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The Development of an Emotion Lexicon for the Coffee Drinking Experience
Abstract
Consumer products are perceived via sensory aspects that stimulate emotional responses. A small number of emotion lexicons for food have been developed, and these emotion instruments for general consumption experience might not uncover the deeper and distinct emotions created by specific products, especially those consumed primarily for pleasure (e.g., coffee). The objective of this study was to develop an emotion lexicon that could be used to identify and describe feelings that occur during coffee drinking. In first part of the study, focus groups of coffee drinkers were held to generate emotion terms related to coffee drinking. The terms generated were further refined by 48 coffee drinkers using check-all-that-apply scale with two coffee samples. The final list comprised of 86 items, 47 generated by coffee drinkers and 39 terms from the Essence Profile® (King & Meiselman, 2010). In the second part, six coffees were tested with 94 consumers using the developed lexicon. The emotion questionnaire was administered twice – before and during coffee drinking on a 5-point scale. Overall acceptability of the samples was also asked in the study. The consumers were clustered into 6 clusters using the overall acceptability scores. Stepwise regression analysis with forward selection was done on the entire data set, by each consumer cluster, and by each coffee sample to identify the important emotion terms, which resulted in the selection of 44 emotion terms out of which 17 terms were from the Essence Profile®. It is evident that a complex product like coffee may need a specific emotion lexicon to uncover more information about how different coffee samples impact emotional responses in diverse coffee drinkers.
... This vocabulary (Table 12.1) was developed to evaluate foods from different categories, but different emotions can arise according to specific experiences, depending on the country, region, culture, and product, making some words irrelevant within an analysis and generating confusion for the consumer. Therefore, there is a need to develop specific emotion lexicons for each food, making it possible to provide more detailed and real information (Bhumiratana et al., 2014). In this sense, it is necessary to develop specific vocabularies to increase the discriminative power of these lists, considering cultural issues and particularities of each food (Bhumiratana et al., 2014;Chaya et al., 2015;Ng et al., 2013). ...
... Therefore, there is a need to develop specific emotion lexicons for each food, making it possible to provide more detailed and real information (Bhumiratana et al., 2014). In this sense, it is necessary to develop specific vocabularies to increase the discriminative power of these lists, considering cultural issues and particularities of each food (Bhumiratana et al., 2014;Chaya et al., 2015;Ng et al., 2013). ...
... An alternative to increase the discriminative power of emotion lists is to use predefined vocabularies available in the literature with new lists developed by consumers when evaluating a specific product Chapter 12 An emotional approach to beef evaluation by brazilian consumers 201 category (Ng et al., 2013). With this in mind, authors developed lists of emotions for different foods or specific target audiences, such as the emotions evoked by coffee consumption in the United States studied by Bhumiratana et al. (2014), resulting in a total of 44 terms of which only 17 are part of the original EsSense Profile. ...
Market products are becoming more and more competitive, understanding the drivers of linking that going beyond sensory attributes and understanding the emotions involved in the consumption of a product help in product development, marketing, and sales actions to drive product differentiation. This chapter provides an overview of the study of emotions applied to meat products and practical aspects of applying a self-report questionnaire using the RATA methodology.
... Of the 100 participants, 53 drank brewed black coffee 3-5 times a week, while 32 did once daily, and 15 did more than once daily. Bhumiratana et al. [21] classified participants who drank coffee 1-2 times a week, 3-5 times a week, and at least once daily as 'light', 'medium', and 'heavy' users, respectively. Thus, according to these authors, the consumer participants of this study consisted of 53 medium users and 47 heavy users of brewed black coffee. ...
... The CATA question included 20 emotion terms (Table 2) selected from our previous study [27], in which a consumer-defined emotion lexicon for coffee-drinking was developed and further refined by Thai coffee drinkers. Of the 20 terms, 15 terms were similar to those listed in the EsSense Profile TM (ESP) [10], WellSense Profile TM [42] and/or Coffee-drinking Experience (CDE) Profile [21], while five terms were newly generated by Thai coffee drinkers. Terms were presented in a random order among consumers in accordance with other studies [15,26] to minimize the visual processing effect on participants [43]. ...
... b Terms that were also present in the WellSense Profile TM [42]. c Terms that were also present in the Coffee-drinking Experience (CDE) Profile [21]. ...
The link between coffee aroma/flavor and elicited emotions remains underexplored. This research identified key sensory characteristics of brewed black coffee that affected acceptance, purchase intent and emotions for Thai consumers. Eight Arabica coffee samples were evaluated by eight trained descriptive panelists for intensities of 26 sensory attributes and by 100 brewed black coffee users for acceptance, purchase intent and emotions. Results showed that the samples exhibited a wide range of sensory characteristics, and large differences were mainly described by the attributes coffee identity (coffee ID), roasted, bitter taste, balance/blended and fullness. Differences also existed among the samples for overall liking, purchase intent and most emotion terms. Partial least square regression analysis revealed that liking, purchase intent and positive emotions, such as active, alert, awake, energetic, enthusiastic, feel good, happy, jump start, impressed, pleased, refreshed and vigorous were driven by coffee ID, roasted, ashy, pipe tobacco, bitter taste, rubber, overall sweet, balanced/blended, fullness and longevity. Contrarily, sour aromatic, sour taste, fruity, woody, musty/earthy, musty/dusty and molasses decreased liking, purchase intent and positive emotions, and stimulated negative emotions, such as disappointed, grouchy and unfulfilled. This information could be useful for creating or modifying the sensory profile of brewed black coffee to increase consumer acceptance.
... Emotion incidence can be accompanied by two central affect orders in emotional expression; Classification: arousal, manifested by positive responses from ANS; and affective response: positive or negative, and the same valence emotion tends to present a strong correlation among them (Richins, 1997). Different studies have explored variations on both axes to theorize emotion classification (Ortony and Turner, 1990;Laros and Steemkamp, 2005;Barrett, 2006;Bhumiratana et al., 2014). ...
... King and Meiselman (2010) developed the EsSence Profile TM (ESP), consisting of 39 emotional terms related to general food. Due to the specificities and consumption contexts of coffee beverages, Bhumiratana et al. (2014) developed an emotional lexicon, based on ESP terms and other terms elicited from focus groups. An additional group for term classification named alert and focused mental state, coherent with the physiological effects of coffee consumption was created. ...
... An additional group for term classification named alert and focused mental state, coherent with the physiological effects of coffee consumption was created. Then based on the aforementioned studies, more specifically that by Bhumiratana et al. (2014), Ricardi (2016) developed a specific emotional lexicon directed to Brazilian consumers composed of 36 emotional terms: active, well-disposed, joyful, concentrated, awake, laid-back, saudade (nostalgic), energized, satisfied, clever, relaxed, free, good, warm, comprehensive, pleasant, guilty, healthy, amusing, tranquil, bored, refreshed, happy, pleasure, attentive, good mood, relieved, comfortable, sociable, willing, wild, sickened, satiated, stimulated, worried and thoughtful. In this context, the present study aimed to develop the coffee taster's emotion wheel as a facilitating tool to evaluate coffee consumption emotions and identify the consumer's emotions evoked by coffee tasting. ...
Coffee is one of the most popular beverages in the world (International Trade Centre, 2011International Trade Centre, 2011). Considering that sensory quality is the most profoundly related aspect to perceived quality, the development of innovations in Sensory Sciences directed to coffee may represent an important tool for this product’s quality improvement. Therefore, studies have explored more unconscious responses that precede the evaluation’s cognitive process, such as emotional responses. This study analyzed the emotional profile of four coffee samples produced at Serra de Baturite, CE, Brazil. Two focus groups were conducted to confirm or add emotional terms using the Rate-all-that-apply (RATA) technique and a hedonic scale with 106 consumer subjects. When arranged according to the acceptance profile, consumer clusters showed specific emotional patterns for coffee consumption clearly related to coffee acceptance. A coffee taster’s emotion wheel was also developed, which systematically presents the emotional terms of coffee guided according to its affective valence and increasing arousal. Next, the terms’ plot distribution was created based on their correlation from RATA data, and classification was established between the terms in the literature. The coffees’ acceptance pattern varied according to the expected emotional pattern observed in evaluating the ideal sample, showing that triggering expected emotions at the appropriate intensity directly impacts acceptance and can be explored to guide the consumer’s choice. Finally, the coffee taster’s emotion wheel can facilitate identifying emotions by the consumer and represent an enriching instrument to complement the previous list of analyses to better guide consumers to classify their emotional perception.
... Interest in measuring product-related emotions has recently grown due to evidence that emotions play a significant role in influencing consumers' food choice and consumption behaviors (Jaeger & Hedderley, 2013;Jaeger, Spinelli, Ares, & Monteleone, 2018;Kenney & Adhikari, 2016;Piqueras-Fiszman & Jaeger, 2015;Prescott, 2017). Understanding consumers' emotions in response to coffee drinking can reveal important information about their coffee drinking experience (CDE), as shown by Bhumiratana, Adhikari, and Chambers IV (2014) while developing a 44-term CDE emotion lexicon. They found that coffee drinkers sought different emotional experiences during consumption from the beverage including high-energy emotions, low-energy emotions, and a feeling of focused mental state. ...
... Pre-measured amounts of condiments (creamer and sweetening agent), according to each consumer's preference were added to each coffee sample. This was done to maintain consistency and avoid possible discrepancies in case participants chose to not add the same amount of the condiments each time (Bhumiratana et al., 2014). Between 230 and 240 ml, coffee was poured in each cup (236-ml Dixie PerfecTouch Insulated Paper Hot Coffee Cup; ...
... Each coffee ballot asked participants to indicate how much they liked the coffee on a 9-point hedonic scale (1 = dislike extremely to 9 = like extremely), how familiar (in terms of flavor perception) was the coffee on a category scale of 1-7 (1 = very unfamiliar and 7 = very familiar), and their willingness to buy the coffee on a category scale of 1-5 (1 = very unlikely and 5 = very likely). Participants were also asked to rate their emotions during consumption of the coffee using the pre-existing "CDE emotion lexicon" consisting of 44 terms (Table 1) developed by Bhumiratana et al., (2014). They were asked to circle the degree of intensity they were experiencing each emotion using a scale of 0 (not at all) to 4 (extremely). ...
The current study determined the hedonic perception and emotion response during coffee consumption, and also aimed to understand the coffee drinkers' involvement and consumption habits related to this beverage. An acceptability and an emotions test followed by an attitudinal survey on consumption habits and coffee involvement were performed with three coffees samples. Results suggest that coffee drinkers, in general, drink coffee to experience sensory gratification and elicitation of positive emotions, and absence of negative emotions. Three consumer clusters were identified and the data reaffirmed that consumers' like and dislike were directly related to positive and negative emotions, respectively. It also revealed that the absence of interest for samples can dampen the emotion response drastically as seen with Cluster 2. Although all three clusters cared about coffee very much, there were no distinct patterns that tied their preferences in the test to their coffee consumption habits and perception.
Practical Applications
With the advent of specialty coffee and coffee shops, consumers are approaching coffee from a drinking experience perspective rather than just caffeine fix. Consumers want to know more about the origins of their coffee, which is also tied to their increased awareness of sustainability and quality issues. The results of this study, we hope, will help provide guidance to the coffee industry and growers in understanding the expectations of the coffee drinker and hence, market their coffees effectively.
... We conducted two tests to generate a lexicon for stimulus-evoked emotions, and then, utilizing this lexicon, measured emotional responses. First, in test 1, the emotions evoked in Koreans and Americans by the colors and health functionality information of cooked colored rice were extracted via focus group interviews (FGI), and an emotion lexicon was confirmed through an online consumer survey ("first online consumer survey") [30]. Subsequently, in test 2, we used the lexicon developed in test 1 and performed the second online consumer survey to investigate how the emotions evoked by cooked colored rice stimuli differed between Koreans and Americans. ...
... Qualified applicants satisfying the requirements were selected. Based on the study conducted by Bhumiratana et al. [30] who utilized FGIs to develop an emotion lexicon for coffee beverages, we recruited a total of 20 people for this study: 10 Koreans and 10 Americans living in Korea. ...
... Jiang et al. [10] proposed that to develop a lexicon for food, existing measuring tools for emotions should be used, and that complementary emotions regarding products should be obtained via consumer feedback collected using FGIs, after which these terms should be screened by means of statistical analysis. The current study generally followed the process developed by Jiang et al. [10], referencing the FGI process by Kim and Lee [51] and the lexicon development process by King and Meiselman [25] as well as by Bhumiratana et al. [30]. ...
