendous changes. The Asian
financial crisis in the second half of 1997 and
the social and political turmoil of 1998 put an
end to more than 30 years of General Suharto’s
dictatorship. The implementation of regional
autonomy, or decentralisation, starting in 2000
and the division of the district of Bulungan into
three new districts has had a tremendous impact
on the local economy.
Meeting the challenges of decentralisation in
forest management is a pertinent contemporary
issue faced by the Republic of Indonesia and
many other countries. The Phase II project of the
Bulungan Model Forest, funded mainly by ITTO,
in collaboration with a number of partners,
has highlighted the wide-ranging implications
of decentralisation faced by the district of
Malinau in East Kalimantan. The shifting power
balance between the central, provincial and
district governments has been clearly reflected
in the management of forest resources of the
Malinau District. The issues described in this
book, although focusing on a single district, are
relevant to the problems faced by the whole
of Indonesia in the sustainable management
of forest resources in more than 400 districts
that recently received autonomous authority
for land management through the process of
decentralisation.
The Bulungan Model Forest, as initially described
in the ITTO Project PD 39/00 Rev. 3(F), has been
transformed into the ‘Malinau Research Forest’,
and this is the term used throughout this book.
The transformation included not only a change
in name, but also a change in scope (agreed to
by the Project Steering Committee in the early
stages of the implementation of Phase II of the
project). There were at least three reasons why
the project had to expand its coverage. Firstly,
the former name of Bulungan Model Forest
created confusion for stakeholders, particularly
after the year 2000 when the Bulungan District
was divided into three new districts, with
the main research area now falling in the
Malinau District, not Bulungan District. The
new name of Malinau Research Forest meant
that stakeholders more clearly understood the
location. The second reason is related to
the area (302,000 ha) officially designated
by the government of Indonesia for long-
term forest-based research by CIFOR. This
area became loosely known as Bulungan
Model Forest, yet the bulk of the research
was not conducted within this area as the
official area was exceptionally remote. The
project covered research not only on logging
and forest management, but also wider aspects
of poverty, health, livelihoods and social aspects
of forest management. Such studies are better
conducted outside the officially designated
research area, given the limited number of
people in the official area. Thirdly, it is useful
to cover the entire district if one is to address
the challenges of decentralisation. The smallest
unit of administrative governance, based on the
existing decentralisation law, is the district. It is
more appropriate therefore to address the impact
and challenges of decentralisation at this district
level, rather than in a given small part of the
district. Furthermore, given that the project aims
to provide a model that can be used in other
districts, it is more appropriate to focus at the
district level rather than a more limited area.

TECHNICAL REPORT OF ITTO PD 39/00 Rev. 3(F) 3
The work undertaken in the Malinau Research
Forest attempts to take an integrated natural
resources management approach. The
overall goal of the project was to identify
management options that achieve a balance
between development and conservation at
the district level of government which is the
new autonomous working unit created by the
decentralisation process. The objective was to
provide solutions to the challenges faced by the
implementation of decentralisation policies in
Indonesia. The project aimed to achieve long-
term forest management for multiple uses,
integrating social, economic, environmental
and silvicultural considerations.
The research dealt with a wide variety of
stakeholders and attempted to provide practical
tools, guidelines on issues related to land use,
alternative livelihood opportunities, biodiversity
information, alternative economic options,
training and capacity building, information
sharing and practical management options.
These research issues and topics form the basis
of the information presented in this book.
THE SCOPE OF THIS BOOK
This book consists of twelve chapters, the
majority of which are multi-authored, indicating
the multi-institutional and multi-disciplinary
nature of the research teams. Chapter Two by
Patrice Levang and his co-workers explores the
multifaceted use of the forest and its resources
by the Punan and how increased urbanisation
is influencing their relationship with the forest.
Local perceptions of forest utilisation and
conservation are explored in detail by Sheil
et al. in Chapter Three which addresses the
current perception, particularly pertinent in a
decentralised environment, that conservation is
driven mainly by ‘outsiders’. Visioning work by
Suwarno et al. is presented in Chapter Four and
explores the economic options in the district
using a scenario-building approach, focusing
specifically on the replacement of high forest
with oil palm plantations. In Chapter Five
Wollenberg et al. describe efforts at establishing
adaptive management models, working with
villagers and government officials in Malinau
where a weak, uncertain institutional setting
and complex shifting political landscape
arguably makes formal cooperation among
these groups problematic. Land-use planning
in Malinau is discussed in detail in a second
paper by Wollenberg et al. in Chapter Six and
shows how the current paradigm of centralised
non-participatory planning is not well-suited
to many forest areas. As such, an alternative
approach based on lessons learned during five
years of action research on integrated land-use
planning in Malinau is presented. In Chapter
Seven, Priyadi et al. summarise a large body of
work on the effects of reduced impact logging
(RIL) on the residual forest stand and discusses
the reasons why RIL techniques are slow to
be adopted by logging companies despite the
apparent benefits. Limberg et al. in Chapter
Eight expand the discussion surrounding local
planning processes using two community-based
examples. The benefits and potential economic
value of wood waste from logging activities are
elaborated by Iskandar et al. in Chapter Nine.
The impacts of logging on wildlife by Meijaard
and Sheil in Chapter Ten highlights how resilient
some species are to timber extraction, the
implications for sustainable forest management,
and how some species are more susceptible
to forest disturbance and require a focused
management approach. Forest and health issues
are discussed by Dounias et al. in Chapter
Eleven where the effect of social change and
increased sedentarisation on the diet and the
health of former hunter-gatherers are assessed
using a comparative and quantitative study of
the changing dependency on forest resources
of Punan living upstream in remote villages,
versus Punan now resettled in the district head
city of Malinau. Chapter Twelve provides a more
detailed summary of the findings of the research
carried out in Malinau and provides guidelines
on lessons learned and the potential for the
‘scaling-up’ effects of the research activities
carried out.
GENERAL SITE DESCRIPTION
OF THE MALINAU RESEARCH
FOREST1
Introduction
The Malinau District is one of the extension
districts of Bulungan District, which is designated
1 A more detailed site description has already been published
by Machfudh (2002).

