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Stress—Its Effects on Health and Behavior
Abstract
Stressors impact on all areas of a pet's life, potentially to the detriment of their well-being. In addition, should this lead to behavior change, it is likely to cause strain in the owner-pet relationship with an increased risk of relinquishment. Understanding why events may be perceived as stressful to a given individual is essential in remedying their effect. Clinicians need to be skilled in recognizing and categorizing potential stressors as well as auditing the background stress in the animal's environment as only once this has been accomplished can specific measures be implemented to reduce the effects of the stress load.
... 3 Additionally, hospitalised cats are vulnerable to stress, which may impact appetite with consequences on recovery from illness, wound healing and immunity. 4 Aside from stress and the underlying pathology, there may be many other factors contributing to a cat's reluctance to eat. Pain, nausea and ileus must all be managed in order to improve the cat's food intake, and many strategies are also applicable to outpatients. ...
... Emotional distress and physio-logical stress may occur in tandem, making it difficult to untangle clinical (physiological and behavioural) signs such as tachycardia or hyperglycaemia, and also significantly affecting mental wellbeing, food intake and therefore recovery from illness. 4,77,78,84 Figure 6 illustrates potential causes of distress and, in turn, reduced food intake in hospitalised cats. ...
... In general, aim to address the underlying emotional state, where possible, through combined environmental management, human interactions and meeting of cats' needs. 4,78,82,85,88,89 At all times, good nursing and monitoring of a cat's emotional and physical health, as well as response to 'realtime interactions', is needed. Additionally, proactive feeding techniques, such as placement of feeding tubes (see later), may be required to improve the cat's physical condition and mental wellbeing and, in turn, encourage voluntary food intake. ...
Practical relevance:
Inappetence may have many origins and, as a presenting sign or observation in the hospitalised patient, is common in feline practice. Nutritional assessment of every patient is encouraged, to identify the need for, and appropriate type of, intervention indicated. The impact of malnutrition may be significant on the feline patient, perpetuating illness, delaying recovery, slowing wound healing and negatively impacting gut health and immunity. Delayed intervention may result in the cat's deterioration; hence prompt control of contributing factors such as the underlying illness, pain, nausea, ileus and stress is vital to optimise voluntary food intake. Management is multimodal, comprising reduction of stress, medications and assisted nutrition in the form of tube feeding or parenteral nutrition. Use of antiemetic, analgesic, prokinetic and appetite stimulant medications may restore appetite, but placement of feeding tubes should not be delayed. Feeding tubes are generally well tolerated and allow provision of food, water and medication with minimal stress, although clinicians must be aware of complications such as stoma site infections and refeeding syndrome.
Clinical challenges:
Cats are vulnerable to malnutrition owing to their unique metabolism and specific nutritional requirements. Moreover, their nature as a species means they are susceptible to stress in the hospital environment, which may result in reduced food intake; previous negative experiences may compound the problem. In particular, an inappropriate clinic environment and/or handling may cause or exacerbate inappetence in hospitalised patients, with negative impacts on recovery. Postponing interventions such as feeding tube placement to await improvement, owing to clinician or caregiver apprehension, may hinder recovery and worsen nutritional deficits.
Evidence base:
The 2022 ISFM Consensus Guidelines on Management of the Inappetent Hospitalised Cat have been created by a panel of experts brought together by the International Society of Feline Medicine (ISFM). Information is based on the available literature, expert opinion and the panel members' experience.
... Relationship breakdown is the leading cause of behavior problems and relinquishment of dogs to shelters (23,24). Therefore, ignoring the potential implications of living with children on dog wellbeing may negatively affect dog quality of life (through changes in both physical and psychological health), and satisfaction with the owner-dog relationship (25,26), as well as increasing the risk of child-directed aggression. Indeed, fear and anxiety, along with environmental and social stressors likely to cause frustration are associated with irritability and aggressive displays in dogs (27- 29). ...
... Twenty-two behaviors related to the immediate assessment (i.e., as currently presented) of dog well-being were selected based on previous research (26,38,42). A project website was setup to help parents identify these behaviors. ...
... They were also asked 14 questions regarding their dog's general health (physical and psychological proxies) in the context of a stressful environment. These proxies of health were based on relevant literature [e.g., (26)] and in consultation with veterinary behavioral experts, who deemed these questions to be sufficiently comprehensive to provide a brief proxy of dog well-being Using a binary 1/0 scoring system to promote objective responses (42), respondents were asked if their dog tended to suffer from skin scurf/flakes, mucky eyes, regular bladder problems, sexual/reproductive issues (false pregnancies, inappropriate mounting), allergies/itchiness, digestive/tummy issues, anxious when left alone-or at the thought of being left (e.g., displays excessive vocal behaviors, are destructive, and/or toilet in the house), a generally anxious temperament, was scared by certain sounds (e.g., fireworks), nervous of new places, disliked certain people (excluding people they have had a bad experience with, such as the vet), was overly reactive-but without showing signs of being scared (e.g., barks a lot), licked or scratched itself a lot, appeared stiff/had an unusual gate. ...