This study aimed to examine the emotional responses evoked by cooked colored rice and its health functionality information in both consumers who eat rice as a staple food and consumers who do not eat rice as a staple food. Specifically, Korean and American consumers were exposed to colored rice and its health functionality information and an emotion lexicon was generated and measured based on focus group interviews (FGI) and two online consumer surveys. In test 1, the emotions evoked by presentation of stimuli to Koreans (N = 10) and Americans (N = 10) were extracted through FGIs and the first online consumer survey (Koreans = 69; Americans = 68) and an emotion lexicon was generated. As a result, a total of 34 terms were confirmed. Test 2 was conducted during the second online consumer survey (capturing data from a total of 208 Koreans and 208 Americans), utilizing the terms generated in test 1. In this test, only the colors (CO) of colored rice were presented to one group, while colors and health functionality information (CO&H) were presented to the other group. The overall liking for stimuli in both countries was highly correlated with familiarity. Koreans showed significantly more familiarity and liking for CO of white and black CO rice, while Americans showed significantly more familiarity and liking for CO of white and yellow rice. Hierarchical cluster analysis was performed to categorize the emotion terms, and the emotion terms were sorted into the three clusters, “Positive”, “Negative”, and “New”, for both countries. Under informed conditions, the emotions became more positive, and emotions in the “New” cluster were evoked in both countries. The current study employed a cross-cultural approach to assess consumers’ emotional responses to colored rice and health functionality information. Our findings suggest that providing foods with preferred colors for each culture and providing sufficient information on the said foods will help to promote unfamiliar foods.
... Habit, ceasing fatigue, invigoration, improving concentration, taste, smell, symptom management, mood, and social reason were the main identified categories. In 2014, Bhumiratana, Ashikari, and Chambers [43] identified a vocabulary describing the experience induced by coffee consumption. A total of 44 terms of emotion were identified through a focus group, 17 of which confirmed the EsSense Profile ® . ...
... Then, coffee consumers selected the emotions evoked by coffee consumption. The list of proposed emotions was based on the Coffee Drinking Experience lexicon [43] and on the EsSense Profile [36]. In addition, the third section aimed at exploring the motives of coffee non-consumption, including taste, doctor recommendation, perception of unhealthiness, negative influence on anxiety, increases nervousness, stimulates insomnia, not a personal habit, and other. ...
... Both countries' consumers confirmed this coffee drinking motivation. In addition, habit unfamiliarity and the belief that coffee increases blood pressure and nervousness are detrimental to coffee drinking [19,43]. The current study expands past knowledge supporting that taste, sense of alertness, and habit are key factors across genders and age levels. ...
Coffee is one of the most consumed beverages worldwide. Over the last decades coffee has become a specialty product. Drinking a coffee beverage entails several mixed factors, such as pleasure, experience, lifestyle, and social status. It can also provide an emotional pick-up, both mentally and physically. Only a few studies have explored the motives and emotions of coffee consumption and not consumption. There is limited understanding of consumers’ emotional approach towards coffee, and what influences a positive and negative inclination towards coffee consumption. This research fills the current research gaps by addressing three main questions: (i) What are the emotions and habits of coffee consumption? (ii) What are the motives of coffee consumption and non-consumption? and (iii) How relevant is the coffee health impact perception of consuming or not consuming coffee? The research activities include 467 face-to-face interviews with consumers. Interviews are performed in two different countries, Italy and Portugal. Data elaboration includes a principal component analysis carried out to identify latent factors on motives and emotions of consumption in both national groups, and to explore the relationship between the main emotions and consumers’ habits and socio-economic characteristics. Results support that consumers have positive emotions from coffee consumption. Perceived emotions are energy, satisfaction, and pleasure. Non-consumption is mainly driven by taste and fear of coffee’s health impacts. There are limited differences in the countries analysed. Socio-economic characteristics limitedly influence perceived emotions and consumption motives. To conclude, consumers are increasingly interested in new coffee products. Understanding the functional and emotional factors of coffee consumption contributes to supporting new coffee product development and commercialisation.
... The "conventional" method to generate emotional lexicons is conducted after four different steps: 1) terms generation, 2) reduction of terms by removing synonyms and irrelevant terms, 3) grouping of terms into categories to reduce the length of the questionnaire (optional step), and 4) testing of the lexicon. For the first step (terms generation), three principal approaches have been reported in the literature, depending on the source of the emotional terms: a) consumer-led approaches, where consumers generate the emotional terms (Bhumiratana, Adhikari, & Chambers, 2014;Chaya et al., 2015;Ng et al., 2013;, b) linguistic-based approaches, where specialists or researchers present an existing list of emotions from the literature (Ferrarini et al., 2010;Gmuer et al., 2015;King & Meiselman, 2010), and c) a combination of the two previous methods, where consumers generate the emotional terms with the support of terms from the bibliography (Danner et al., 2016;Manzocco, Rumignani, & Lagazio, 2013; van Zyl & Meiselman, 2015). Once the terms have been generated, the synonyms should be removed from the list, and a panel of consumers has to check the relevance of the emotional words for the studied product. ...
... Similarly, Chaya et al. (2015) used a linear scale to rate the relevance of terms to measure the emotional response to beer. However, Bhumiratana et al. (2014) and Gunaratne et al. (2019) applied Check-All-That-Apply (CATA) methodology to eliminate unrelated emotions. Our study shows that GIT is a suitable method to remove irrelevant terms. ...
... Similar results were reported by Mora et al. (2018) and were consistent with the first dimension of the circumplex model of emotions (Larsen & Diener, 1992;Russel, 1980;Watson & Tellegen, 1985). However, the second dimension of the present study (PC2) did not follow the theoretical model of previous literature and reported in other studies, in which a clearer relationship between PC2 and activation/arousal was evidenced for wine (Mora (Ng et al., 2013), beer (Chaya et al., 2015;Eaton et al., 2019, Mora et al., 2019, and coffee (Bhumiratana et al., 2014). Apparently, results from this research showed that the emotions associated with low or high activation were not so related to PC2 but were more combined with the valence axis (PC1). ...
The development of emotional lexicons can be seen as a time- and resource-consuming activity. Several rapid methods have been developed for time-restricted studies, but the suitability of these methodologies in the development of emotional lexicons compared to conventional ones has not been investigated.
The aim of this study was to test the suitability of a rapid method, as it is the Sorting Task, for emotional lexicon development compared to a conventional procedure. For this purpose, two different approaches (conventional vs rapid-method) were tested to evaluate wines.
222 consumers participated in the lexicon development procedure. A common phase of generation and filtering of the terms was carried out for the development of both lexicons. Then, two approaches were used, one applying the procedures proposed in the literature (conventional, herein as Lexicon I) and the other applying Sorting Task (rapid-method, herein as Lexicon II). To test both lexicons, consumer studies (n=185) were conducted using a set of seven commercial wines.
Both methods were helpful in discriminating emotional responses. Lexicon I reported a wine effect for 10 of the 13 emotional categories, while the Lexicon II discriminated the samples in all 15 categories. Although multifactorial analysis showed a high agreement between configurations (RV=0.985), the emotional map of both lexicons did not follow the theoretical circumplex model of emotions. SADNESS and NOSTALGIA feelings were related to the second axis.
In conclusion, both methods provided similar maps of wines, but Lexicon II was more efficient in terms of time and resources during the lexicon development.
... An emotion lexicon is a list of emotion words or phrases used to describe emotions. Food-elicited emotion lexicons can be (a) language or culture-specific 1 , containing for example only Italian emotion words [4] , (b) cross-linguistic or crosscultural, containing for example Dutch and Portuguese emotion words [5] , (c) general, containing words expressing emotions elicited by food in general [3] , (d) food-specific, containing words expressing emotions elicited by a specific type of food such as coffee [6] . ...
... Beverages, even if equally liked by consumers within a specific group (i.e., who have the same age, gender, or frequency of consumption), can have very different emotional profiles. In a study, consumers grouped according to their frequency of consumption as "heavy ", "medium ", and "light " users, who liked light and dark roast coffee samples equally, expressed different emotions towards each sample: positive-high energy emotions were generated when drinking one type of coffee (active, boosted, energetic, rested, and empowering), while positive-low energy feelings were felt when drinking another type of coffee (comfortable, pleasant, warm) or a third one (relaxed, curious) [6] . In a study comparing beer, wine, and non-alcoholic beer, consumers distinctively expressed feeling free when drinking beer, calm and loving when drinking wine, but safe, responsible, rational, and conscious when drinking nonalcoholic beer [5] . ...
There is rising research interest in consumers’ emotions elicited by foods. To this end, emotion lexicons as part of food-evoked emotion measurement methods have been developed. Though there are various methods and techniques for emotion measurement, verbal self-report on behalf of the consumer has been identified as the most direct means of assessing the experience of emotion. The focus of this review is mapping the development of lexicons of food-evoked emotions, and their implementation in questionnaires to identify gaps and opportunities in research and methodologies currently developed. The emotion lexicon and emotion measurement questionnaires of the last decade have been reviewed, including adaptations, and presented in a systematic way according to approach, method and technique used, and objectives of study. The manuscript is structured in such a way that it can be used both as an in-depth review of the subject and as a tool for new and future users of lexicon applications for the assessment of consumer responses. The categorization presented is useful in emotion lexicon development, product development, and marketing, in food and consumer studies in general. This review provides experts and non-experts interested in working with emotions with categorizations, available options with their advantages and disadvantages for each step of the process, from developing a food-related emotion lexicon and designing an emotion measurement questionnaire to implementing the tool and analyzing the data.
... While most emotion terms included in predefined general (e.g. EsSense and EsSense25 Profiles) (King & Meiselman, 2010;Nestrud et al., 2016) and consumer-led food product specific lexicons (Bhumiratana, Adhikari, & Chambers IV, 2014;Chaya et al., 2015;Dorado, Chaya, Tarrega, & Hort, 2016;Eaton, Chaya, Smart, & Hort, 2019;Gunaratne et al., 2019;Jaeger, Cardello, & Schutz, 2013;Mora, Giussani, Pagliarini, & Chaya, 2019;Ng, Chaya, & Hort, 2013) are positive, the present findings highlights the importance of including some relevant negative emotion terms in the dataset even when they were rated very low in the data. This is consistent with previous studies (Bhumiratana et al., 2014;Danner et al., 2016;Ng et al., 2013;Spinelli et al., 2015;Spinelli, Masi, Dinnella, Zoboli, & Monteleone, 2014) showing that the inclusion of negative emotion terms in emotion lexicon, even if generally rated less frequently or rated lower in intensity in comparison to positive terms is crucial to obtain important additional information. ...
... EsSense and EsSense25 Profiles) (King & Meiselman, 2010;Nestrud et al., 2016) and consumer-led food product specific lexicons (Bhumiratana, Adhikari, & Chambers IV, 2014;Chaya et al., 2015;Dorado, Chaya, Tarrega, & Hort, 2016;Eaton, Chaya, Smart, & Hort, 2019;Gunaratne et al., 2019;Jaeger, Cardello, & Schutz, 2013;Mora, Giussani, Pagliarini, & Chaya, 2019;Ng, Chaya, & Hort, 2013) are positive, the present findings highlights the importance of including some relevant negative emotion terms in the dataset even when they were rated very low in the data. This is consistent with previous studies (Bhumiratana et al., 2014;Danner et al., 2016;Ng et al., 2013;Spinelli et al., 2015;Spinelli, Masi, Dinnella, Zoboli, & Monteleone, 2014) showing that the inclusion of negative emotion terms in emotion lexicon, even if generally rated less frequently or rated lower in intensity in comparison to positive terms is crucial to obtain important additional information. ...
Sensory evaluation for the investigation of food consumption is often conducted in a controlled laboratory environment, which does not reflect consumption behaviour in real world. Here, we compared the effect of consumption setting (traditional sensory booth, mixed reality projection café, and a café) on consumer affective responses, and to investigate the effectiveness of using Microsoft HoloLens technology, an Augmented Mixed Reality device, as an ecologically valid alternative to natural consumption eating for sensory evaluation. Participant [(n = 120): 86 females/34 males, aged 18–65 years] affective response (overall liking, attribute liking, emotional response, and snack choice) towards two commercially available tea break snacks (caramel slice and chocolate digestive biscuit) was assessed in three different consumption settings using a balanced crossover design. There were no significant differences for most affective ratings between data obtained from the HoloLens evoked café and real café (p ≥ 0.10), suggesting that mixed reality could provide an ecologically valid context for consumer research. However, response differences were observed between these two contexts and the sensory booths. For example, interested, joy, enthusiastic emotion terms were rated slightly higher in the evoked café in comparison to the booth context and slightly higher emotional engagement was observed for joy in the café compared to the booths (all p < .10). This study highlights key considerations for deciding where consumer testing should be conducted and the importance of using a combination of overall liking, attribute liking and emotional response to obtain data representative of real-world environments in consumer studies.