4CHAPTER 1
by Ministerial Decree (Act no. 47/1999). The
District covers an area of 42,260 km², and is
the largest in the Province of East Kalimantan.
Geographically, the Malinau District is located
between 1o 21’ 36” and 4o 10’ 55” North, and
between 114o 35’ 22” and 116o 50’ 55” East.
The area is adjacent to the Kayan Mentarang
National Park where the World Wildlife Fund
for Nature (WWF) is supporting the Ministry of
Forestry in conservation management as part of
a long-term initiative. The Malinau District and
the National Park cover an expanse of more than
1.7 million ha of continuous forest and lie at the
heart of one of Asia’s last remaining areas of
tropical forest.
Climate
The climate in Malinau District is categorised
as tropical humid, with annual rainfall ranges
between 2,500– > 4,000 mm. The dry period is
less than two months in duration and the wet
season is more than nine months long. The
mean annual temperature is 27oC, with 5–7oC
diurnal temperature differences. The maximum
temperature (32–48oC) occurs between April
and October. The relative humidity is high,
ranging from 75%–98%.
Figure 1. District of Malinau, Indonesian Borneo

TECHNICAL REPORT OF ITTO PD 39/00 Rev. 3(F) 5
Topography and Physiography
The topographic characteristic of Malinau
District is rugged throughout, with 84% of
the area being classified as mountainous with
an altitudinal range of about 100 m a.s.l. to
almost 2,000 m a.s.l. (Machfudh, 2002). The
most strongly dissected terrain is located on
the south-western and western sides. Lowlands
lie along watersheds such as the Malinau,
Simendurut, Sembuak and Salap rivers, and these
lowlands are comprised of fertile alluvial plains.
However, the majority of the Malinau District
area is composed of highlands and high-altitude
plateaux, much of which remains forested.
Hydrology
Three main rivers run across the Malinau District.
The Malinau River flows from west to east and
then turns to the north. The Tubu River runs from
the middle section of the district to the north to
meet the Mentarang River which, in turn, joins
the Malinau River at Pulau Sapi. The third major
river is the Bahau River, located on the western
side of the district, flowing from north to south
where is merges with the Kayan River. Based
on this pattern of river flow, the district may
be divided into three main drainage blocks or
watersheds: the Malinau (44%), Tubu/Mentarang
(36%) and the Bahau (20%). The longest river in
the district is the 622 km Bahau River.
Figure 2. Malinau District showing sub-districts and Kayan
Mentarang National Park
Figure 3. The main watersheds of formally called
“Bulungan Research Forest”
Geology
The Malinau District area posseses a wide
range of geomorphological characteristics. The
main geological formations include volcanic,
metamorphic and sedimentary rock with
extensive alluvial deposits. The lowlands are
composed of alluvial swamps, e.g. at Malinau
Subdistrict and its surrounding areas, while
the morphology of the undulating landscape is
composed of sandstone, loamy stone and other
types of unsolid stones. At higher altitudes, the
rough and steep undulating landscape is usually