There has been little investment in exploring the impact of the child-dog relationship on the dog. Since child-dog interactions can pose potentially serious threats to a dog's physical and psychological health, as well as the wider satisfaction of the owner with their dog, we describe the development and validation of an owner-completed pet dog quality of life scale (Lincoln P-QOL), to enable professionals and families to monitor dog well-being and employ suitable interventions as required. Four-hundred and two dog-owners (194 lived with a neuro-typically developing child; 208 lived with a child with a neuro-developmental disorder) responded to an online survey. Respondents recorded whether they had observed their dog displaying any of the 22 behavioral responses which have been identified as being common in 11 child-dog interactions. These behavioral responses appeared to group into three categories of behaviors (i.e., behavioral constructs), representing Excitability, Calmness, and Fearfulness in the dog. To assess convergent validity of the quality of life scale respondents completed additional measures including, dog body condition score, health issues (incorporating psychological factors such as anxiety and physical proxies of well-being, such as skin irritations) and dog-owner relationship satisfaction. Excitability and Fearfulness constructs were associated with a negative impact on dog health and the owner-dog relationship. Calmness was associated with a positive impact on the dog-owner relationship. A range of interactions, including carefully expressed child-dog physical affection and spending quiet time together appear to had a beneficial impact on dog quality of life, whereas rough contact, child meltdowns, and grooming/bathing had a negative effect. We found little evidence to support a difference in the overall quality of life of dogs living with neuro-typically developing children compared to those with a neuro-developmental disorder. However, parents and practitioners need to be aware of the potential increased risk to dog well-being when meltdowns, grooming/bathing, and quiet time involve a child with a neuro-developmental disorder. This is the first validated scale for the assessment of dog well-being around children, additionally, the behavioral constructs identified may form the rational basis of a more general dog behavior/stress assessment tool in social situations.
... Physiological responses associated with stress in dogs include changes to urinary 46 epinephrine to creatinine ratios, urinary cortisol to creatinine ratios (Beerda et al., 2000), 47 salivary cortisol and heart rate (Beerda et al., 1998a). However, the ways in which stress are 48 evidenced can be highly variable between dogs (Beerda et al., 1997) and physiological 49 measures may be a better proxy of arousal rather than emotional valence (Beerda et al.,50 1998a; Hewison et al., 2014;Barnett and Hemsworth, 1990), as such a triangulation of 51 measures may be the most reliable form of assessment (Mills et al., 2014). ...
... The study employed a systematic scoping review methodology, adhering to the Preferred Table 1). Search terms were decided following 127 expert consultation with established researchers in the field and through evaluation of (Beerda et al., 1998b(Beerda et al., , 2000Mills et al., 2014), Physical effect 146 (physiological indicators of stress, including signs of being unwell; Mills et al., 2014), and 147 Social effect (social behaviors which may indicate stress or level of willingness to interact). ...
... The study employed a systematic scoping review methodology, adhering to the Preferred Table 1). Search terms were decided following 127 expert consultation with established researchers in the field and through evaluation of (Beerda et al., 1998b(Beerda et al., , 2000Mills et al., 2014), Physical effect 146 (physiological indicators of stress, including signs of being unwell; Mills et al., 2014), and 147 Social effect (social behaviors which may indicate stress or level of willingness to interact). ...
There is growing interest in the value of assistance dogs, therapy dogs, and untrained pet dogs, for supporting children with specific needs. Research in this area focuses almost exclusively on the effect of dogs on child well-being and quality of life. The lack of research reporting the role of dog’s quality of life in this dynamic limits the development of best practice guidelines. Little attention has been paid to the risk from structured and unstructured exposures to children for dog’s quality of life to best protect the well-being of both parties and maximize the quality of interactions to enhance therapeutic effects.
This systematic scoping review searched five databases to address the question “what is the risk from child-dog interactions to the quality of life of assistance, therapy and pet dogs?” The review identified that there is limited specific scientific investment in understanding the relationship between child-dog interactions and dog’s quality of life. Of the five relevant articles that were identified specifically addressing this issue, two looked at aspects relating to quality of life of dogs living in family homes, (1 = pet dogs, 1 = trained assistance dogs). The remaining three papers reported factors relevant to quality of life of trained dogs working in structured therapy sessions. Specific child-dog interactions may be important risk factors to consider in relation to dog’s quality of life, specifically interactions involving unprovoked child attention (e.g., rough contact), interactions and environmental predictability (e.g., meltdowns and recreation time), and child-initiated games (e.g., “dress up”). Identifying and monitoring the intensity and frequency of these interactions may be important for protecting dog’s quality of life in the therapeutic and home environment.
... Introduction It is estimated that over 8.5 million dogs in the UK are living as family pets [1], yet there is little research considering the stressors these dogs encounter [2][3]. Despite growing awareness of the important relationship between stress, dog quality of life and problematic behaviour, research in this area is still in its infancy [4]. While some studies have sought to identify and evaluate dogs' stress responses to specific stimuli such as experimental or training stressors like the delivery of electric shocks [5][6][7], there appears to be a lack of information about when dogs might show general signs of stress in the home environment. ...
... The majority of dog owners believe they care for their dogs' needs and have a sound understanding of their dogs' emotional well-being, but evidence suggests that they may not be very sensitive to the behavioural signs of low level stress or arousal [17,18], even though behavioural signs relating to stress and anxiety are those that often viewed as most problematic by their owners [19]. Chronic "low grade" stressors such as social tension, as opposed to specific stressful events, have been shown in other species to have a significant impact on health and thus quality of life [20] and a similar impact on dogs has been suggested [4,21]. Nonetheless, little research has explored how family factors can affect stress and general quality of life of dogs. ...