... To expand understanding on how different aromas can elicit certain emotions, the development of suitable tools to measure emotions is needed (Porcherot et al., 2010) and different authors have developed generic or product-specific lexicons to verbally measure foodevoked emotions (e.g: Bhumiratana, Adhikari, & Chambers IV, 2014;Gunaratne et al., 2019;Hu & Lee, 2019;Mora, Giussani, Pagliarini, & Chaya, 2019). Different generic lexicons have been developed for evaluating everyday odors, such as the Geneva Emotion and Odor Scale (GEOS; Chrea et al., 2009), but there is a lack of methodologies to measure feelings and emotions triggered by gastronomic spaces and/or experiences. ...
... Although back-translation is a very expanded methodology, new consumercentered alternatives have been proposed. Hu and Lee (2019) used a multiple-choice questionnaire for consumers to translate the Coffee Drinking Experience lexicon (Bhumiratana et al., 2014) from English to Korean and Chinese. This methodology considered, not only the language of the end-user, but also culture, reflecting consumers' perception and their use of feelings (Hu & Lee, 2019). ...
Aromas are powerful stimuli capable of triggering emotions. The Geneva Emotion and Odor Scale (GEOS) was developed to measure the affective response to odors, and was later adapted to other countries and cultures (EOSs). Also, an universal scale was proposed (UniGEOS) to be used regardless of the culture, but without considering Spanish-speaking cultures. During the present research, a lexicon for measuring the emotions evoked by food-related odors has been developed, adapting the aforementioned scales to the Spanish population and using a consumer-led approach. Using EOSs lists as starting point, the procedure was: to discard nonemotional terms and translate the selected ones, to group the emotions and remove the irrelevant ones for the food-odors category, and to test the lexicon. The developed lexicon (SEFrOS) contained six categories, 25 terms. The lexicon shared some dimensions with EOSs, but with specific differences, maybe related to culture or the food-linked nature of the lexicon.
Practical applications
Emotions elicited by foods have been investigated during the last years to favor proper products positioning in the market. Odors have been used to modulate customer perceptions and attitudes towards products and stores, because of being closely linked to these emotions' elicitation. Although some lexicons have been developed to assess food-related emotions, no lexicon has been developed to specifically evaluate the emotions elicited by food-odors, and to study the emotions elicited by the odor of food-related spaces. This research presents the development of a new lexicon for food-odors, using previously validated odor scales as starting point, and adapting them to the Spanish population, well-known because of its eating-out model closely related to different food spaces.
... Some pre-established lists have been developed in order to evaluate different products (Chrea et al., 2009;King & Meiselman, 2010;Nestrud, Meiselman, King, Lesher, & Cardello, 2016). However, when considering cultural issues and particularities of each food, there is a need to develope specific vocabularies to increase their reliability and discriminative capability (Bhumiratana, Adhikari, & Chambers, 2014;Chaya et al., 2015;Ng, Chaya, & Hort, 2013). Considering that consumers determine the success or failure of a product in the marketplace, it is extremely important to understand the factors that affect their behavioral patterns. ...
... Fifty regular beef consumers checked all emotions that characterized the Rump cap and Outside flat cuts (which are sensorially different), and later selected the most elicited emotions. At this stage, a very large number of participants is not necessary, as the objective of the CATA test is only to select the most relevant terms that will be used later in a consumer test on a larger scale (Bhumiratana et al., 2014). This assumption is based on results reported by Ares, Tárrega, Izquierdo, and Jaeger (2014), who concluded that samples with a markedly different sensory profile are stable in the sensory space with a low number of consumers (n < 80). ...
For deeper insight into beef consumer experiences during consumption, sensory descriptions seem to be insufficient, and exploration of emotions evoked by this product are required. In this context, the present study aimed to evaluate the emotions evoked by beef consumption in different contexts. To that end, this work was structured as follows: 1) Emotional vocabulary development; 2) Selection of beef cuts; and 3) Emotional profiling of beef cuts. The emotional vocabulary was useful for characterizing emotions evoked by two beef cuts with different sensory profiles, in different contexts, considering a within-subjects design. Rump cap samples showed the highest liking and were associated with positive emotions, while outside flat samples were less liked and characterized by negative emotions. The evoked context had no effect on hedonic and emotional intensities, but increased the number of emotions elicited by consumers. The correlation of sensory, hedonic and emotional information indicated that tenderness and internal color of beef were correlated with positive emotions and higher liking scores.
... .] their perception, judgment and behavior' (Krishna, 2012, p. 333). For coffee drinking experiences, Bhumiratana et al. (2014) have compiled 44 terms that express a wide range of emotions. Mindfulness is 'awareness that emerges through paying attention on purpose, in the present moment, and nonjudgmentally to the unfolding of experience' (Kabat-Zinn, 2003, p. 145). ...
... The product evaluation was mainly influenced by the mindful coffee tasting (sensory intervention). This aligns with earlier findings that the coffee drinking experience comes with emotional stimuli (Bhumiratana et al., 2014). There are also environmental factors that influence coffee tasting (Spence & Carvalho, 2020), which play a lesser role when watching a video or listening to a presentation. ...
Creating connections between consumers and producers (relational proximity) seems a promising approach to foster sustainable consumption behaviour in international food supply. In this intervention study, we tested three experiential marketing interventions to connect consumers to producers of an international community-supported agriculture (CSA) partnership for coffee (Teikei Coffee). Consumers (N = 136), recruited at a fair for sustainable products and lifestyles in Germany, (a) watched a promotional video about the coffee CSA, (b) attended a presentation of the coffee CSA, or (c) participated in a mindful tasting experience of the CSA coffee. Findings indicate that experiential marketing tools, to varying degrees, indeed create connections from consumers to producers, thereby fostering sustainable consumption behaviour. The findings can inform international food supply marketing efforts aimed at stimulating sustainable consumption.
... In his study, people liked drinking coffee because it increased their feelings of relaxation, clear-headedness, and calmness while decreasing drowsiness. It was findings such as those that inspired the development of an emotion questionnaire for the coffee drinking experience that includes terminology such as happiness, activeness, alertness, and decreased depression among many others [20]. Chambers et al. [15] stated that for all mealtimes "liking" remains the leading motivation for eating and drinking foods (coffee included). ...
... A total of 86 terms were identified in a study that investigated the emotions that consumers experienced when they drank coffee. The developed Coffee Drinking Experience (CDE) lexicon included terms such as Active, Awake, Energetic, and Relaxed among many others [20]. By mapping the emotion data with data from the descriptive analysis of the same six samples, the authors identified key flavor attributes that drive the feelings of the coffee drinkers. ...
Flavor continues to be a driving force for coffee’s continued growth in the beverage market today. Studies have identified the sensory aspects and volatile and non-volatile compounds that characterize the flavor of different coffees. This review discusses aspects that influence coffee drinking and aspects such as environment, processing, and preparation that influence flavor. This summary of research studies employed sensory analysis (either descriptive and discrimination testing and or consumer testing) and chemical analysis to determine the impact aspects on coffee flavor.
... Food names elicited mainly positive emotions, which was observed within food categories, and which is coherent with the fact that only familiar foods were selected. These results confirm the hedonic asymmetry found in adults as described by Desmet and Schifferstein (2008) and support previous findings that people mainly use positive emotions to describe food and beverage products (Bhumiratana, Adhikari, & Chambers, 2014;Cardello et al., 2012). Also, some negative emoji pairs were significant discriminators between some food items. ...
Emoji are supposed to simulate facial expressions that convey specific emotions or other situational meanings that are language-independent indicators of emotions with shared meanings between different countries. However, some research demonstrated that the meaning of emoji can differ across countries in adults, but little is known about preadolescents. The aim of Study 1 was to compare the semantic emotional meaning of emoji to describe food experiences between 11-13-y.o. Italian (n=92) and Norwegian (n=109) preadolescents by asking children to describe 46 emoji with emotion words (n=31) using the Check-All-That-Apply format. Spearman’s correlation on the relative frequencies resulting from the Cochran’s Q test and Multiple Factor Analysis (MFA) on the total frequencies of emotion words were applied to compare the emotional meaning between countries. Italian and Norwegian preadolescents were found to describe emoji with overlapping emotional meaning. This allowed the application of an emoji-based self-report questionnaire (CATA Emoji Pair Questionnaire) to measure food-elicited emotions in response to 28 food names of three food categories (fruits, vegetables, desserts/juices) in 148 Norwegian preadolescents (11-13-y.o.) (Study 2). Results showed that emoji pairs discriminated across and within food categories. Emoji pairs were shown to discriminate between food names in the vegetable and dessert/juice category despite similar liking of the products, and to give important additional information helping a better understanding of preadolescents’ food preferences.
... In general terms, "drinking experience" is an appropriate concept to describe the experience when consuming a beverage. Although relatively new, this term has recently been used in research to refer to the measurement of responses associated with drinking beverages such as tea [160], milk [150], coffee [16,155,161], wine [153,154,159] and beer [23][24][25]118]. ...
Beer is one of the most consumed alcoholic beverages in the world; its consumption and preference are evolving from traditional industrial beers of low complexity to novel craft beers with diverse flavour profiles. In such a competitive industry and considering the complexity of consumer behaviour, improvement and innovation become necessary. Consequently, consumer science, which is responsible for identifying the motivation behind customer preferences through their attitudes, perception and behaviour, has implemented strategies ranging from simple hedonic measurements to several innovative and emerging methodologies for a deeper understanding of the variables that affect the product experience: sensory, affective and cognitive. In this context, we offer a review inspired by previous research that explores some of the quantitative and qualitative methods used in consumer studies related to beer consumption, ranging from traditional approaches (acceptability, purchase intention, preference, etc.) to techniques that go beyond acceptability and allow a different understanding of aspects of consumer perception and behaviour (segmentation, expectations, emotions, representation, etc.). Also, innovative applications (contexts, immersive technologies and virtual reality, implicit measures, etc.) and current trends related to consumer science (Internet, social media, pairing, product experience, etc.) are addressed.
... Exploring the emotions associated with food consumption has become more and more mainstream in consumer sensory research during the last years (Lagast, Gellynck, Schouteten, De Herdt, & De Steur, 2017). As a result, several methods have been developed and explored to perform emotion-related measurements such as standardized emotion lexicons (EsSense Profile™, King and Meiselman (2010)), product-specific emotion lexicons (Bhumiratana, Adhikari, & Chambers Iv, 2014;Ng, Chaya, & Hort, 2013), temporal dominance of emotions (Jager et al., 2014), a semiotic approach (EmoSemio, Spinelli, Masi, Dinnella, Zoboli, and Monteleone (2014)), combining emotional and sensory measurements in a single wheel format (EmoSensory® Wheel, Schouteten et al. (2015)) and a valence-arousal circumplex-inspired emotion questionnaire (CEQ, (Jaeger et al., 2020)). ...
Emoji have been suggested as an alternative for word-based questionnaires to measure consumers’ emotional associations of food products. As the uptake of emoji in sensory and consumer science is accelerating, consumer research is still lacking regarding the meaning of emoji in the specific context of eating. The overall aim of the study was to gain insights on the valence, arousal and general similarities-dissimilarities in meaning of 52 facial and non-facial emoji in a food context. Adult consumers (n=460) participated in an online survey including a personalized evoked context priming task for their latest eating occasion, a Projective Mapping (PM) task and a manikin-based valence/arousal evaluation task. As 52 emoji may be overwhelming to assess for the subjects, the second aim of the study was to test out an incomplete block design approach showcasing only 15 emoji per consumer, wherein 7 were recurrent across participants and 8 varied. All participants also assessed an additional ‘last meal occasion’ symbol. INdividual Differences SCALing (INDSCAL) was used to analyse the data from projective mapping. Results show that the incomplete design and INDSCAL modelling approach work well for collecting and analyzing manikin and projective mapping data when a large number of respondents are involved. In PM, the consumers organized the emoji according to their perceived valence on the first dimension. Individual differences occurred in how the participants utilized the second dimension, with arousal appearing as one of the relevant criteria. Consumers’ last eating occasion was characterized by a positive valence and intermediate arousal. No pattern linked to the power dimension emerged. The findings may be useful to researchers and practitioners investigating food-related emotions in adult populations.
... From the emotion circumflex model, 'relaxed' was paired with 'awake/nervous', and 'satisfied' could be paired with 'unsatisfied'. These were also significant emotions in a study by Kanjanakorn and Lee (2017) comparing emotions before and after drinking coffee and were significant emotions in more than three consumer clusters among the six consumer clusters divided by coffee preferences in Bhumiratana, Adhikari, and Chambers (2014). However, the terms 'satisfied' and 'unsatisfied' were replaced with 'good' and 'bad', as they were used in Lee et al. (2021). ...