6CHAPTER 1
composed of old sediment stones which are
formed through the processes of rising, folding
and continuous land movement.
Soils
The majority of the soils in the Malinau District
have developed on rolling plains and dissected
hills, on sedimentary and on old igneous rock
formations. The soil type in Malinau District is
dominated by inceptisol type which is usually
characterised by low fertility and a high
susceptibility to erosion. Such soils possess
low fertility because they originate from acidic
sediment stones and high rainfall in the area has
caused significant base leaching.
Forests and vegetation
The lowland forests of the island of Borneo
are of global importance for their high species
richness and endemism (Bryant et al., 1997).
Approximately 34% of all plant species, 37
species of bird and 44 land mammals are
endemic to the island (MacKinnon et al., 1996).
The diversity of fish (Rachmatika et al., 2005) and
reptiles and amphibians (Meijaard et al., 2005)
are also high in East Kalimantan. It is therefore
imperative to develop appropriate strategies
for conserving this rich biological diversity,
particularly in the lowland forest formations. A
more extensive description of the biodiversity of
the Malinau Research Forest is provided in Sheil
(2002) and Meijaard et al. (2005). The forests
are classified as follows:
Lowland Dipterocarp forests: This is the most
extensive forest type in the Malinau District
and is estimated to cover about 98.4% of
the total area (Machfudh, 2002). This forest
formation is characterised by individual trees
that may reach heights of between 35–45m. The
family Dipterocarpaceae dominate the species
composition of all trees > 10 cm dbh and the
Dipterocarp forests of Kalimantan are probably
the last remaining forest formation of this type in
south-east Asia.
Submontane forest: This forest, occurring at
altitudes >1,500 m, covers a relatively small area
(approx. 0.44%) of the Malinau District. There
are many more individual trees per hectare in
this formation, most of which have a relatively
small diameter.
Riparian forest: This forest formation is confined
to the immediate vicinity of the river banks,
mainly in the north-western part of the Malinau
District and is dominated by Dipterocarpus
oblongifolius. The forest is periodically flooded
when rivers overflow during heavy rains.
Alluvial forest: Occurring primarily in low-lying
areas and in flood plains, this forest covers
a relatively small area. A number of species
of Dipterocarpaceae characterise this forest
formation.
Socio-economic characteristics
The majority of the district’s 40,000 residents are
concentrated in the district capital, Malinau town,
with the remaining 15,000–20,000 people living
in the forested parts of the district. The indigenous
people of the Malinau District, particularly in the
Malinau and Tubu watersheds, consist of several
entholinguistic groups, including the Merap,
Punan, Kenyah, Putuk and Abai (Machfudh,
2002; see also Levang et al., this volume). In
general, the ethnically indigenous groups are
reliant on natural resources and are essentially
agriculturalists, practising swidden cultivation of
upland rice, hunter-gathering and collection of
non-timber products from the forest. The largest
ethnic group is the Punan, who inhabit around
30% of the villages of the district, or 17% of the
total population. The Punan are best known as
being primarily hunter-gatherers.
Other groups, such as the Muslim Dayak, live
outside the forest boundary, closer to the town
of Malinau, and rely on other forms of economic
activity, such as trading and more extensive
agriculture. Due to the policy of tranmigrasi,
there is also a small population of immigrants
from other areas of Indonesia, particularly those
of Buginese origin.
The total population of Malinau District in 2006
was 56,153 people distributed in 112 villages
and 12 subdistricts. The most populated area is
Malinau Kota Subdistrict which accommodates
70% of the total population. The majority of the
population is Protestant (57%) and the rest are
Muslim (21%), Catholic (18%) and Buddhist
(4%).