... The stress response checklist comprised a list of 22 behaviours identified as indicators of increased stress and arousal in dogs (nose licking, blinking, turning away, staring, gaze aversion, panting, whining, barking, growling, snapping, biting, lip-licking, tense mouth, wide eyes, shaking, cowering, hiding, rapid running away, slow running away, walking away, restlessness, and repetitive behaviours such as tail chasing and constant licking). The behaviours were selected from a brief review of the literature [4,[43][44][45] and evaluated for suitability and face validity by a specialist in veterinary behavioural medicine (DM), before being reviewed by the project advisory team for readability and comprehensiveness. The project advisory group was made up of five members, including professionals in the field of neuro-developmental disorders, veterinary-behaviour, assistance dog work, academics and parents who own a family pet dog. ...
There is growing scientific and societal recognition of the role that pet dogs can play in healthy development of children; both those who are neuro-typically developing and those who live with a neuro-developmental disorder, such as autism or attention deficit hyperactiv-ity disorder. However, little attention has been paid to how living with children positively and negatively affects quality of life of a pet dog. In this exploratory study we conducted semi-structured interviews with parents of neuro-typically developing children (n = 18) and those with a neuro-developmental disorder (n = 18) who owned a pet dog, until no new factors were identified. Living with children brought potentially positive benefits to the dog's life including: imposition of a routine, participation in recreational activities and the development of a strong bond between the child and the dog.
... Most flights (60.9%) were direct flights, 33.1% of flights had 1 stop/layover, and 6% of flights had multiple stops/layovers. 35.4% of trips were termed long trips (10-24 h), 26.1% were medium-length trips (6-10 h), 24.3% were short trips (1-6 h), 9.4% were multi-leg with multiple stopovers, and only 4.7% were long/multi-leg trips with boarding and/or quarantine stays. ...
... Hyper-attachment can result from several mechanisms including neoteny, which is the retention of infantile characteristics into adulthood and is a consequence of the domestication process and may have increased the tendency of some dogs to develop a strong attachment to their owners [34]. The development or worsening of more than one behavioural sign may be explained by the fact that stress affects overall mental health and increases the risk of generalised anxiety, separation anxiety, phobias, compulsive behaviours, and posttraumatic stress disorders [35]. ...
Simple Summary
Pet air travel has increased in the last decade, and 6% of pets in the US board a plane every year. Dogs have been reported to make up 58% of pets travelling worldwide. Despite this, there is little data available about air travel in dogs. A total of 635 questionnaires were collected from dog owners whose dogs had travelled by air in the last 12 months to obtain initial data on international dog air travel and how well dogs cope with air travel physically, mentally, and emotionally. Data on how dogs were being prepared for air travel, specifically regarding stress management, were also collected. Results showed that most dogs cope with and recover well from air travel but that there is a group of individuals who suffer physical, mental, and emotional ill health consequences during or after air travel, including death. Most dog owners planned air travel themselves, and over half did not seek professional advice. Stress management products such as anxiolytic medication and supplements or pheromones were only used in one-quarter of canine travellers. This study presents opportunities for all stakeholders of pet air travel, including owners, veterinarians, airlines, airports, and pet shippers, to improve pet welfare during air travel.
Abstract
It is estimated that 2 million domestic animals travel on commercial flights every year in the US alone and that dogs make up 58% of pets travelling worldwide. There has been little research on the welfare effects of air travel on dogs. The purpose of this owner-reported study was to understand how well dogs cope with and recover from air travel from a physical, mental, and emotional health perspective. An online survey questionnaire was distributed globally to pet owners whose dogs had travelled by air in the last 12 months, and the results were collected and analysed. Information was received about dog and owner demographics, logistics, and preparation for travel, as well as the dog’s experience of air travel. Results showed that most dogs cope with and recover well from air travel but that there is a group of individuals who suffer physical, mental, and emotional ill health consequences during or after air travel, including death. Stress management products such as anxiolytic medication, supplements, and pheromones were underutilised and, in some instances, actively discouraged. More education of all stakeholders of pet air travel is needed to improve the physical, mental, and emotional health and welfare of canine air travellers.
... Corticosteroids are essential for protecting against adverse events, but their effect can turn from being adaptive to maladaptive in cases of very intense, prolonged, and repeated stimulation in an environment in which an animal has limited control. Maladaptive behaviours, such as an increase in avoidance strategies and aggression, can appear in contexts where adaptation is difficult or impossible from an animal's point of view [9,10]. In laboratory animals, it has been reported that exposure to exogenous corticosteroids may increase the memory of fearful events, decrease cognitive flexibility, and increase anxiogenic-like behaviours [11,12]. ...
... Hypervigilance is a behavioural sign of fear, anxiety and certain other forms of stress. Hypervigilant dogs are more prone to focus their attention on potential threats [10,30,31]. The consequences of this should be considered when dogs are treated with corticosteroids. ...