For successful product development and marketing in the food/beverage industry, it is vital to study the product attributes perceived by consumers effectively and efficiently. Recently, a two-step rating-based ‘double-faced applicability’ (DFA) test was developed to study consumer perception and evaluation of product attributes in a quantitative way using d-prime affect magnitude (d'A) based on signal detection theory. This study assessed the product discrimination and characterization performance and interpretationability of d'A output measures of the DFA approach in comparison with the check-all-that-apply (CATA) question. An independent samples design (each N=108) was used to evaluate eighteen ready-to-drink (RTD) latte products with eighteen attributes. A cluster analysis was also performed, and based on this the relationships of the two output statistics - d'A and total citation frequency were examined. Product attributes were generated based on literature reviews on coffee sensory and emotion studies and sensory/consumer research methodology to encompass consumer perception generally applicable to beverage, and for each attribute, a pair of ‘double-faced’ descriptors in three categories – ‘general weak-strong’, ‘sensory’, and ‘sentimental consequence’ were used for the DFA test. The d'A of the DFA test provided similar product characterization to citation frequency of the CATA question, yet provided better product discrimination and reflected the consumer affective perception for each product independently in a better interpretable way, in valence. It showed a sigmoid relationship with the citation frequency due to its nature of reflecting valence. Overall, the results contribute support for the usefulness of the DFA approach for consumer product testing and suggest the potential of developing a generally applicable DFA test format for studying integrated attribute perception.
... Previous studies demonstrated that emotions influence consumers' choice of food and eating behaviors [68][69][70][71]. Lee et al. [72] found that positive and negative anticipated emotions influence positively desire in the context of pop culture tourism. The anticipated emotions that consumers may experience when consuming a product can help us understand their behavioral intentions and behavior toward the product. ...
With increasing concerns over environmental and animal protection, along with consumers’ preoccupation with health and wellness, the concept of a green diet is gaining popularity. This is leading to a new trend in the food culture of plant-based meat. Employing the extended model of goal-directed behavior (EMGB), this study examines the factors influencing the intentions of young consumers to consume plant-based meat. In particular, this study incorporates two vital constructs in food consumption, namely environmental concern and sensory appeal, into the model of goal-directed behavior (MGB) framework. Data were collected from closed questionnaires: a total of 537 questionnaire responses were gathered in Taiwan. The analysis was performed using the SPSS 25.0 for Windows and AMOS 24.0 for Windows. The results reveal that the EMGB included a satisfactory level of ability in predicting participants’ intentions to consume plant-based meat and was superior to the original MGB. Furthermore, the two incorporated constructs were significant variables influencing consumers’ decision formation. In addition, the attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioral control, and positive anticipated emotion influenced consumer desire, which, in turn, influenced behavioral intentions.
... In the expectation session of the present study, consumers elicited fewer positive and more negative and high-arousal emotions than those in the informed session. These findings suggest that the packaging and labels impacted the emotional responses and are in line with previous studies (Bhumiratana, Adhikari, and Chambers IV (2014); Gutjar et al., 2015;Schouteten et al. (2016a)), which found that participants elicited more negative emotions during the visual assessment of novel products compared to those evoked during the tasting. The types of emotions evoked in the informed session were not different from those in the blind session. ...
Expectations are pre-existing beliefs developed due to prior interactions with products. This study aimed to understand how expectations raised from different packaging materials (four textures x two font colours) affect the approach-based consumer behaviours. Participants evaluated tetra pack, pouch, glass and plastic bottles using white and orange colour fonts in blind (tasting without information), expectation (only packaging) and informed (tasting with packaging) sessions. The sessions had significant effects on freshness and overall liking. Participants had higher expectations of overall liking, which were not fulfilled during the informed session, resulting in an assimilation effect. Participants penalized the juice from the glass-orange bottle and tetra pack-white with mean drops of 1.77 and 1.41 (too little sour). No penalty was observed for the tetra pack in the informed session. Negative emotions “worried” (0.22), “bored” (0.13) and “sad” (0.09) had inverse effects on purchase intention in the expectation session, while positive emotions “happy” (2.35), “enthusiastic” (6.61) and “joyful” (2.38) in the informed sessions had a positive influence on purchase intention. Therefore, marketers and product developers can use this early product research tool to identify expectations and emotions that drive liking and purchase behaviours in the market.
... It has been validated in two formats: check-all-that-apply (CATA) and as a 5-point rating scale (1 = not at all to 5 = extremely). The EsSense Profile® was the starting point of a set of newly developed questionnaires in sensory and consumer science by adjusting the emotion word list to specific product categories through consumer input (Bhumiratana, Adhikari, & Chambers, 2014). A shortened version of the EsSense Profile®, named EsSense25, has been created by Nestrud, Meiselman, King, Lesher, & Cardello (2016). ...
Given the rise of food products targeted at children and the need of healthier products to combat the global rise of childhood obesity, children take an important role in nowadays’ consumer testing. Although children between 4-11 years are already able to perform a range of consumer tests similar to adults, the assessment of children’s food preferences requires engaging and age-appropriate methods. Emotions have been shown to give additional information about food products compared to hedonic measurements, however, they are understudied in children. Growing interest for emoji to measure consumer’s product-elicited emotions emerged in the field of sensory and consumer science over the past years. However, previous studies often selected emoji without the consideration of how emoji are interpreted by preadolescents regarding their semantic and dimensional meanings. Moreover, research found associations between personality traits, taste responsiveness and food preferences, which constitutes another understudied topic in emotion research with children. Understanding this relationship could further help to understand factors influencing preadolescents’ food preferences. To tackle this problem, the aim of the PhD thesis was to develop an emoji-based self-report questionnaire, the Emoji Pair Questionnaire, for preadolescents consisting of a food-specific emoji list with identified emotional meaning and to validate and apply the tool to test its discriminant ability in response to food. A further aim was to investigate individual differences in emotional responses to foods by clustering children according to patterns of emotional responses and by testing the clusters for differences in personality traits, 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP) status and sensory responsiveness to basic tastes. A total of 711 children (9-13-y.o.) participated in seven studies, which attended primary and secondary school classes in schools based in Italy (n=454, Study 1-5) and Norway (n=257, Study 6 and 7). Study 1 identified 46 of 92 emoji as food-related and relevant for children to describe their emotions in response to food experiences. Study 2, that used projective mapping, showed that emoji were discriminated along three dimensions, that were interpreted as valence, power, and arousal. Results of Study 3 and 4, that used the Check-All-That-Apply method with emoji and emotion words respectively, were congruent in linking emoji and emotions words. Positive emoji were described by more words in general, which could be xii explained by the context dependent use of emoji, which was clarified in Study 5 (qualitative interviews). Emoji expressing similar semantic and dimensional meanings were grouped in pairs of two, based on the idea that the grouping of the two emoji with the most similar semantic and dimensional meaning allows to better identify the overall meaning of the emoji pair. Emoji with ambiguous meaning were excluded. Finally, the Emoji Pair Questionnaire contained a reduced list of 17 emoji pairs (n=34 emoji) varying in valence, power, and arousal dimension. Italian and Norwegian preadolescents were found to describe emoji with overlapping emotional meaning (Study 6), which allowed the validation and application of the Emoji Pair Questionnaire in Norway. Findings of Study 7 showed that emoji pairs varied between food categories and were able to discriminate between familiar foods despite similar liking. Emoji also discriminated significantly among food products despite similar liking within the food categories of vegetables and desserts/juices, but not within the fruit category. The tasted samples (grapefruit juice spiked with sucrose) differed in liking and in associated emoji. Children were classified into three clusters according to their emotional patterns in Principal Component Analysis. The three clusters differed also in liking, surprise, sensitivity to reward, responsiveness to sweet, sour, and ability to discriminate between food samples. The findings obtained in this PhD thesis illustrate that the newly developed Emoji Pair Questionnaire can be used to not only understand children’s food behavior but also to develop novel products targeted at specific clusters of children considering their individual differences in emotions, personality traits and sensory responsiveness by providing target-specific products.
... The emotional list can be general (so applicable and used for all food products) e.g. the EsSense Profile™ (King & Meiselman, 2010) or specific for a product based upon prior testing with consumers, known as a product-specific list (Ng et al., 2013a). Product-specific emotional lists using emotional words have been applied to a wide range of food products such as fruit salads (Manzocco, Rumignani, & Lagazio, 2013), chocolate Thomson, Crocker, & Marketo, 2010), beer (Chaya et al., 2015), orange juice (Thomson & Crocker, 2014), coffee (Bhumiratana, Adhikari, & Chambers Iv, 2014) and yogurt (Schouteten, De Steur, Sas, De Bourdeaudhuij, & Gellynck, 2017). Other approaches to measure self-reported emotional associations include the use of terms in a wheel-format, e.g. ...
Emoji have been proposed as a way to get additional insights in how consumers perceive food products. Recent works have indicated that emoji are able to provide distinctive emotional associations with food products, regardless of whether one is using the check-all-that-apply (CATA) or the rate-all-that-apply (RATA) scaling approach. Typically, in examining emotional associations one can work with either a general list which can be used with all food products or a product-specific emotion list. To date, a comparison between the performance of a general and product-specific emoji list with adults is lacking. Moreover, it is unclear to which extent emotional data of emoji help to better predict the actual food choice of adult consumers.
Using five samples of chocolates, this study compared the use of a general list of 39 emoji with a product-specific list of 20 emoji (based upon input of 32 consumers). In total, 138 consumers assessed the samples using the general list while 136 consumers evaluated the samples with the product-specific emoji list. The RATA approach was used for the evaluation of the samples and the actual food choice was registered as participants received a snack portion of the chosen sample to take home.
Results indicated that, considering the frequency of selection, 10 emoji discriminated between the samples for both the general and product-specific lists. Similar results were obtained when considering the rating intensities. Including emoji did not lead to a significant increase in the food choice prediction regardless the type of list used. However, emoji data obtained from the product-specific emoji list was able to predict the food choice as accurate as the liking data when using the RATA intensity scores.
This study suggests that both general and product-specific emoji lists are able to generate distinguishing emotional profiles for chocolate samples. While further research is necessary with other food products and measurement methods (e.g. CATA), this study proposes that emoji measurements might be an alternative to liking data in order to better understand of consumers’ food choice.
... Subsequently, a Multiple Correspondence Analysis (MCA) (XLSTAT ®) was performed in order to obtain a two-dimensional representation of the samples, which provides the sensory map of the samples allowing determine similitudes and differences and the specific sensory attributes of each sample. [4,14] An ANOVA was performed (α = 0.05) using the XLSTAT® software, for the hedonic test treatments. Data analysis with Flash profile method was made by creating individual matrices for each consumer (products in rows and attributes in columns) resulting in tables according to attributes described by each consumer. ...
A sensory diagnostic of organic coffee from Otomí-Tepehua zone of Hidalgo state was carried out, which were subjected to 4 types of roasting: Medium roasting, Intense roasting, Very Intense roasting, and Artisanal roasting using a mud “comal.” Also, a Blend was made (Medium, Intense, and Very Intense toasted coffee in 1:1:1 ratio). Sensory analysis was made using the verbal methods Check-All-That-Apply (CATA) and Flash profile. It was used 44 sensory attributes in CATA method, from which 10 had significant differences (p > .05). Flash profile method grouped the coffee samples according to their descriptor similarity mentioned by the consumers, and a nine-point hedonic test was also carried out. Both methods described all the coffee samples with similar sensory profiles, the results suggested that the Blend made a sensory profile similar to Artisanal roasting coffee. Nevertheless, the consumers differed in preference due to the intensity of the attributes was different of coffee roasting. © 2022 Benito Flores-Chávez, Paul Misael Garza-López, Alejandro Angel-Cuapio, Sergio Hernández-León, Saúl Espinosa-Zaragoza, Francisco Joaquín Villafaña-Rivera, Oscar Arce-Cervantes and Josefa Espitia-López. Published with license by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. © 2022, Published with license by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. © 2022 Benito Flores-Chávez, Paul Misael Garza-López, Alejandro Angel-Cuapio, Sergio Hernández-León, Saúl Espinosa-Zaragoza, Francisco Joaquín Villafaña-Rivera, Oscar Arce-Cervantes and Josefa Espitia-López.
... Kini perkembangan kedai kopi menyediakan kopi dengan campuran berbagai varian manis dalam minuman kopi (Bhumiratana et al., 2014). Namun dengan banyaknya konsumen yang menginginkan orisinalitas rasa green coffee yang berkualitas tinggi. ...
The number of coffee shops today is inseparable from the third wave in the coffee supply chain, especially the growth of specialty coffee in recent times. Sustainability is a key goal for all sectors, including supply chain soldering standards in coffee shops. Many Baristas don't understand the importance of sustainability in coffee shops and their management. To improve sustainability so that it aligns with ethical business skills and behavior, it is important to apply continuing education to the concept of Baristas thinking, understand their philosophy as coffee makers and connect all stakeholders in the coffee supply chain with consumers who need this information. This curriculum is delivered together with additional coaching, assessment, and interviews at the end of the activity to measure the knowledge of the Barista. The current object for this research is the Barista at The Coffee Lab Dubai, United Arab Emirates. The results give a positive value, where the effectiveness of the curriculum assessment results implemented through this counseling service has a very good impact where all Baristas pass the assessment, with the average practice exam assessment for all Baristas is 87.08, while the total average for the written exam is 84.42. From the interviews conducted with Baristas, most of the Baristas said that further knowledge through "Introduction to Coffee" has had a positive impact on building a sustainability framework in their reflection and practice of their profession.