TECHNICAL REPORT OF ITTO PD 39/00 Rev. 3(F) 7
Land tenure
Two types of land rights are recognised in
Malinau: individual holdings and community
land. Individual holdings come from land from
which the products are for family consumption
only. Each household has around the same size
of individual holding which is allocated by the
community organisation (lembaga adat), headed
by a community leader. Individual holdings are,
on average, around 1–2 ha per household for
short-term farming and around 0.2–1.0 ha for
long-term agricultural use.
Community-allocated land is referred to as
Tanah Ulen. As village-owned forest land, Tanah
Ulen is protected and managed cooperatively
for the common interest of the villagers. This
land provides a source of supply or a storage
place for reserves for meeting the needs of the
village people such as wood for construction,
NTFPs and animals for hunting.
Land Cover
Forests an area of 3,969,360 ha, representing
90.4% of Malinau land cover . The breakdown of
forest area based on its utilisation classification
is as follows:
Protection forests: 625,481 ha
Production forests: 529,809 ha
Limited Production Forests: 1,415,309 ha
Kayan Mentarang National Park: 977,325 ha
Other Utilisation areas: 421,436 ha
Hence forestry utilisation in Malinau District
covers over an area of ± 1,980,510 ha, although
the total forest area where the eight forestry
companies operate currently covers about
1,132,229 ha. Forest exploitation activities
conducted in Malinau are mostly classified
as limited production forest (HPT). All of the
forestry companies must have a permit issued by
Ministry of Forestry.
Administration
After 32 years of repressive authoritarian rule, the
fall of the Suharto regime in May 1998 initiated a
surge of dramatic political reforms and uncertainty
throughout Indonesia. Policy reforms gave more
control to district governments, including the
right to reap more benefits from local economic
activities and for people to choose their own
representatives. Reforms decreased government
censorship and intimidation and allowed people
to protest and address conflicts more openly.
Widespread euphoria about the possibilities for
more democracy resulted, but so did widespread
confusion, as most institutions were not yet
ready for the new rights and responsibilities
thrust upon them.
Forest-rich parts of Indonesia, such as Malinau,
experienced enormous instability during these
reforms. Local governments suddenly had
opportunities to capture timber profits that had
previously gone to the central government and
concession holders. The districts immediately
mobilised small-scale timber harvesting in
their areas (Limberg et al., this volume). From
April 2000 to August 2001, the Malinau District
issued 46 cutting permits granting access to
more than 60,000 ha. At the same time, local
communities felt empowered to make claims
to forest land and to demand compensation for
damages. Confusion about the classification of
land functions and conflict over claims to forest
land increased exponentially between 2000 and
2002. The central government made numerous
attempts to stop logging. With the passage of a
regulation in 2002, the Ministry of Forestry made
the district cutting permits illegal.
REFERENCES
Bryant, D. D. Nielsen and Tangley, L. 1997.
The last frontier forests: ecosystems and
economies on the edge. World Resources
Institute, Washington DC.
Machfudh. 2002. General description of the
Bulungan Research Forest. In: pp. 8–22.
Technical Report Phase I, 1997–2000 ITTO
Project PD 12/97 Rev. 1 (F). CIFOR, Bogor,
Indonesia.
MacKinnon, K., Hatta, G., Halim H. and
Mangalik, A. 1996. The ecology of
Kalimantan. Periplus Edition.
Meijaard, E., Sheil, D., Nasi, R., Augeri, D.,
Rosenbaum, B., Iskandar, D., Setyawati,
T., Lammertink, A., Rachmatika, I., Wong,
A., Soehartono, T., Stanley, S., O’Brien, T.
2005. Life after logging: reconciling wildlife

8CHAPTER 1
conservation and production forestry
in Indonesian Borneo. CIFOR, Bogor,
Indonesia.
Rachmatika, I., Nasi, R., Sheil, D., Wan, M. 2005.
A first look at the fish species of the middle
Malinau: taxonomy, ecology, vulnerability
and importance. CIFOR, Bogor, Indonesia.
Sheil, D. 2002. Biodiversity research in Malinau.
In: pp. 57–107. Technical Report Phase I,
1997–2000 ITTO Project PD 12/97 Rev. 1
(F). CIFOR, Bogor, Indonesia.

CHAPTER 2
TRADE-OFFS AND ALTERNATIVE LIVELIHOODS
OF FOREST-DEPENDENT PEOPLE IN THE
MALINAU RESEARCH FOREST
Patrice Levang, Soaduon Sitorus, Darif Abot and Dollop Mamung