Arousal and distress are often important factors in problematic behaviours, and endogenous corticosteroids are important mediators in the associated stress responses. Exogenous corticosteroid treatments have been reported to change behaviour in human patients and laboratory animals, with similar changes also noted in pet dogs. These behaviours not only potentially adversely impact the welfare of the dogs, but also the quality of life of their owners. Indeed, corticosteroids can bias sensitivity towards aversion in dogs. A decrease in behaviours associated with positive affective states, such as play and exploratory behaviours, together with an increase in aggression and barking have also been described in dogs. According to the available literature, human patients with pre-existing psychiatric disorders are more at risk of developing behavioural side effects due to corticosteroid treatments. It is reasonable to consider that the same may happen in dogs with pre-existing behavioural problems. In this paper, the possible behavioural side effects of exogenous corticosteroids are summarised to help inform and support veterinarians prescribing these drugs.
... Fear and anxiety are among the most fundamental emotions needed to survive or cope in potentially dangerous or harmful situations, in both humans and animals ( Bateson, 2011 ). As highlighted in Tiira et al. (2016) , fear is considered to be brief in duration, ( Dreschel, 2010 ;Mills et al., 2014 ). Moreover, they have also been shown to have negative effects on dog owners' well-being ( Bradley and Bennett, 2015 ;Campbell et al., 2016 ). ...
... Moreover, they have also been shown to have negative effects on dog owners' well-being ( Bradley and Bennett, 2015 ;Campbell et al., 2016 ). Understanding the factors that may contribute to the development of fear and anxietybased problems in dogs is of major clinical relevance, both from the dogs' and the owners' perspectives ( Mills et al., 2014 ;Dodman et al., 2018 ). ...
Anxiety tends to aggregate in families, and families increasingly include companion animals, such as dogs. Based on previous research pointing to a 'personality fit' between humans and their companion dogs, this study explored the potential association between owners' trait anxiety and dogs' fear and anxiety-related behavior problems, while also testing for mediating and moderating factors. Two hypotheses previously proposed in the literature were here tested: that dogs may respond to their owners' anxiety directly through emotional contagion, or that owners' anxiety may affect dogs' indirectly via (a) owners' over-protectiveness-thereby restricting the dog's ability to familiarize itself with novel situations-or (b) their use of coercive dog-training methods. A cross-sectional approach was followed with use of an on-line questionnaire designed to measure owners' trait anxiety and dogs' fear and anxiety-related behavior problems, as well as owners' protective behavior, and dogs' emotional reactions to their owners' emotions (i.e., 'empathic trait'). Data were obtained from 1,172 self-identified dog owners. Results showed a significant positive correlation between owners' trait anxiety and the severity of their dogs' fear and anxiety-related behavior. No evidence was found for mediation of this relationship by owners' protective behavior or their use of coercive training methods. However, the results showed a marginally significant moderation effect above a particular score in dogs' 'empathic trait'. This study suggests that owners' trait anxiety is associated, to some extent, with the occurrence of dogs' fear and anxiety related behavior problems. The extent to which dogs exhibit an 'empathic trait' may explain the strength of this association.
... This confirms the findings of other studies (Le Brech et al., 2016;Mills et al., 2020), but we cannot infer causality from our results. It is true that discomfort resulting from disease may lower the threshold of fearful or aggressive behaviors (Barcelos et al., 2015;Lopes Fagundes et al., 2018;Mills et al., 2020), but conversely, the chronic stress associated with frequent experiences of negative affect (aggression or fear) could also compromise the dog's immune system, resulting in disease (Mills et al., 2014). Given the association we found between disease within the last year and owner-reported problems with fear and aggression, it is critical to also consider the responsibility of veterinarians with respect to the development of such problems. ...
... As mutations often have pleiotropic effects [36], it is possible that selection for certain pigmentation types has incidentally selected for changes in these animals' stress response systems. Furthermore, because stress can impact a dog's behavior [37], it is possible that differential sensitivity to stress can underlie the behavioral differences observed in differently pigmented dogs. Indeed, previous research has found correlations between dogs' behavior and their pigmentation supporting the plausibility of this hypothesis [29][30][31][32][33][34]. ...
Simple Summary
Domestic dogs have a wide variety of colorations, and previous research has found that, in certain breeds, coat color can be linked to behavior. However, it is unknown if coloration is connected to dogs’ stress responses. To explore this question, we studied dogs living under stressful conditions: an animal shelter. We analyzed their urinary levels of cortisol, a stress hormone, to explore whether values from the shelter and on outings with people correlated with their coloration, specifically, their coat color/pattern, nose color, and extent of white spotting. In this preliminary study, we did not find a connection between their cortisol levels and coloration. While more research is needed, these initial findings do not suggest that dogs differ in their stress responses as a result of coloration alone.
Abstract
Previous research has found connections between pigmentation, behavior, and the physiological stress response in both wild and domestic animals; however, to date, no extensive research has been devoted to answering these questions in domestic dogs. Modern dogs are exposed to a variety of stressors; one well-studied stressor is residing in an animal shelter. To explore the possible relationships between dogs’ responses to stress and their pigmentation, we conducted statistical analyses of the cortisol:creatinine ratios of 208 American shelter dogs as a function of their coat color/pattern, eumelanin pigmentation, or white spotting. These dogs had been enrolled in previous welfare studies investigating the effect of interventions during which they left the animal shelter and spent time with humans. In the current investigation, we visually phenotype dogs based on photographs in order to classify their pigmentation and then conduct post hoc analyses to examine whether they differentially experience stress as a function of pigmentation. We found that the dogs did not differ significantly in their urinary cortisol:creatinine ratios based on coat color/pattern, eumelanin pigmentation, or white spotting, either while they were residing in the animal shelter or during the human interaction intervention. These preliminary data suggest that pigmentation alone does not predict the stress responses of shelter dogs; however, due to the small sample size and retrospective nature of the study, more research is needed.