... According to Pareto principle, the attributes perceived by more than 20% of respondents could be recognized as the important characteristics, while the others were considered irrelevant [26,27]. The 36 terms marked with asterisks (*) in Figure 1 were the important attributes for cold-brewed tea infusions, and they were a little different from the 39 important attributes for hot teas determined by our previous research [12]. ...
The market size of varied carbonated teas and bottled ready-to-drink tea products in Taiwan has surpassed that of traditional Taiwan tea with hot infusion. The consumption behavior of Taiwanese consumers for new and varied types of cold infusion tea products has also differed from that of traditional hot infusion ones. More kinds of Taiwan tea with different fermentation levels are gradually being used as raw materials for various cold infusion tea products. Therefore, to study consumers’ responses towards cold-brewed tea has become more important for the market of tea in Taiwan. This study recruited Taiwanese consumers to taste seven Taiwanese specialty tea infusions with various degrees of fermentation, and their opinions were gathered by questionnaires composed of check-all-that-apply (CATA), and temporal check-all-that-apply (TCATA) questions and hedonic scales. We found that both CATA and TCATA data agreed that the sensory features of unfermented and lightly semi-fermented tea infusions could be plainly distinguished from the ones of heavily semi-fermented and fully fermented teas based on correspondence analyses. Through CATA and TCATA, the sensory characteristics of the cold-brewed tea of various fermentation degrees could be clearly identified. The first-hand information of cold tea beverages analyzed through this study could be useful for the development of the market in Taiwan. The proper level of bitterness, astringency, fresh tea leaf flavor, and late sweetness were the essential qualities of cold infusions brewed from lightly fermented teas, which could be the best raw materials for production of cold tea beverages to satisfy as many consumers as possible.
... 21.3 Development of a methodology for measuring feelings in response to odors via verbal reports: a crosscultural approach 21.3.1 Methods from the literature and rationale of the approach Different emotional scales and emotional lexicons have been developed because emotional responses can highly depend on the product of interest, and more important, on the context of use. These tools are available in the literature and are related to food-specific domains (e.g., EsSense Profile Ô from Bhumiratana, Adhikari, & Chambers, 2014;Chaya et al., 2015;Ferrarini et al., 2010;King & Meiselman, 2010;Laros & Steenkamp, 2005;Ng et al., 2013aNg et al., , 2013bPineau, Rytz, Hudry, Maier, & Alexander, 2010;Rousset et al., 2005;Spinelli, Masi, Dinnella, Zoboli, & Monteleone, 2014;Thomson & Crocker, 2013) or to odors and fragrances (e.g., Berezina, 2014;Churchill & Behan, 2010;Desmet & Schifferstein, 2008;Rétiveau et al., 2004;Warrenburg, 2005; Geneva Emotion and Odor Scale from; Chrea et al., 2009;UniEOS from;ScentMoveÒ scale from;Porcherot et al., 2010). A more systematic comparison between existing food-and odor-related emotional lexicons was recently made by Gmuer, Guth, Runte, and Siegrist (2015). ...
Personal and home care products are nowadays similar in terms of hedonic value and performance. In this context, the consideration of their emotional value, in harmony with consumer expectations, can be a differentiating factor for fragrance development. This chapter aims at providing examples that show how emotional responses to odors, personal products, and home care products can be measured. After describing the strong influence of olfaction on emotional processing and the role of associative learning, we propose a definition of emotion and feelings. We focus on the verbal report of feelings, or the verbalization of the subjective experience of emotions, by mainly referring to the conscious part of the emotional response elicited by odors and fragranced products. Although the unconscious part of the emotional response related to physiological and behavioral responses should not be underestimated, this topic is covered in part 1 of the book, which is dedicated to the basic studies of emotions. The current chapter provides a review of a methodology developed to measure food-elicited feelings or fragrance- elicited feelings, with consideration of cross-cultural differences. Fundamental ques- tions and critical choices that arise when such an approach is undertaken are also highlighted. A series of results is presented to illustrate the use of this methodology in sensory settings for product development. In this context, we propose that in- vestigations should be undertaken into the effects of changing the product label, packaging, and color of fragranced products on consumer emotional expectations and on the overall emotional response when the product is experienced in real-life situa- tions. Finally, we present measures other than verbal reports that examine the existence of automatic associations between odors and subtle emotions, with the caveat that we should continue asking about feelings in any fundamental or applied research.
... These characteristics create connections to others and the requirement to 'keep up' and extend knowledge (Elliot, 2006). The recall of coffee consumption is multisensory and the relationship supportive or directed towards desired emotional states (Bhumiratana et al., 2014). In some cases, embracing the language and consumption rituals enables the lone consumer to see themselves as part of a 'collective'. ...
This article explores the lone consumer experience in the context of speciality coffee, resulting in the conceptualisation of the lone consumer servicescape. The lone consumer is conceptualised as a consumption collective, with its own innate characteristics, behaviours and requirements that can be viewed through physical, social and symbolic aspects of servicescape. Through utilising freewriting, the research captures self-reported experiences of lone consumers of speciality coffee. Data derived from 54 respondents is analysed thematically to determine the dimensions of lone consumption. Findings reveal a lone consumption servicescape that combines spatiality, materiality and aesthetic, symbolic discourse and parasocial interactions, mediated by the lone consumer’s self-reflection. Lone consumption, in this context, is acknowledged as a sought after and fulfilling experience but one which requires both a conducive environment and self-awareness to utilise it.
... Among the varied product-and domain-specific lexicons/questionnaires that have been developed are those by Manzocco, Rumignani, and Lagazio (2013), who developed an emotion list to assess the emotional responses to photographs of fruit salads of varying freshness, Ng et al. (2013b), who developed a lexicon specific to blackcurrant squash, and Chaya and colleagues (Chaya et al. 2015;Mora, Giussani, Pagliarini, & Chaya, 2019) who developed a lexicon for beer. Similarly, Bhumiratana, Adhikari, and Chambers (2014), Kanjanakorn and Lee (2017), and Leeuksawat, Jangchud, Jangchud, Dhamvithee, and Prinyawiwatkul (2019) have developed lexicons for coffee, while Gunarantne et al. (2019) have developed a lexicon for chocolate. ...
Product emotion research is a burgeoning area of research within academia and industry. The explosion in the number of methods for measuring emotions and the rapidly growing range of applications for emotion research has created a situation filled with both important measurement and methodological issues. In this chapter we describe the measurement techniques that are currently available to capture emotional responses to products using self-report questionnaires. In addition, we address the fundamental issues related to the application of these measurement techniques, including scale issues, reliability of methods, temporal capture of self-reports and issues related to stimulus formats, presenting the most relevant research that addresses these issues. In this way, it is our hope to provide actionable guidance and direction to new investigators coming into this area of research, as well as to stimulate thought and ideas for new avenues of research related to the self-report of emotions using questionnaires.
... Other authors also highlighted these factors [51,84,85]. Numerous studies confirm that the main motive for drinking coffee, and thus the main factor for the purchase of coffee by consumers, is its flavor and aroma, and the feeling of pleasure when consuming it [50,52,57,68,77,[86][87][88][89][90], as well as the atmosphere in which coffee is consumed and the emotions that accompany the consumer while drinking it [77]. Other factors include social recognition of the value of coffee and its stimulating "magic effect", as well as its physical impact on the body, e.g., the ability to aid digestion or increase blood pressure. ...
Coffee is one of the most popular drinks consumed in the world, also in Poland. In the literature, much attention is paid to the influence of coffee on human health, especially daily intake of caffeine, and also purchasing consumer behavior. There is a lack of research devoted to consumer choices and habits in relation to coffee consumption and brewing method. Therefore, the aim of this study is to describe the characteristics of coffee consumers and present their segmentation based on consumer choices and habits towards coffee consumption. The study was performed using the computer-assisted web interviewing (CAWI) method on a group of 1500 adults respondents in Poland reporting the consumption of coffee. We collected information about consumer choices and habits related to coffee consumption, including brewing method, place of consuming coffee, and factors determining coffee choices. Using cluster analysis, we identified three main groups of coffee consumers. There are “Neutral coffee drinkers”, “Ad hoc coffee drinkers”, and “Non-specific coffee drinkers”. The respondents in the study are not coffee gourmets; they like and consume coffee, but these are often changing choices. To conclude, it can be stated that the Polish coffee consumer prefers conventional methods of brewing coffee (like a “traditionalist”) but is open to novelties and new sensory experiences. Based on study results it is possible to know the coffee drinking habits in Poland.
... Conversely, the negative emotions primarily associated with coffee are "feeling bored", "disgusted", "annoyed", "worried" or "grouchy" [28]. In this context, the research developed by [29] found a set of emotional terms specific to coffee that was not previously found to be relevant to other beverages, such as "staying mentally alert" and "focused", "motivated", "feeling productive" and "clear-minded". ...
Consumers live mainly positive emotions in response to food products, and the reason is that for most individuals, eating and drinking is a pleasurable experience. On this premise, in light of the Theory of Positive Asymmetry, this study answers the following question: “What emotions prevail in beverage consumption?” . A Manova test is developed comparing emotions associated with spirits (n=247), alcoholic beverages (n=560) and non-alcoholic beverages (n=254). The findings report that the positive asymmetry of emotions occurs in beverage consumption, regardless of the type of beverage product, since pleasant or positive emotions are primarily associated with beverages’ consumption. The analysis suggests that individuals predominantly associate beverages with pleasant emotions, regardless of the type of beverage, while the level of alcohol content seems to be influencing the different emotions and affect. The research results provide valuable insights to help managers and marketers understand the choice and preference for different beverages.
... In fact, during Experiment I, authors found, through a consumer test (n = 100), that some of the emotion terms from the 39-emotion list of the EsSense Profile ® were not relatable, nor did they contribute to the discrimination of the herbal infusion products. Other studies by Bhumiratana et al. [51], Chaya, Eaton, Hewson, Vázquez, Fernández-Ruiz, Smart and Hort [13], Silva, Jager, van Bommel, van Zyl, Voss, Hogg, Pintado and de Graaf [14], Talavera and Sasse [52] reinforce the fact that the focus group methodology may be useful to define the final list of emotions. In fact, in this research, during the focus group sessions, participants mentioned that the EsSense Profile ® list was too extensive for herbal infusion products. ...
This work aimed to adapt the EsSense Profile® emotions list to the discrimination of herbal infusions, aiming to evaluate the effect of harvesting conditions on the emotional profile. A panel of 100 consumers evaluated eight organic infusions: lemon verbena, peppermint, lemon thyme, lemongrass, chamomile, lemon balm, globe amaranth and tutsan, using a check-all-that-apply (CATA) ballot with the original EsSense Profile®. A set of criteria was applied to get a discriminant list. First, the terms with low discriminant power and with a frequency mention below 35% were removed. Two focus groups were also performed to evaluate the applicability of the questionnaire. The content analysis of focus groups suggests the removal of the terms good and pleasant, recognized as sensory attributes. Six additional terms were removed, considered to be too similar to other existing emotion terms. Changes in the questionnaire, resulting in a list of 24 emotion terms for the evaluation of selected herbal infusions, were able to discriminate beyond overall liking. When comparing finer differences between plants harvested under different conditions, differences were identified for lemon verbena infusions, yielding the mechanical cut of plant tips as the one leading to a more appealing evoked emotions profile.
... EsSense Profile™ has been shortened to the EsSense25 tool, which consists of 25 emotion terms (Nestrud, Meiselman, King, Lesher, & Cardello, 2016). These and other tools have been further applied to evaluate emotional responses to specific food products such as chocolate (Thomson, Crocker, & Marketo, 2010), coffee (Bhumiratana, Adhikari, & Chambers, 2014), fruit salads (Manzocco, Rumignani, & Lagazio, 2013), beer Mora, Giussani, & Chaya, 2019), wine (Danner, Johnson, Ristic, Meiselman, & Bastian, 2017;Ristic et al., 2019), cheese (Schouteten et al., 2015) and hazelnut spreads (Spinelli et al., 2015) to cite only a few. Köster and Mojet (2015) stated that consumers do not usually use words to refer to the emotions aroused when consuming food and beverages. ...