10 CHAPTER 2
INTRODUCTION
The district of Malinau hosts one of the largest
remaining populations of hunter-gatherers in
Asia, the Punan. All forest-dependent people
of the district have been faced with the many
changes – political, social and economic
– since the district was created. But all did not
experience the changes in the same way. For
people living close to the district capital of
Malinau, the changes have been considerable.
For people living in remote upstream areas, little
has changed.
The main results from the Phase 1 study (Levang,
2002) showed that people’s dependencies on
forests in the Malinau District were multifaceted.
In the most remote areas, such as the Upper
Tubu and the Pujungan watershed, people were
occasionally depending on wild sago palm for
their subsistence needs. For bridging the gap
between two rice harvests, swidden cultivators
generally count on cassava. But when yields
are especially low and when people run out of
cassava, resorting temporarily to sago starch is
the only way out of famine for cash-strapped
families. Wild game and fish remain important
sources of protein, and other forest products such
as vegetables and fruit also provide important
complementary items to the diet of the forest
people.
Local people can name hundreds of useful plants
or animals. Most of these products, such as rattan
or resins, are available in large quantities in
surrounding swiddens and forests. However, the
range of tradable products remains very limited.
Historically, birds’ nests played a determining
role in initiating the trade of forest products on
the eastern coast of Kalimantan. Nowadays the
product is still highly prized but only very few
families control birds’ nest caves. Eaglewood
(Aquilaria spp.), or gaharu, remains without
doubt the main cash-earning forest product for
local people, especially in remote areas. Closer
to town, game and fish recently became tradable
products. Yet in traditional hunter-gatherer
communities game is usually distributed among
all village members. Much to the resentment of
elderly people, this tradition is no longer upheld
in settlements closer to towns.
Access to the market is clearly one of the most
limiting economic factors. In the Upper Tubu
catchment even intrinsically valuable products
such as coffee or timber have no market value
because of the poor accessibility of the area. For
instance, in Long Titi village the transportation
cost of coffee from the village to the banks of
the Tubu River exceeds the price of the coffee
beans in Malinau. Good quality timber is still
available in large quantities in the upper reaches
of the watersheds. However, the absence of
transportation means this timber is not yet
exploitable.
Local people depend even more on traders than
on markets. Forest people can organise short
collecting trips to nearby forests but these areas
are already overexploited. In order to organise a
three week gaharu collecting trip, the gatherers
need the help of a trader. The trader provides the
cash advance necessary for the collectors and
their families (Kurniawan, 2003). In the case of
a monkey hunt for bezoar stones1, the trader
also provides the shotgun cartridges required. In
remote upstream areas the trader is generally the
only contact forest people have with the outside
world. As a rule, where traders are no longer
active, economic activity is at a standstill.
Local people also depend on forests for swidden
cultivation. Opening a swidden every year is
one of the ways of working towards food self-
sufficiency (although not always attained). Even
in accessible areas, most households manage
to produce at least part of their staple food.
Agricultural production serves as insurance, a
safety net against low success during gaharu
collecting trips. With the increase in district
population, fallow lengths tend to decline and
households are eager to open new upland rice
swiddens (ladangs). Nowadays preferred areas
are located along the main connecting roads, for
instance between Long Loreh and Malinau.
Since the end of the Suharto era, local
people gained partial control of their forests.
Concessionaires such as logging and coal-
mining companies can no longer exploit
timber and coal without the approval of local
1 A bezoar stone or enterolith is a sort of calculus or
concretion found in the intestines of some animals. Bezoar
stones are much sought after in Chinese pharmacopoeia.

TECHNICAL REPORT OF ITTO PD 39/00 Rev. 3(F) 11
communities. However, communities still
depend on the concessionaires for fulfilling
administrative prerequisites, for road building,
production and shipping, and claiming of fees
or royalties from the concessionaires for them
to be allowed to exploit natural resources in the
areas they controlled.
Local people are becoming increasingly
dependent on outside goods and services.
Owning a long-tail engine or an outboard
engine is crucial for somebody living in a remote
village. Clearing a ladang without a chainsaw
is no longer considered an option. Televisions
and video players are now a family’s basic
electronic equipment. People’s desire for quality
educational and health services is rarely met by
government projects in remoter areas. Thus, the
wealthier community members do not hesitate
to send their children to far-away schools in
Malinau, Tarakan or Samarinda. As village
dispensaries are seldom well-equipped, people
do not hesitate to go to Malinau or Tarakan for
medical care. For all these reasons, forest people
are increasingly dependent on cash, and for the
time being, the forest and its products (timber
and non-timber products) are the principal or
only means to derive the required finance.
The main result of our research during Phase 1
was that indeed forest people were dependent
on forests and forest products for their livelihood.
However, this dependency shifted over time from
a dependency on forests for subsistence needs,
to a dependency on forests for cash needs. This
parallels findings in other parts of the world (see
Shackleton, 2005). Moreover these cash needs
are rapidly increasing and, as a corollary, ways
of life are evolving. Torn between their desire to
preserve their hunting grounds and the need to
sell their forests to satisfy increasing needs for
cash, local people are all but ready to resolve
this contradiction at the expense of the forest.
Living in the city of Malinau means good access to services and markets (Photo by Patrice Levang)

12 CHAPTER 2
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© Dounias IRD 2004
SEACELEBES
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8 Tabang
9 Kayan Hilir
10 Malinau Barat
11 Malinau Selatan
12 Malinau Utara
13 Mentarang
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(6 locations)
(5 l.)
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(6 l.)
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Figure 1. Localities of Punan settlements in East Kalimantan
Another important result of the Phase 1 study was
the overwhelming impact of accessibility on the
socio-economic level of the settlements. Limited
accessibility is synonymous with preserved
forests. Living in an isolated location presents
the advantage of being closer to the natural
resources: wild boar, fish, gaharu, ladang, etc.
But it also means high transportation costs, high
prices for manufactured goods, low prices for
agricultural and forest products, and, overall,
limited access to education and to health care.
Good accessibility, on the contrary, allows better
access to services and markets.
In order to assess the diversity of situations faced
by the Punan and their social and economic
profile we undertook a number of detailed
studies.