... Accordingly, humans and dogs share the same psychiatric disorders such as anxiety disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder, and obsessive-compulsive disorder with similar underlying pathological mechanisms 43 . Chronic exposure to stress is considered one of the most common reasons for developing such emotional disorders in dogs similar to humans 44,45 . Thus, studying the effect of stress on cerebral asymmetries may give significant insights into the functional mechanisms sustaining lateralization and possible stress-related changes in behavioral asymmetries in dogs. ...
Dogs are one of the key animal species in investigating the biological mechanisms of behavioral laterality. Cerebral asymmetries are assumed to be influenced by stress, but this subject has not yet been studied in dogs. This study aims to investigate the effect of stress on laterality in dogs by using two different motor laterality tests: the Kong™ Test and a Food-Reaching Test (FRT). Motor laterality of chronically stressed (n = 28) and emotionally/physically healthy dogs (n = 32) were determined in two different environments, i.e., a home environment and a stressful open field test (OFT) environment. Physiological parameters including salivary cortisol, respiratory rate, and heart rate were measured for each dog, under both conditions. Cortisol results showed that acute stress induction by OFT was successful. A shift towards ambilaterality was detected in dogs after acute stress. Results also showed a significantly lower absolute laterality index in the chronically stressed dogs. Moreover, the direction of the first paw used in FRT was a good predictor of the general paw preference of an animal. Overall, these results provide evidence that both acute and chronic stress exposure can change behavioral asymmetries in dogs.
... The exhibition of urine marking in response to social conflict is the attempt of cats to gain control of the environment by leaving behind familiar odors [4]. Urine marking is often accompanied by other behavioral problems, such as aggression in cats [24], indicating a close relationship between a general stressful environment and behavioral problems [102]. ...
A variety of physical, emotional, and mental factors can induce a stress response in pet dogs and cats. During this process, hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) and sympathetic–adrenal medulla (SAM) axes are activated to produce a series of adaptive short-term reactions to the aversive situations. Meanwhile, oxidative stress is induced where there is an imbalance between the production and scavenging of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Oxidative damage is also incorporated in sustained stress response causing a series of chronic problems, such as cardiovascular and gastrointestinal diseases, immune dysfunction, and development of abnormal behaviors. In this review, the effects and mechanisms of dietary regulation strategies (e.g., antioxidants, anxiolytic agents, and probiotics) on relieving stress in pet dogs and cats are summarized and discussed. We aim to shed light on future studies in the field of pet food and nutrition.
... Living in close proximity with children may negatively affect dog well-being and quality of life [117,118], conceivably augmenting the risk of child-directed aggression. The majority of dog bite accidents (about 75%) occur in the household environment [119] indicating a great necessity to intensify parent sentience about contexts and child activities that may trigger a dog bite [120]. ...
The prevalence of mental health disorders, driven by current global crises, is notably high. During the past decades, the popularity of dogs assisting humans with a wide spectrum of mental health disorders has significantly increased. Notwithstanding these dogs’ doubtless value, research on their legal status, certification processes, training and management practices, as well as their welfare status, has been scarce. This scoping review highlights that in contrast to other assistance dogs such as guide dogs, there exists no consistent terminology to mark dogs that assist humans with impaired mental health. Legal authorities monitoring the accreditation process, training and tracking of mental health supporting dogs are broadly lacking, with only few exceptions. This review emphasizes the need to address several topics in the promotion of progress in legal and welfare issues related to assistance dogs as well as emotional support dogs for humans with a mental health disorder. The current body of knowledge was assessed in three different areas of focus: (1) the legal dimension including definitions and certification processes; (2) the dimension of performed tasks; and (3) the dog welfare dimension including aspects of the relationship with the handler and risks associated with children recipients. Considering the challenges associated with a mental health diagnosis, collaborations of dog provider organizations and health care professionals would be desirable to continuously assess the efficiency of the human-dog dyad regarding their overall compatibility, general satisfaction and mutual well-being.
... Overall, low weight dogs (i.e., smaller dogs, < 10 kg, 20.2 ± 7.9 pg/mg, n = 18 or 35% of all dogs) had higher HCCs than larger weight dogs (20)(21)(22)(23)(24)(25)(26)(27)(28)(29)(30) 2 Estimated ratio of mean of specified sample collection moment and mean at T1. 3 Estimated ratio of mean of specified weight class and mean in reference weight class. 4 Estimated ratio of mean of specified sex and mean in reference sex. 5 Estimated ratio of mean of specified relinquishment reason and mean in reference relinquishment reason. 6 Estimated ratio of mean of specified kennel history information and mean in reference kennel history information. ...