Little research has been published on emotional responses evoked by completely new, innovative food products. The objectives of the present study were 1) to assess the emotional response to new products (fruit and vegetable smoothies in a drink pouch) in two different scenarios: looking at the smoothie pouch, or tasting the smoothie with the smoothie pouch alongside; 2) to compare the information obtained when the participants use photographs or use words to express emotions. In the Pack-alone scenario, similar emotional spaces and sample configurations were obtained with both images and words. In the Pack-and-tasting scenario, the richness of the emotional response increased when using images. In both scenarios, the participants used a greater number of negative emotions when these were presented as images rather than as words. This could be considered an advantage, as it enables some negative emotional loads to be portrayed. The present results also demonstrate that evaluating the emotional response allows effective discrimination between samples with similar overall liking scores.
... Furthermore, it was found that there were close correlations in the data between some of the 25 emotion terms when evaluating the snack products suggesting some redundancy of emotion terms to the product category measured. This supports previous suggestions (Bhumiratana et al., 2014;Chaya et al., 2015;Eaton et al., 2019;Gunaratne et al., 2019;Jaeger et al., 2013;Mora, Giussani, Pagliarini, & Chaya, 2019;Ng et al., 2013) where consumer-led product-specific lexicons are recommended to be more efficient to measure emotional response. In addition, using a reduced lexicon with similar discrimination ability can minimise consumer fatigue during product evaluation leading to better engagement in the task and better data quality (Chaya et al., 2015;Eaton et al., 2019;Mora, Dupas de Matos, Fernández-Ruiz, Briz, & Chaya, 2020;Nestrud et al., 2016). ...
Emotional response is dependent on context and the individual. Increasingly consumer scientists are collecting emotional response data as it gives deeper insights over liking concerning engagement with food products. This research investigated the impact of context on consumer emotional response to tea-break snacks across different context including the use of mixed-reality. It also aimed to determine if consumers can be segmented according to their patterns of emotional response as opposed to liking. Consumers (n=120) evaluated two tea-break snacks across three different contexts (sensory booth, evoked mixed-reality café, real life café) using a rate-all-that-apply EsSense 25 questionnaire. Cluster analysis reduced the 25 emotional terms to a more manageable nine categories of emotional response for data analysis. Using those categories, three emotion-based segments of tea-break snack consumers were identified. One emotionally disengaged, and two positively engaged but at different levels of intensity and for different attributes. For most consumers, mixed-reality evoked similar emotional responses and discrimination between the snacks as the real café suggesting it is a useful technique for evaluating ecologically valid consumer response. Responses in the sensory booths were different. This, suggests including context in consumer emotional response data collection is important. Furthermore, this research suggests that researchers should consider including context within consumer testing that involves emotional response and that mixed-reality serves as a promising approach to do this. It also highlights that average consumer emotional responses are unlikely to be representative and that segmenting consumers according to their emotional response will reveal deeper insights into product response.
... Existen estudios que se relacionan con el tipo de sensaciones y emociones que tienen los consumidores con el café. En el trabajo realizado por Bhumiratana, Adhikari, & Chambers, (2014) se identificaron 86 artículos que describen las sensaciones al consumir el café. Por otro lado, el estudio realizado por Peltiera, Visalli, & Thomasa, (2019) se describen las emociones con la publicidad relacionada con los productos de café. ...
El objetivo de esta investigación fue aplicar la técnica multicriterio TOPSIS con técnicas sensométricas para determinar la preferencia de los consumidores y complementar una ventaja competitiva para el café de Zongolica. Se llevó a cabo en las siguientes etapas: 1) Identificación de factores que complementan una ventaja competitiva para el café; 2) Comparación de las técnicas para determinar cuál de ellas tiene mejor adaptación para la identificación de atributos sensoriales y la relación con las preferencias de los consumidores; 3) Identificación de la preferencia en la función de relacionar los resultados del mapa de preferencias y el análisis sensométrico para complementar una ventaja competitiva.
... Coffee brings favourable emotions, wellness and positive state of mind. Past research findings support this outcome (Samoggia and Riedel, 2018;Bhumiratana et al., 2014;Agoston et al., 2018). Coffee is considered nutritionally good, contributing to weight loss within a low-calorie diet and bringing energy to the drinkers. ...
Purpose
Food companies and consumers are increasingly interested in healthy food and beverages. Coffee is one of the most commonly consumed beverages worldwide. There is increasing consensus that coffee consumption can have beneficial effects on human body. This paper aims at exploring Twitter messages' content and sentiment towards health attributes of coffee.
Design/methodology/approach
The research adopted a utilitarian and hedonic consumer behaviour perspective to analyse online community messages. A sample of 13,000 tweets, from around 4,800 users, that mentions keywords coffee and health was collected on a daily basis for a month in mid-2017. The tweets were categorized with a term frequency analysis, keyword-in-context analysis and sentiment analysis.
Findings
Results showed that the majority of tweets are neutral or slightly positive towards coffee’s effects on health. Media and consumers are dynamic Twitter users. Findings support that coffee consumption brings favourable emotions, wellness, energy, positive state of mind and an enjoyable and trendy lifestyle. Many tweets have a positive perception of coffee health benefits, especially relating to mental and physical well-being.
Research limitations/implications
The high number of users and tweets analysed compensates the limited amount of time of data collection, Twitter messages' restricted number of characters and quantitative software analysis limitations.
Practical implications
The research provides valuable suggestions for food and beverage industry managers.
Originality/value
This work adds value to the literature by expanding scholars' research on food product attributes perception analysis by using social media as a source of information. Moreover, it provides valuable information on marketable coffee attributes.
... EsSense Profile™ has been shortened to the Es-Sense25 tool, which consists of 25 emotion terms (Nestrud, Meiselman, King, Lesher, & Cardello, 2016). These and other tools have been further applied to evaluate emotional responses to specific food products such as chocolate (Thomson, Crocker, & Marketo, 2010), coffee (Bhumiratana, Adhikari, & Chambers, 2014), fruit salads (Manzocco, Rumignani, & Lagazio, 2013), beer Mora, Giussani, & Chaya, 2019), wine (Danner, Johnson, Ristic, Meiselman, & Bastian, 2017;Ristic et al., 2019), cheese (Schouteten et al., 2015) and hazelnut spreads (Spinelli et al., 2015) to cite only a few. Köster and Mojet (2015) stated that consumers do not usually use words to refer to the emotions aroused when consuming food and beverages. ...
Little research has been published on emotional responses evoked by completely new, innovative food products. The objectives of the present study were 1) to assess the emotional response to new products (fruit and vegetable smoothies in a drink pouch) in two different scenarios: looking at the smoothie pouch, or tasting the smoothie with the smoothie pouch alongside; 2) to compare the information obtained when the participants use photographs or use words to express emotions. In the Pack-alone scenario, similar emotional spaces and sample configurations were obtained with both images and words. In the Pack-and-tasting scenario, the richness of the emotional response increased when using images. In both scenarios, the participants used a greater number of negative emotions when these were presented as images rather than as words. This could be considered an advantage, as it enables some negative emotional loads to be portrayed. The present results also demonstrate that evaluating the emotional response allows effective discrimination between samples with similar overall liking scores.
The decision to consume novel foods such as plant‐based meat alternatives is often determined by emotional response. Generic food emotion lexicons are available for measuring emotional response, however, such lexicons may not capture the nuanced emotions associated with novel products. Here, an emotion lexicon specific to meat and plant‐based burger patties was developed. Discussion groups, where participants were digitally immersed in two typical burger eating environments, were used to generate relevant emotion terms toward different patties. A range of consumers contributed to the lexicon including users and nonusers of meat alternatives, two age groups, and three dietary groups. Subsequently, an on‐line sorting task followed by hierarchical clustering was used to reduce the size of the lexicon. The final lexicon contained 24 emotion categories. The lexicon shared terms with generic lexicons but notably contained other emotions associated with food neophobia, uncertainty, and deception. The results of this study provide an emotion lexicon specific to burger patties of meat and plant‐based origins. Currently no emotion lexicon has been developed for plant‐based patties, or plant‐based meat alternatives in general. It provides an important tool for further research concerning links between sensory and emotional drivers of plant‐based patty consumption across different types of patty consumers and has potential to be adopted for a wider product set.
Taste and olfaction elicit conscious feelings by direct connection with the neural circuits of emotions that affects physiological responses in the body (e.g., heart rate and skin conductance). While sensory attributes are strong determinants of food liking, other factors such as emotional reactions to foods may be better predictors of consumer choices even for products that are equally-liked. Thus, important insights can be gained for understanding the full spectrum of emotional reactions to foods that inform the activities of product developers and marketers, eating psychologist and nutritionists, and policy makers. Today, self-reported questionnaires and physiological measures are the most common tools applied to study variations in emotional perception. The present review discusses these methodological approaches, underlining their different strengths and weaknesses. We also discuss a small, emerging literature suggesting that individual differences and genetic variations in taste and smell perception, like the genetic ability to perceive the bitter compound PROP, may also play a role in emotional reactions to aromas and foods.
XYZ adalah tempat wisata selfie yang memadukan
konsep wisata alam dan wisata edukasi. Keberlangsungan bisnis
XYZ terancam karena tingginya persaingan industry pariwisata
di Kota Batu dan adanya kesamaan konsep antara pesaing dengan
XYZ. Guna menghadapi persaingan yang ketat, XYZ perlu
membuat strategi pemasaran dan bisnis model yang baru agar
meningkatkan daya saing, aspek bisnis dan inovasi. Tujuan dari
penelitian ini merumuskan bisnis model canvas baru yang telah
terimplementasi strategi pemasaran berdasar Sun Tzu The Art of
War pada objek wisata XYZ. Hasil dari penelitian ini adalah
terpilihnya stratagems Take The Opportunity To Pilfer A Goat yang
mana pengembangan dari stratagems diimplementasikan dalam
blok-blok Bisnis Model Canvas. Kesimpulan dari penelitian ini
adalah rancangan BMC setelah terimplementasi stratagems Sun
Tzu Take The Opportunity To Pilfer A Goat mengakibatkan
perubahan pada tujuh blok. Ke tujuh blok tersebut terjadi dari
Customer segments, Channels, Resource, Activities,
Partnership, Value Proposition, dan Cost Structure.
Although the roles of coffee origin, roasting degree, and consumption methods on the sensory properties of coffee have been actively discussed, the type of water used in brewing plays as important a role as coffee beans, roasting degree, and brewing skills in deciding coffee quality. As water is an essential ingredient in coffee brewing, we must consider its role in the process. This study analyzed the impact of three types of water (depending on total dissolved solids [TDS]) on consumer liking (appearance, flavor, taste, aftertaste, and overall) and coffee emotion lexicons at three roasting degrees (three water types × three roasting points). A total of 167 consumers evaluated their liking for nine coffee samples and conveyed their emotion lexicons utilizing the check-all-that-apply method. For coffee extraction, purified water, tap water, and bottled water from Australia were used for the evaluation and they had TDS content of approximately 0, 100, and 200 ppm, respectively. An analysis of variance demonstrated that all sensory attributes had significant differences, except for aftertaste. Consumer liking decreased in relation to increasing TDS at the medium and dark roasting points. Coffee brewed using purified water was preferred by coffee consumers at medium and dark roasting points. Additionally, when they had their highly preferred coffee samples, they experienced positive emotions, such as feeling energetic, nostalgic, independent, adventurous, and focused.
Traditional consumer acceptance and preference testing rarely predicts food choice behaviour accurately. Increased interest in focusing on the total consumer experience, examining the relationship between the food and the consumer, and understanding that emotional processing drives human actions has led to the development of several instruments to capture consumer response beyond hedonic liking. This review aimed to identify and provide a comprehensive overview of the tools that have been used to measure emotion, implicitly and explicitly, in relation to food in the context of food behaviour. A second aim was to highlight the relative merits of key methodologies, research gaps and, based on the review findings, provide some recommendations for selecting food-evoked emotional response measures. The studies were assessed qualitatively using a 2 level (implicit, explicit) x 3 level (cognitive, behavioural, physiological) categorisation framework to conduct an exhaustive overview of measures used in current research. A total of 193 peer-reviewed studies evaluating consumer emotional response to food [published January 1997-March 2021] were identified, classified, and reviewed. Particularly, the why, when, what, where, who, and how of measuring food evoked emotion was discussed. No one “go-to” method to measure consumer emotional responses was evident and the optimal approach remains unknown. Several studies highlighted that, in principle, combining multiple measures would provide a clearer multidimensional insight into consumer emotional responses influencing consumer food choice behaviour. However, a clear gap remains in research investigating how emotional responses contribute to formulate better sensory experience and/or predict food choice.