TECHNICAL REPORT OF ITTO PD 39/00 Rev. 3(F) 13
APPROACH
A three-phase approach was adopted. The first was
a broad-scale census of all Punan households in
the region. The second was a detailed household
survey of livelihood activities. Lastly, a small
poll was conducted to ascertain Punan opinions
regarding the advantages and disadvantages of
living in or out of the forest.
Broad-scale census
A census of all Punan settlements in East
Kalimantan (Figure 1) was conducted with the
help of the Yayasan Adat Punan (Association of
Punan Communities) during 2002 and 2003.
The census covered 77 settlements consisting
of 2,096 households and 8,956 people (Sitorus
et al., 2004). Surprisingly to us, this represented
only 0.35% of the total population of the
province. At the settlement level we recorded
the distance to the nearest basic services and
facilities such as shops, schools, clinics, etc. At
the household level we recorded data about all
family members, including age, relationship to
the household head, gender, education level,
and deaths of children and infants. Young
married couples still living with their parents
or in-laws were considered as independent
households. Additionally, household assets
such as chainsaws, televisions, boat engines,
etc., were enumerated, along with notes on the
condition of buildings.
Considering the range of livelihoods, accessibility
appeared to be the main cause of heterogeneity
among the 77 settlements surveyed. In order to
facilitate comparisons we ranked all settlements
into three classes:
• very remote: settlements located more than
three days’ travel from a district capital by
boat and on foot
• accessible: villages located less than half a
day’s travel from a district capital by boat,
road and on foot
• remote: all others
Household survey and monitoring
In order to obtain a detailed and precise picture
of livelihood fluctuations over distance, we
initiated a household survey in seven different
locations chosen according to their accessibility,
distance to forest resources and distance to
the market. A total of 254 households were
included. Along with the demographic and asset
profile from the census, we also recorded details
of livelihood activities, staple food sources
and incomes. The households interviewed in
2002 were again interviewed in 2004 to assess
changes in livelihood activities and incomes.
Opinion poll
An opinion poll was taken in two locations
(Respen Sembuak and the Upper Tubu) to assess
perceptions among the Punan. In each location,
a panel of the young, middle-aged and old
males and females was asked to identify and to
rank what they considered as advantages and
disadvantages of living in their present location.
Then 116 villagers in Respen and 81 in the Upper
Tubu were individually asked to pick the three
advantages and disadvantages they considered
the most important.
RESULTS
Broad-scale census
Very remote settlements are home to 9.6% of
Punan (Table 1). These settlements have no
direct access to retailers, markets, a dispensary
or school. Accessible settlements benefit from
all four services and host 9.3% of the Punan.
The vast majority (81.1%) of Punan live in
intermediary settlements where at least one out
of the four services is available. More detail is
provided by Levang et al., (2005). Though access
to formal education is quickly improving (85%
of the settlements now have a school), illiteracy
rates remain high, especially among elderly
people and women. There is a strong correlation
between accessibility and literacy rates (Table 1).
Access to health care is very problematic as only
43% of all Punan settlements are located close to
a dispensary or hospital. Sanitary conditions are
poor and hygiene is dubious, especially among
children. Child mortality was calculated by taking
the percentage of the number of children who
died of the total number of children born. The
rates are high by any standard, but alarmingly so
for the most remote settlements (Table 1), where,
on average, child mortality is five times higher in