Shelter dogs are exposed to a variety of stressors. Among non-invasive techniques, hair cortisol concentration (HCC) is suggested an easy to collect biomarker for giving insight into long-term stress responses. We evaluated HCC as an indicator of long-term cortisol responses in dogs in an animal shelter over different chronological time points during sheltering and after adoption. Hair samples were collected from the neck region following a shave/re-shave protocol of shelter dogs (total n = 52) at four different time periods: T1 intake at shelter (pre-shelter period, n = 51); T2 after 6 weeks in the shelter (n = 23); T3 6 weeks after adoption (n = 24); T4 6 months after adoption (n = 22). HCC at T2 was significantly higher than HCC at T1, T3 and T4 (effect of sample collection moment: F3,41 = 12.78, p < 0.0001). The dog’s weight class, age class, sex, reason for admission, kennel history and melanin type also explained HCC variability. No significant difference in HCC was found between shelter dogs T1 and control pet dogs in their own homes (n = 20, one sample, t = − 1.24, p = 0.219). A significant but moderate positive correlation between HCC and urinary cortisol:creatinine ratios was found (т = 0.3, p < 0.001). As HCC increased in the shelter, the use of this non-invasive parameter appears a useful additional tool in dog welfare research.
... Therefore, these animals may be more susceptible to stress, which leads to negative behavioral, hormonal (Hekman et al., 2014;Petersson et al., 2017), and reproductive changes (Kolster, 2018;Kumar et al., 2019). Impaired welfare results in abnormal behaviors, including running toward or away from the owners, hypervigilance (Mills et al., 2014), circling repeated turning, licking of objects for extended periods with no obvious purpose, or fixation to an item (Hall et al., 2015). Therefore, under stressful conditions, the behavior and cortisol levels of dogs should be evaluated because the plasma cortisol levels increase in response to stress (Starling et al., 2005;Chmelíková et al., 2020). ...
The use of dogs in military work environments has always aroused great interest in the general population and determining the stress levels they go through is extremely important to maintain their welfare. The aim of this research was to evaluate if the work shifts in military working dogs leads to stress conditions and if this working influences on the reproductive performance and life quality. The study was conducted at the Military Police Kennel located at Campinas, Sao Paulo, Brazil. Eight male dogs of four different breeds (German Shepherd, Belgian Malinois Shepherd, Doberman, and Rottweiler) were evaluated during two different shifts: Working Shifts: animals working 12 hours a day with 2 hour-interval; and Control Shifts: animals that were on their day off (36 hours). Saliva samples were collected for cortisol analysis at the control and working shifts. The study was carried out over 60 days and analyzed behavior, physiology, and reproduction quality. Saliva samples, behavior observation of stereotyping, resting and moving activities and semen analysis were collected by digital stimulation (for combined second and third fractions). The salivary cortisol levels during the control and working shifts were between 0.361-0.438 and 0.312-0.592 µg/dL, respectively; the highest values were found at the end of working shifts. The animals were resting during most of the observation period, but few showed stereotypic behaviors. The testicular consistency was firm and semen parameters were within the normal values in German Shepherd, Belgian Malinois Shepherd, and Doberman dogs. However, Rottweiler dogs had a higher rate of sperm abnormalities, higher salivary cortisol levels, and more stereotypic behaviors. Nevertheless this work highlights the importance of further research relating reproduction and cortisol levels in military dogs.
... People in the child group owned, on average, more cats than people in the other groups, which might be explained by a higher proportion of women in the child group, as women tend to own more cats than men [89,90]. Although domesticated cats are capable of living in close proximity to each other [19,91], the presence of other cats in their living environment can be pleasant or stressful, depending on the number of cats, the size of the area, access to food and other resources (litter boxes, water bowls, scratching posts, places to sleep/hide out), and the quality of the relationships between the cats [92,93]. As owners that see their cats as children less often provide outdoor access, the welfare of these cats might be compromised when the indoor environment is suboptimal (small, limited resources and absence of environmental enrichment such as food puzzles or (scented) toys) [94,95]. ...
Describing the relationship with one’s cat in human terms might reflect an underlying anthropomorphic view of the relationship which might be associated with an owner’s behavior towards their cat and the cat’s living environment. Owners self-categorized the relationship with their cat as either a ‘member of the family’, ‘as a child’, ‘best friend’, or ‘a pet animal’. The extent to which owner- and cat-related factors influence these four relationship descriptions are examined in survey data of approximately 1800 cat owners. Differences in outdoor access, care during absence of the owner, and access to the bedroom are examined between the four relationship perceptions. The owner’s age and household composition, ideas about their cat’s equality, support, and dependency, and whether their cat is a pedigree were significantly associated with relationship description and explained 46% of the variance. Owners who perceive their cat as a child or best friend see their cat as loyal, empathetic, equal to family, and dependent on them for love and care. Their cats are less often left in the care of others, are allowed more often in the bedroom and have less often (unrestricted) outdoor access. Moreover, cats perceived as children are more likely to live in a multi-cat household. Our results provide insight in the factors that are related to different (anthropomorphic) perceptions of the human–cat relationship and how perceptions relate to the living environment of cats.
... A review of the development of this problem and its management is beyond the scope of this article, but see Riccomini (2011) and Sherman and Mills (2008). Repeated or continuous exposure to noise can also result in health and welfare problems in both humans (Shepherd, Welch, Dirks, & Mathews, 2010) and dogs (Mills, Karagiannis, & Zulch, 2014). ...