Descriptive sensory methods have been the most extended and useful techniques for sensory characterization of meat products particularly when attribute quantification is performed. However, the most classical descriptive technique is involved in the use of trained panelist with the corresponding time consuming and economic impact. During the last decade, new methodologies have been proposed to overcome the need of developing extensive training programs. Consumer studies have also been extensively used for sensory characterization at the expense of trained panelists. Among these new or alternative descriptive techniques, Rapid or Fast descriptive techniques can be of great interest to be applied in the field of meat and meat product sensory characterization. Moreover, the study of the emotional response to meat and meat products can offer a new perception regarding consumer beliefs and shopping behavior. Information about the emotional consumer response could contribute to better understanding of the controversial image of these products. The present chapter reviews the most innovative fast descriptive techniques as well as those focused on the study of the emotional response. Fundamentals and methodological bases are described and the most recent approaches to the meat sensory field are summarized.
In this work, we describe a new route for the synthesis and the antinociceptive effects of two new βN-alkanoyl-5-hydroxytryptamides (named C20:0-5HT and C22:0-5HT). The antinociceptive activities were evaluated using well-known models of thermal-induced (reaction to a heated plate, the hot plate model) or chemical-induced (licking response to paw injection of formalin, capsaicin, or glutamate) nociception. The mechanism of action for C20:0-5HT and C22:0-5HT was evaluated using naloxone (opioid receptor antagonist, 1 mg/kg), atropine (muscarinic receptor antagonist, 1 mg/kg), AM251 (cannabinoid CB1 receptor antagonist, 1 mg/kg), or ondansetron (5-HT3 serotoninergic receptor antagonist, 0.5 mg/kg) 30 min prior to C20:0-5HT or C22:0-5HT. The substances both presented significant effects by reducing licking behavior induced by formalin, capsaicin, and glutamate and increasing the latency time in the hot plate model. Opioidergic, muscarinic, cannabinoid, and serotoninergic pathways seem to be involved in the antinociceptive activity since their antagonists reversed the observed effect. Opioid receptors are partially involved due to tolerant mice demonstrating less antinociception when treated with both compounds. Our data showed a quicker and simpler route for the synthesis of the new βN-alkanoyl-5-hydroxytryptamides. Both compounds demonstrated significant antinociceptive effects. These new compounds could be used as a scaffold for the synthesis of analogues with promising antinociceptive effects.
This chapter aims to provide an overview of research on emotions related to beverages and offers recommendations for studying emotions related to the consumption of beverages. Beverages have long been known to affect the emotions of those who consume them and this leads to an exploration of the reasons for studying emotions in beverages. The relevance of cultural differences is explored briefly and the importance of beverages in ameliorating negative emotions is discussed. The reason for studying products often indicates the size of differences we might expect between samples and that, in turn, dictates the type of method we use to evaluate the products of interest. Different methods are discussed with specific attention to verbal methods and the choice of terms used. Previous research is used throughout to describe helpful examples, explore different methods and provide recommendations to those who might want to study emotions related to beverages, especially in a commercial setting.
Personal and home care products are nowadays similar in terms of hedonic value and performance. In this context, the consideration of their emotional value, in harmony with consumer expectations, can be a differentiating factor for fragrance development. This chapter aims at providing examples that show how emotional responses to odors, personal products, and home care products can be measured. After describing the strong influence of olfaction on emotional processing and the role of associative learning, we propose a definition of emotion and feelings. We focus on the verbal report of feelings, or the verbalization of the subjective experience of emotions, by mainly referring to the conscious part of the emotional response elicited by odors and fragranced products. Although the unconscious part of the emotional response related to physiological and behavioral responses should not be underestimated, this topic is covered in part 1 of the book, which is dedicated to the basic studies of emotions. The current chapter provides a review of a methodology developed to measure food-elicited feelings or fragrance-elicited feelings, with consideration of cross-cultural differences. Fundamental questions and critical choices that arise when such an approach is undertaken are also highlighted. A series of results is presented to illustrate the use of this methodology in sensory settings for product development. In this context, we propose that investigations should be undertaken into the effects of changing the product label, packaging, and color of fragranced products on consumer emotional expectations and on the overall emotional response when the product is experienced in real-life situations. Finally, we present measures other than verbal reports that examine the existence of automatic associations between odors and subtle emotions, with the caveat that we should continue asking about feelings in any fundamental or applied research.
The Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test (RMET) is the most popular adult measure of individual differences in theory of mind. We present a meta-analytic investigation of the test's psychometric properties (k = 119 effect sizes, 61 studies, ntotal = 8,611 persons). Using random effects models, we found the internal consistency of the test was acceptable (α = .73). However, the RMET was more strongly related with emotion perception (r = .33, ρ = .48) relative to alternative theory of mind measures (r = .29, ρ = .39), and weakly to moderately related with vocabulary (r = .25, ρ = .32), cognitive empathy (r = .14, ρ = .20), and affective empathy (r = .13, ρ = .19). Overall, we conclude that the RMET operates rather as emotion perception measure than as theory of mind measure, challenging the interpretation of RMET results.
Coffee is one of the most appreciated beverages worldwide. However, little is known about the factors that motivate the consumption of coffee in the form of capsules (CC), roasted beans (CB), and powder (CP). Thus, qualitative methodologies such as of completion task (CT) and hard laddering (HL) were used in this study to help understand the motivations that drive the choice of different coffee presentations. The results obtained show that CP was perceived as traditional, practical, low cost, low quality generating less pleasure during consumption when compared with the others. CC was perceived as more practical, with the practicality and variety of flavors, although the higher price, lower sensory quality and the environmental impacts were relevant perceptions. Although CB was perceived as a high‐quality product, generating greater consumer satisfaction, its high cost and lack of convenience stood out. Therefore, both techniques were able to capture the consumers' perception with great similarity between the results; however, it is worth emphasizing that HL was able to achieve deeper values related to food choice and consumption of product. This information can be used by the coffee producers and the processing industries to develop effective marketing strategies to effectively reach market segments.
Practical application
As the demand for coffee consumption has increased over the years, driven by the diversification of commercial presentations of the product, it is of great value to understand the perception of consumers and the factors involved in purchase and consumption. Laddering is a useful in‐depth interviewing technique of qualitative research that unveils opinions, attitudes and beliefs that are part of consumers' cognitive structure. Projective methodologies as completion task use ambiguous and indirect stimuli such as images or stories encourage participants to project their own experience onto the stimuli, allowing that values, ideas, and abstract need to be explored. We believe that the data obtained in such a deep and spontaneous way can be extrapolated to guide actions and can help several decisions of product development, labeling, packaging, and marketing.
Abstract
Purpose-Travellers who love to try different foods and who frequently follow up on food-related news and topics consider themselves to be "foodies". The main aim of this research was to identify the relationships among food consumption motivations, experiential values, and well-being of foodies.
Design/methodology/approach-A questionnaire survey was distributed to foodies from the Chinese Mainland, Hong Kong and Macao who had visited Taiwan within the prior two years. Some 480 valid responses were received based on intercepts at airports and the data were analysed through structural equation modelling.
Findings-Three paths among the key variables showed significant, positive relationships. Additionally, the mediating effect of food experiential values on emotions and well-being was identified.
Research limitations/implications-The findings provide insights for food and hospitality scholars and the related literature since "foodie" is a rather new concept that is lacking in sufficient empirical and conceptual research. Practical implications-This research produces information on the behaviour of Chinese foodies when they are travelling. Preparers of food and beverages and retailers should supply food that represents local cultural characteristics and design relevant local food souvenirs with the appropriate packaging.
Meta-emotion is feeling about feeling. Meta-emotion of occupation is feeling about feeling while doing with meaning, a holistic concept that relates to the psychobiology of man (as expressed by Meyer). This paper builds the concept of meta-emotion of occupation, its emotional dimension, by sharing the meta-emotion strategies employed to draft this paper. Deepening the discussion, meta-emotion is defined and a summary timeline and short history of meta-emotion is presented, showing how the facets of meta-emotion are predicated upon a true paradigm shift in understanding how the brain functions. Building on that foundation, the meta-emotion of occupation is defined, with concomitant illustrative examples. I argue that the need to identify and use emotional processing during engagement in meaningful occupation begins to ‘fill the crack’ left in our disciplinary study of occupation when emotion is not considered. Drawing on recent neuroscience research and philosophy to provide an understanding of how the brain constructs reality, this paper addresses how meta-emotion of occupation is a reflective process wherein the object of reflection is an emotion. Schön’s theory of reflective practice is adapted for use as reflection-on-action and reflection-in-action during engagement in occupation, and illustrated through forms of meta-emotion of occupation. The concept of wissen is introduced as the collective knowledge and understanding of meta-emotion of occupation. This concept allows for an acronym related to Meta-emotion of Occupation with Wissen or MeOW. Given the prevalence of others doing in-depth description of occupations, emotion and reflection need to be incorporated into our theory. To that end, research to delineate the meta-emotion of occupation is summarized, with guiding questions proposed.
A growing body of consumer research studies emotions evoked by marketing stimuli, products and brands. Yet, there has been a wide divergence in the content and structure of emotions used in these studies. In this paper, we will show that the seemingly diverging research streams can be integrated in a hierarchical consumer emotions model. The superordinate level consists of the frequently encountered general dimensions positive and negative affect. The subordinate level consists of specific emotions, based on Richins' (Richins, Marsha L. Measuring Emotions in the Consumption Experience. J. Consum. Res. 24 (2) (1997) 127–146) Consumption Emotion Set (CES), and as an intermediate level, we propose four negative and four positive basic emotions. We successfully conducted a preliminary test of this second-order model, and compare the superordinate and basic level emotion means for different types of food. The results suggest that basic emotions provide more information about the feelings of the consumer over and above positive and negative affect. D 2004 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
It has recently been proposed that the results of safety analyses be used to determine the alpha levels for the efficacy analyses in the same trial. The rationale for this proposal is that the consequences of various actions should be considered when making a decision and selecting one of these actions. The safety of a medical intervention is certainly relevant to the relative consequences of a Type I error versus a Type II error concerning the efficacy of this same medical intervention. The purpose of this paper is to provide some examples of how the safety data can be considered in determining the alpha level for the primary efficacy comparison.
This study was conducted to evaluate the use and efficacy of check-all-that-apply (CATA) data for the creation of preference maps, and to compare these maps to classical external maps generated from traditional sensory profiles. Ten commercial vanilla ice cream products were presented to 80 consumers. Consumers answered an overall liking question using the 9-point hedonic scale and a CATA question with 13 attributes which described the sensory characteristics of vanilla ice cream. A trained descriptive panel of 17 individuals developed a profile of 23 attributes for the vanilla ice cream products. Preference maps created by CATA counts were compared to those by descriptive profiles via multiple factor analysis (MFA). The characterization of the products by both sensory methods showed very good agreement between the methods. The MFA of map configurations showed fair agreement between the techniques used to produce the preference maps, indicating that CATA data applied to preference mapping gave similar results to external preference mapping.
Factor-analytic evidence has led most psychologists to describe affect as a set of dimensions, such as displeasure, distress, depression, excitement, and so on, with each dimension varying independently of the others. However, there is other evidence that rather than being independent, these affective dimensions are interrelated in a highly systematic fashion. The evidence suggests that these interrelationships can be represented by a spatial model in which affective concepts fall in a circle in the following order: pleasure (0), excitement (45), arousal (90), distress (135), displeasure (180), depression (225), sleepiness (270), and relaxation (315). This model was offered both as a way psychologists can represent the structure of affective experience, as assessed through self-report, and as a representation of the cognitive structure that laymen utilize in conceptualizing affect. Supportive evidence was obtained by scaling 28 emotion-denoting adjectives in 4 different ways: R. T. Ross's (1938) technique for a circular ordering of variables, a multidimensional scaling procedure based on perceived similarity among the terms, a unidimensional scaling on hypothesized pleasure–displeasure and degree-of-arousal dimensions, and a principal-components analysis of 343 Ss' self-reports of their current affective states. (70 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This article introduces a single-item scale, the Affect Grid, designed as a quick means of assessing affect along the dimensions of pleasure–displeasure and arousal–sleepiness. The Affect Grid is potentially suitable for any study that requires judgments about affect of either a descriptive or a subjective kind. The scale was shown to have adequate reliability, convergent validity, and discriminant validity in 4 studies in which college students used the Affect Grid to describe (a) their current mood, (b) the meaning of emotion-related words, and (c) the feelings conveyed by facial expressions. Other studies (e.g., J. Snodgrass et al; see record
1989-13842-001) are cited to illustrate the potential uses of the Affect Grid as a measure of mood. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Refreshing is a term often used to characterize certain types of foods and beverages. This review first explores what is known from sensory and consumer studies on refreshing perception in relation to food and beverage consumption. It then presents and discusses the similarities between sensory characteristics perceived as refreshing with those perceived during and after drinking water. In general, refreshing drinks and beverages seem to help alleviate symptoms experienced during water deprivation, including thirst, mouth dryness and mental fatigue. The role that learning may have in the construction of refreshing perception during each food experience is also discussed. The review showed that a refreshing value (perceived or expected) tends to be associated with foods sharing some characteristics with water in terms of their sensory profile (clear, cold, liquid); and that food experiences may induce associative learning about perceptions of existing or new products marketed as refreshing.