14 CHAPTER 2
very remote settlements than in villages closer to
towns. Life expectancy is rather short, with no
significant difference according to accessibility,
as shown by the very small percentage of people
over 65 years of age.
The main scientific question arising from these
figures concerns the reason for these differences
in child mortality according to the location of
the settlement. Is this higher mortality due to
unhealthier life conditions in the forest or to
limited access to health care? The answer to this
question is important for public health officers
in order for them to choose the most effective
solutions with regard to health-care provision.
Faced with this major problem, the IRD (Institut
de Recherche pour le Développement) team
decided to initiate the ‘diet and disease’ research
programme. In brief, this research concluded
that the diet and fitness of Punan living in the
forest was on average a little better than those
of Punan living in towns (see Dounias, this
volume). The main cause of child mortality
in remote settlements is due to the exposure
to malarial epidemic infections. The disease,
brought in by migrants returning from Malaysia,
has a disastrous impact on young children
lacking immunity in an environment free of most
transmissible diseases (Dounias and Froment,
2006). Quite paradoxically, the healthier forest
environment is the main reason for higher child
mortality. As a consequence, opening up remote
areas in order to access health services appears
to be one of the best solutions to the problem
of high child mortality in isolated settlements.
Meanwhile, local public health services need
to be upgraded. Visits to remote settlements by
travelling medics and the regular distribution
of appropriate medicine should both become
routine. Cooperation between district health
services and Médecins du Monde has recently
been initiated for this purpose.
About 80% of Punan households own their
house. One-fifth either lives in huts on their
swiddens or share a house with a relative. As
usual in Kalimantan, houses are made of wood
and built on stilts. According to the Punan, poor
housing means a bark floor and walls, and a thatch
roof. About 13% of the households live in such
conditions, mostly in the remotest settlements.
Only 3% of the houses are equipped with toilets
and 4% with a complete bathroom. All others
rely on the nearby river for their sanitation and
washing needs.
With reference to household assets, nearly half
of the families own at least one boat engine
(long-tail or outboard). Chainsaws are common
equipment in remote villages, while televisions
Table 1. Differences in selected household characteristics in relation to accessibility of the settlement (%)
Attribute Category Relative distance from District capital All
settlements
Very remote Remote Accessible
Demographics No. of inhabitants 9.6 81.1 9.3 100.0
Males under 15 40.7 35.9 35.5
Females under 15 42.0 37.4 30.3
Males over 65 0.0 2.3 0.2
Females over 65 0.5 1.9 0.0
Illiteracy rates Illiteracy male 54.9 33.5 16.8 33.6
Illiteracy female 76.7 48.9 29.9 49.3
Illiteracy all 65.8 40.9 23.3 41.2
Child mortality Average child mortality 36.0 27.0 7.0
Assets owned Long tail engine 27.9 47.5 25.7 43.8
Outboard engine 1.0 5.4 1.2 4.6
Chainsaw 5.9 16.3 9.4 14.7
Generator 0.0 7.5 0.0 6.2
Television 0.5 11.3 22.8 11.2
VCD 3.4 10.5 4.1 9.3
Refrigerator 0.0 1.8 0.6 1.5

TECHNICAL REPORT OF ITTO PD 39/00 Rev. 3(F) 15
and VCDs are well distributed in settlements close
to towns with electricity (Table 1). Considering
assets, Punan households largely keep up with
other ethnic groups of the district. Phase 1
research already concluded that the same was
true for incomes. As Punan households generally
give priority to cash-earning activities, such as
gaharu collection, over subsistence activities, the
average monetary income of Punan settlements
is often higher than the average monetary income
of neighbouring Dayak villages.
Household survey and monitoring
Household survey results indicated that there
were many differences between settlements
and between households within the same
settlement. However, overall, three major types
of Punan settlements emerge from the census
and household surveys. These types are clearly
related to their location on the watersheds:
• The diversied settlement type corresponds
to the ‘accessible’ category of the census.
These settlements are located close to district
capitals, along roads or major waterways.
They benefit from good access to markets
and services and households have multiple
opportunities to make a living;
• The gaharu collectors’ settlement type is
located mid-stream, in rather remote but
not too isolated areas. Heads of households
are trapped in debt with patrons specialised
in forest product trade. For the time being,
gaharu is the main, if not only, article of trade.
Other products such as birds’ nests, bezoar
stones and game are secondary in importance
when compared to gaharu. Though gaharu
collection is their main activity, nearly all
households farm small swiddens to ensure at
least partial food security;
• The subsistence type concerns families living
in very remote settlements where accessibility
is so limited that traders seldom visit the
area. Households depend on agriculture
and on forest products for their daily needs.
Opportunities for cash earnings are rare.
Considering Punan livelihoods in more detail,
three strategies dominate: namely agricultural
activities, forest product collection and off-
Living in the Upper Tubu means no access to health services
or education, but good access to forest resources
(Photos by Patrice Levang)