... The presentation of numerous potential stressors simultaneously may lead to sensitization in some individuals [84,85]. Mills et al. identified stressor aspects (affective quality, intensity, magnitude, and duration) and proposed predictability and expectation to decrease their negative impact [86]. The number of potential stressors is significant in AAI settings. ...
During the past decade, the field of human-animal interaction(s) research has been characterized by a significant increase in scientific findings. These data have contributed to our current understanding of how humans may benefit from contact with animals. However, the animal experience of these interactions is still an under-researched area. This paper addresses the welfare of dogs who participate in animal-assisted interventions (AAIs) to improve health in human recipients. This paper builds on previous work by Glenk (2017) and provides an updated review of the literature on therapy dog welfare published from 2017-2021. New advances in scientific methodology, such as the determination of salivary oxytocin, breath rate and tympanic membrane temperature, are analyzed regarding their value and limitations for research in AAIs. Moreover, welfare-related social and environmental factors (e.g., freedom of choice, exploration of novel environments, inequity aversion, individual development, working experience, relationship with handler and handler skills) that profoundly influence dog perception and well-being are reviewed and discussed. Accounting for the globally increasing interest and the number of dogs utilized in AAIs, safeguarding therapy dog well-being, and identifying situations, circumstances and protocols that may challenge animal welfare remains an emerging and crucial area of scientific effort.
... Some of the methods to reduce allergen exposure (vacuum cleaning, air filters, mattress covers) may have little or no impact on the human-cat bond, while others (such as avoiding contact with the cat and washing the cat frequently) may cause stress for both the owner and the cat, with resultant quality of life problems. 72 Despite challenges, control measures to reduce environmental Fel d 1 concentrations can be valuable, with one study showing a greater than 93% reduction achieved by a combination of measures (including twice weekly washing of cats and removing carpets and soft furnishings from bedrooms). 71 Other, novel measures that help to reduce the amount of active Fel d 1 shed by a cat may also have an important role to play in managing cat allergies in the future, including methods that are more cat-friendly. ...
Practical relevance:
Cats have become increasingly common as companion animals, and in many countries their popularity now exceeds that of dogs. At the same time, human allergies (including allergy to cats) have been increasing and it has been estimated that globally up to 10-20% of human adults are sensitised to cats.
Aim:
This review summarises the available published data on how human allergy to cats affects cat ownership and considers the implications of the findings on the wider human-cat bond and how adverse effects can be minimised.
Evidence base:
Online databases were searched for all original studies up to December 2020 that had quantified the impact of human allergy to cats on ownership or relinquishment. Objective quantifiable data appeared to fall into three broad outcomes - (1) choosing to avoid cat ownership; (2) relinquishment of owned cats; and (3) return of cats after acquisition from a rehoming centre. The data retrieved on these topics are the focus of this review. In some studies, data from cats and dogs were combined and these have also been included in the review.
... 97 In some situations environmental restriction might have important welfare implications for cats, potentially resulting in chronic frustration and behavioural issues that are risk factors for relinquishment. 111,112 Limiting physical contact with the cat may also negatively impact the human-cat bond, 113,114 and thus it would seem prudent to involve a veterinarian when such measures are being contemplated (with additional advice from a veterinary behaviourist if needed). ...
Practical relevance:
Human allergy to cats affects a substantial and growing proportion of the global population, and cat allergy is regarded as the third most common cause of human respiratory allergies, and the second most common indoor cause. Veterinarians will frequently encounter owners who are cat-allergic, and having an understanding of this disease and the methods available to help control the allergy will assist them in giving appropriate advice, alongside human healthcare professionals.
Aim:
The aim of this review is to summarise currently available data on the prevalence, causes, symptoms and control of human allergy to cats. In terms of managing cat allergy, the emphasis is on reviewing current and emerging modalities to reduce environmental exposure to cat allergens rather than on pharmacotherapy or immunotherapy, as it is in these areas in particular that the veterinarian may be able to offer help and advice to complement that of human healthcare professionals.
Evidence base:
The information in this review is drawn from the current and historical literature on human allergy to cats, and approaches to reduce exposure to cat allergens and manage symptoms of cat allergy.
... Kaygı, üniversite öğrencilerinin yaşadığı olumsuz duygulardan biridir (Schneiderman, Ironson & Siegel, 2005) ve gençlerin mezuniyet sonrası işsiz kalma olasılıklarının yüksek olduğunu düşünmesi onları en çok kaygılandıran nedenlerden bir tanesidir (Sasmaz-Atacocugu, Zelyurt, 2017). Ancak kaygının bireysel olarak özgüven eksikliği, motivasyonun azalması, başarısızlık hissine yol açması ve sosyal ilişkilerin bozulması gibi" pek çok olumsuz etkileri olduğu (Mills, Karagiannis & Zulch, 2014;Moylan, Maes, Wray & Berk, 2013;Pascoe, Hetrick, & Parker, 2020) ve tükenmişlik, duyarsızlaşma, akademik başarının azalması, stres yaratması gibi durumlara neden olduğu (Walburg, 2014), yüksek düzeyde stres yaşanmasının da ilerleyen ilerleyen yaşlarında fiziksel sağlık sorunlarının gelişmesi ve ruhsal sorunlar yaşanması riskini artırabileceği (Young, Sandman & Craske, 2019) düşünüldüğünde kaygıya neden olan durumların anlaşılarak ortadan kaldırılması gerektiğinin önemli olduğu anlaşılacaktır. Bu nedenle Türkiye'de öğretmen adaylarının lisans öğrenimleri sürecinde onları endişelendiren ve gelecek kaygısı yaşamalarına neden olan öğretmen istihdamı ve öğretmen atamaları konusuna çözümler getirilmesi önemlidir. ...