Although consumption-related emotions have been studied with increasing frequency in consumer behavior, issues concerning the appropriate way to measure these emotions remain unresolved This article reviews the emotion measures currently used in consumer research and the theories on which they are based; it concludes that the existing measures are unsuited for the purpose of measuring consumption-related emotions. The article describes six empirical studies that assess the domain of consumption-related emotions, that identify an appropriate set of consumption emotion descriptors (the CES), and that compare the usefulness of this descriptor set with the usefulness of other measures in assessing consumption-related emotions. Copyright 1997 by the University of Chicago.
This article examines the underlying dimensionality of three aspects of the post-consumption experience-product evaluation, product-elicited affect, and product satisfaction. In addition, the article integrates these concepts through a suggested causal framework. Students evaluated either a high- or a low-involvement product in current use, reported affective responses evoked by it, and assessed their levels of product-derived satisfaction. Analysis shows that two primary dimensions of product evaluation-utilitarian and hedonic judgment-can be viewed as causally antecedent to two dimensions of affect-pleasantness and arousal-and to product satisfaction. Implications of the conceptual framework and empirical findings for the study of consumption events are discussed.
In the latest decades, emotions have become an important research topic in all behavioral sciences, and not the least in advertising. Yet, advertising literature on how to measure emotions is not straightforward. The major aim of this article is to give an update on the different methods used for measuring emotions in advertising and to discuss their validity and applicability. We further draw conclusions on the relation between emotions and traditional measures of advertising effectiveness. We finally formulate recommendations on the use of the different methods and make suggestions for future research.
Two studies were conducted to examine the nature of the verbal labels that describe emotional effects elicited by odors. In Study 1, a list of terms selected for their relevance to describe affective feelings induced by odors was assessed while participants were exposed to a set of odorant samples. The data were submitted to a series of exploratory factor analyses to 1) reduce the set of variables to a smaller set of summary scales and 2) get a preliminary sense of the differentiation of affective feelings elicited by odors. The goal of Study 2 was to replicate the findings of Study 1 with a larger sample of odorant samples and participants and to validate the preliminary model obtained in Study 1 by using confirmatory factor analysis. Overall, the findings point to a structure of affective responses to odors that differs from the classical taxonomies of emotion such as posited by discrete or bidimensional emotion theories. These findings suggest that the subjective affective experiences or feelings induced by odors are structured around a small group of dimensions that reflect the role of olfaction in well-being, social interaction, danger prevention, arousal or relaxation sensations, and conscious recollection of emotional memories.
Sensory, physiological and psychological mechanisms are reviewed that underlie emotional influences on food choice. Both moods and emotions are considered. Eating a meal will reliably alter mood and emotional predisposition, typically reducing arousal and irritability, and increasing calmness and positive affect. However, this depends on the meal size and composition being close to the eater's habit, expectations and needs. Unusual meals--e.g. too small, unhealthy--may negatively affect mood. Sweetness, and sensory cues to high energy density, such as fatty texture, can improve mood and mitigate effects of stress via brain opioidergic and dopaminergic neurotransmission. However, adaptation in these pathways, perhaps enhanced by inherited sensitivity, with chronic exposure to such sensory qualities, could lead to overeating of energy-dense foods and consequent obesity. Sweet, fatty foods low in protein may also provide alleviation from stress in vulnerable people via enhanced function of the serotonergic system. Moreover, in rats, such foods seem to act as part of a feedback loop, via release of glucocorticoid hormones and insulin, to restrain activity of the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis during stress. However, this effect is also associated with abdominal obesity. In humans, a number of psychological characteristics predict the tendency to choose such foods when stressed, such as restrained or emotional eating, neuroticism, depression and premenstrual dysphoria, all of which could indicate neurophysiological sensitivity to reinforcing effects of such foods. Greater understanding of such predictive traits and the underlying mechanisms could lead to tailoring of diet to meet personal emotional needs.
Four experiments examined emotional responses to foods and food concepts (names). Emotional responses varied by foods/food names and included many different emotions. Correlations between foods and corresponding names ranged from +.66 to +.83, while session to session reliability in emotional responses for names ranged from +.50 to +.77 and for foods from +.37 to +.70. Liking ratings for the stimuli correlated highly with emotional valence. Principal Component Analysis uncovered similar dimensions underlying the emotional responses to foods and food names, including a number of positive dimensions and only one negative dimension.
Check-all-that-apply (CATA) questions could be a simple alternative to get an insight on consumer perception of a food product. In the present work, CATA questions were used in the development of chocolate milk desserts. Nine chocolate milk desserts were formulated with different sugar and cacao concentration. A consumer study was performed with 70 people, who were asked to score their overall liking and to answer a CATA question that included 18 sensory and hedonic terms. Besides, the samples were evaluated by a trained assessors' panel. Highly significant differences were found in the frequencies in which CATA terms were used for describing the nine desserts, suggesting that this methodology was able to detect differences in consumer perception of the desserts. Sample configuration from consumers' CATA counts and trained assessors data were similar, suggesting a good agreement between both evaluations.
The use of a CATA question resulted in a simple and valid approach to gather information about consumers' perception of the product, including both their sensory and hedonic impression. This methodology enabled the direct identification of drivers of liking for groups of consumers with different preference patterns. Considering results from the present study, the use of CATA questions could be an interesting methodology to obtain a sensory map based only on consumer perception of the products and to perform external preference mapping when a sensory trained panel is not available.
The conceptual profile of an unbranded product arises via three sources of influence: (i) category effect – how consumers conceptualise the product category: (ii) sensory effect – how the sensory characteristics of a particular product differentiate it from other products in the category: (iii) liking effect – the disposition of consumers to the category and how much they like a particular product. Assuming that category effects (conceptualisation and disposition) are constant across the set of products, it is anticipated that the conceptual differences apparent across the set of unbranded products would be driven, at least in part, by sensory differences. This study describes the application of best–worst scaling to conceptual profiling of unbranded dark chocolates and outlines novel data modelling procedures used to explore sensory/conceptual relationships.
Defining “emotion” is a notorious problem. Without consensual conceptualization and operationalization of exactly what phenomenon is to be studied, progress in theory and research is difficult to achieve and fruitless debates are likely to proliferate. A particularly unfortunate example is William James’s asking the question “What is an emotion?” when he really meant “feeling”, a misnomer that started a debate which is still ongoing, more than a century later. This contribution attempts to sensitize researchers in the social and behavioral sciences to the importance of definitional issues and their consequences for distinguishing related but fundamentally different affective processes, states, and traits. Links between scientific and folk concepts of emotion are explored and ways to measure emotion and its components are discussed.
The traditional physiologically defined activation or arousal continuum, which ranges from intense emotion and vigorous activity on one extreme to calmness and sleep on the other, is rejected in favor of a psychological model with two activation dimensions and a single continuum of energy expenditure. One activation dimension ranges from subjectively defined feelings of energy and vigor to the opposite feelings of sleepiness and tiredness. Activation states associated with this dimension regularly vary in a circadian rhythm, and this dimension underlies gross physical activity and many aspects of cognition. The second dimension ranges from subjective tension to placidity and quietness, and it probably underlies a variety of emotions (e.g., anxiety) and stress reactions (e.g., effects of loud noise). While the two dimensions are positively correlated at moderate levels of energy expenditure, they are negatively correlated at high levels of expenditure; therefore, tension is lowest when energy-vigor is greatest and vice versa. Vulnerability to tension increases at late night, early morning, and at other times when effort and stress have increased tiredness and reduced vigorousness. Extremely low activation on either dimension de-energizes the whole system. Although only two dimensions are assumed, the possibility of four or more activation dimensions is discussed.
Emotion attributes have been generally associated with product brands but little work has been published to understand consumer emotions associated with the product itself. The purpose of this series of studies was to develop an emotion-specific questionnaire to test foods with consumers in person or on the internet. A list of emotion terms was screened and validated with consumers. The emotion terms selected for foods were generally positive, as compared with emotion testing originating within a clinical framework. The list of emotions was useful in differentiating between and within categories of foods. Higher overall acceptability scores correlated with higher emotions, but differences in emotion profiles did not always correlate to differences in acceptability. A description of the approach used to develop the questionnaire, questionnaire format, effect of test context, and specific applications of the method to foods are presented. This test represents a major methodological advance in consumer testing of food products in a commercial environment.
Emotion feeling is a phase of neurobiological activity, the key component of emotions and emotion-cognition interactions. Emotion schemas, the most frequently occurring emotion experiences, are dynamic emotion-cognition interactions that may consist of momentary/situational responding or enduring traits of personality that emerge over developmental time. Emotions play a critical role in the evolution of consciousness and the operations of all mental processes. Types of emotion relate differentially to types or levels of consciousness. Unbridled imagination and the ability for sympathetic regulation of empathy may represent both potential gains and losses from the evolution and ontogeny of emotion processes and consciousness. Unresolved issues include psychology's neglect of levels of consciousness that are distinct from access or reflective consciousness and use of the term "unconscious mind" as a dumpster for all mental processes that are considered unreportable. The relation of memes and the mirror neuron system to empathy, sympathy, and cultural influences on the development of socioemotional skills are unresolved issues destined to attract future research.
Some writers assume--and others deny--that all human beings distinguish emotions from nonemotions and divide the emotions into happiness, anger, fear, and so on. A review of ethnographic and cross-cultural studies on (a) emotion lexicons, (b) the emotions inferred from facial expressions, and (c) dimensions implicit in comparative judgments of emotions indicated both similarities and differences in how the emotions are categorized in different languages and cultures. Five hypotheses are reviewed: (a) Basic categories of emotion are pancultural, subordinate categories culture specific; (b) emotional focal points are pancultural, boundaries culture specific; (c) emotion categories evolved from a single primitive category of physiological arousal; (d) most emotion categories are culture specific but can be defined by pancultural semantic primitives; and (e) an emotion category is a script with both culture-specific and pancultural components.
Mood experience is comprised of at least two elements: the direct experience of the mood and a meta-level of experience that consists of thoughts and feelings about the mood. In Study 1, a two-dimensional structure for the direct experience of mood (Watson & Tellegen, 1985) was tested for its fit to the responses of 1,572 subjects who each completed one of three different mood scales, including a brief scale developed to assist future research. The Watson and Tellegen structure was supported across all three scales. In Study 2, meta-mood experience was conceptualized as the product of a mood regulatory process that monitors, evaluates, and at times changes mood. A scale to measure meta-mood experience was administered to 160 participants along with the brief mood scale. People's levels on the meta-mood dimensions were found to differ across moods. Meta-mood experiences may also constitute an important part of the phenomenology of the personal experience of mood.
Reanalyses of a number of studies of self-reported mood indicate that Positive and Negative Affect consistently emerge as the first two Varimax rotated dimensions in orthogonal factor analyses or as the first two second-order factors derived from oblique solutions. The two factors emerged with varying sets of descriptors and were even replicated in several data sets characterized by possible methodological problems noted by earlier writers (acquiescence response bias, inappropriate response formats, and so on). The results thus strongly attest to the stability and robustness of Positive and Negative Affect in self-report. Because this same two-dimensional configuration has also been consistently identified in all of the other major lines of mood research, it is now firmly established as the basic structure of English-language affect at the general factor level.
The study compared influences of qualitatively different emotions on eating. Motivation to eat, affective responses to chocolate and chewing of chocolate were investigated in healthy normal weight males during experimentally induced emotions. Subjects abstained from eating 2 h (n = 24) or 8 h (n = 24) before testing. They received pieces of chocolate after viewing film clips presented to induce anger, fear, sadness and joy. Motivation to eat and most affective responses to eating chocolate were higher after 8 h than after 2 h of deprivation. Sadness and joy affected motivation to eat in opposite directions: joy increased and sadness decreased appetite (p < 0.001). In joy, a higher tendency to eat more chocolate was reported (p < 0.001), and chocolate tasted more pleasant (p < 0.001) and was experienced as more "stimulating" than in sadness (p < 0.01). No effects of deprivation could be found for chewing time and number of chews. Results indicate that the quality of emotions can affect motivation to eat and affective responses to eating chocolate. Our findings on decreased eating responses to sadness in healthy males and the contradictory increased eating responses to sadness reported by others supports two types of emotion-induced changes of eating: emotion-congruent modulation of eating and eating to regulate emotions.
Sensory evaluation of food -Statistical methods and procedures. Level of significance: Type I and type II errors
- M O'mahony
O'Mahony, M. (1986). Sensory evaluation of food -Statistical methods and procedures.
Level of significance: Type I and type II errors. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc, 66-68.