16 CHAPTER 2
farm activities (Table 2). Broadly speaking, the
contribution of these three strategies is relatively
equal in the very remote sites. This changes in
favour of forest products in the remote sites as
they as are more conveniently located with
relatively easy access to both forest resources
and markets. And finally, in more accessible
communities, off-farm activities predominate.
Agricultural activities entail essentially the
swidden cultivation of upland rice. The majority
(92%) of all households surveyed produce rice,
mostly on swiddens, and in rare cases in lowland
conditions. Rice is set aside for the family’s
consumption or sometimes bartered for other
goods, but rarely sold. There is large variation in
the size of the area planted and in subsequent
yields. Though the total rice production in 2002
covered the needs of the population, only 51%
of the households proved self-sufficient. When
rice stocks are finished, the family resorts to the
consumption of cassava, corn or taro, which is
frequently intercropped with the rice. When all
crops have been consumed, wild sago starch
serves as the ultimate safety net. Sago is absent
from the diet of villages close to markets, but can
represent 12% in very remote settlements, such
as those of the Upper Tubu. The contribution
of secondary food crops, plantation crops and
animal husbandry to the family’s cash income is
almost always minor (Levang et al., 2005a).
Forest products collection involves a large
number of households, especially in areas with
intermediate accessibility. Gaharu collection
is the main cash-providing activity for most
households. Birds’ nest collection generates
higher incomes but involves only a limited
number of families. The same is true for timber
extraction, especially in the more accessible
settlements. Other products such as fish, bush
meat and honey are still relatively unimportant
apart from in villages close to urban markets.
Income generated from off-farm activities is
generally high but involves only a limited number
of families located in accessible settlements.
Salaried workers and civil servants are rare
among the Punan. Honoraria for duties in village
administration appears important because of the
small size of most Punan villages; on average
five persons receive honoraria in villages of
approximately 20 families. Day labourers can
find occasional jobs in urban areas. Income
from retailing or trade is minor as most traders
are outsiders. Gold panning and handicrafts
provide additional income in specific areas. The
only source of income available to all families
in a settlement is the redistribution of fees or
royalties to the local population by loggers and
coal miners. Therefore, most villagers are eager
to strike deals with them (Sitorus, 2004; Levang
et al., 2005b).
Table 2. Participation and contribution to cash incomes from primary livelihood sources of households
in settlements of different distances to district centres
Livelihood
source Category
Very remote Remote Accessible
%
partic
% of hh
income
%
partic
% of hh
income
%
partic
% of hh
income
Agriculture Rice cultivation 88.6 34.8 93.9 19.9 91.7 15.0
Animal husbandry 82.9 2.5 22.2 2.0 16.7 1.4
Total: all agriculture 100.0 37.8 93.9 25.3 92.5 18.9
Forest
products
Fish 13.1 0.4 19.2 1.4
Gaharu 85.7 30.3 70.7 34.3 22.5 4.5
Birds’ nests 5.7 0.6 5.1 2.5 4.2 3.8
Timber 8.1 3.9 22.5 9.6
Bushmeat 17.1 1.0 6.1 0.5 12.5 2.1
Total: all forest prod 94.3 36.5 79.8 42.7 60.0 21.8
Off-farm
activities
Honorarium 28.6 16.2 13.1 5.4 26.7 6.1
Fees 54.4 9.5 70.8 28.6
Salaried worker 1.0 0.7 4.2 4.1
Civil servant 1.0 2.1 4.2 5.4
Total: all off farm 51.4 25.7 82.8 32.0 97.5 59.3

TECHNICAL REPORT OF ITTO PD 39/00 Rev. 3(F) 17
The relative contribution of the different sources
to the households’ total income is closely linked
to the accessibility of the settlement (Figure 2).
The contribution of agriculture is relatively
similar in all settlements because it is dominated
by swidden rice farming, an activity practised
by nearly all households. Forest product
collection dominates in intermediate locations,
while the largest range of off-farm activities can
be found in villages close to town. On average
the annual income of a Punan household in the
region in 2002 ranged from 11 million rupiah
in accessible villages, to 8 million rupiah in
intermediate locations and slightly more than 4
million rupiah in very remote areas.
The overall dependency of Punan households
on forest resources, directly and indirectly, is
still strong. On average nearly one-third of the
total income is provided by the collection of
forest products, mainly gaharu and timber. If one
adds the fees paid by loggers to communities,
then together they would represent half of
the total household income. Considering that
agricultural activities strictly depend on the
availability of primary and secondary forests for
swidden cultivation, and that most wage labour
and other off-farm labour opportunities are
provided by loggers, then it is likely that more
than 75% of the total income is derived from
forest resources.
This result is hardly surprising since the Punan
have always been dependent on forest resources.
However, faced with modernity there has been
a tremendous shift from sustainable dependency
to unsustainable dependency. The rush for
gaharu has been such that the current high
collection costs discourage most gatherers and
even traders from organising long collection
trips. In relation to hunting for bezoar stones,
the shift from blowpipes to shotguns has meant
leaf monkeys (Presbytis spp.) are on the verge of
extinction. In all accessible areas, the forest has
been first overexploited by large concessionaires
and then plundered by illegal