Bu araştırmanın amacı eğitim fakültesinde öğrenimlerine devam eden son sınıf öğrencilerinin öğretmen atamalarına yönelik kaygılarını anlamaya çalışmaktır. Nitel araştırma yöntemlerinden fenomenolojik desende tasarlanan araştırmada, çalışma grubunun oluşturulmasında maksimum çeşitlilik örnekleme yöntemi kullanılmıştır. Araştırmanın çalışma grubunu, Sınıf Öğretmenliği, Türkçe Öğretmenliği, Sosyal Bilgiler Öğretmenliği, Fen Bilgisi Öğretmenliği, Matematik Öğretmenliği dördüncü sınıfta okuyan 17’si kadın ve 6’sı erkek olmak üzere 23 öğretmen adayı oluşturmuştur. Yarı yapılandırılmış görüşme formu ile toplanan verilerin çözümlenmesinde “içerik analizi ve betimsel analiz” tekniği kullanılmıştır. Araştırma bulguları öğretmen adaylarının görüşleri “İstihdama yönelik sorunlar ve kaygılar”, “Devletten beklentiler ve çözümler” olmak üzere iki tema halinde değerlendirilmiştir. Araştırma sonunda öğretmen adaylarının atanmaya yönelik kaygılarının olduğu, formasyon eğitimini “haksız, adaletsiz, gereksiz, yetersiz, paraya dayalı, niteliksiz, yalancı öğretmenlik, etik olmayan” bir uygulama; ücretli öğretmenliği “yetersiz ücret ödenen, sömürüye dayalı, alternatif bir seçenek, garantisiz bir iş, haksız ve yanlış” bir uygulama; sözleşmeli öğretmenliği “süresi uzun, haksız, yanlış, garantisiz iş” olarak değerlendirdikleri görülmüştür. Öğretmen adaylarının atama sayısının azlığına, KPSS puanının yüksek oluşuna ve haksız atamalar yapıldığına dikkat çektikleri; Devletten “kadrolu istihdam” beklentilerinin olduğu ve kadrolu istihdam edilmeyi “güvenli, sürekli, garanti ve sunulan haklar” nedeniyle istedikleri anlaşılmıştır.
... Stress influences multiple parts of the body, such as the immune, gastrointestinal, and urogenital systems. It is associated with various injurious changes to physical health, which affect quality of life [5]. There is an abundance of evidence from pre-clinical, clinical, and epidemiological trials substantiating that stress can induce negative consequences in both humans and non-human animals, contributing to increased patient morbidity or mortality [6]. ...
Background:
Stress is associated with various detrimental changes in physiological health that affect an animal's quality of life. The hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and the sympathetic-adreno-medullar (SAM) axis are two main physiological pathways that constitute the stress response of an organism. Arginine vasopressin (AVP) is a mediator of the HPA axis and is known to be related to social behaviours and stress. The serum concentration of AVP is higher in more aggressive dogs and humans with post-traumatic stress disorder. Salivary biomarker analysis is a non-invasive method to assess stress. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the possibility of using salivary AVP as an acute stress biomarker in dogs. Salivary AVP concentration was measured before and after exposure to all relevant environmental stimuli (i.e. car trip to the lab, physical examination by the veterinarian, and sampling procedure,) and then after 30 min of vacuum noise exposure. Behavioural assessments, physiologic parameter assessments, and serum cortisol analysis were conducted in combination. Statistical analysis was conducted separately in the total study population, the less stressed group, and the more stressed group, respectively.
Results:
Based on stress behaviour analysis scores, 28 dogs were classified into less or more stressed groups. All four physiologic parameters (blood pressure, body temperature, heart rate, and respiratory rate) were significantly increased after noise and environmental challenges, in the more stressed group. Serum cortisol did not show any significant change. Salivary AVP significantly decreased after noise and environmental stimulation in the more stressed group but not in the less stressed group. Salivary AVP and blood pressure changes were negatively correlated in the more stressed group.
Conclusion:
Salivary AVP may be a potential acute stress biomarker in dogs.
... Therefore, this Study Hypothesized that Elderly Health Diseases and Interpersonal Relationship Are Negatively Related (H2) Stress Management and Elderly Health Elderly Health Diseases (NCDs) Papageorgiou et al. (2016) and Mills et al. (2014) indicated that, stress is strongly correlated with anxiety that affect both young and old. Among older individuals, stress results in a poor general health condition (like colds, depression, cardiac event, stroke, suicidal ideation, headaches, pain and sensitivity) (Barzegar et al. 2017). ...
In Malaysia, the fast decline in fertility and increase in longevity (due to better health care and improved living conditions) have contributed to a rapid aging population growth. The lack of Health promotion behaviours, healthcare knowledge and awareness among the elderly has led to the increase of Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) (such as Diabetes Mellitus, Hypertension, Hypercholesterolemia, Minor Stroke, Kidney Failure and Heart Problem). These illnesses have killed over 1000 elderly people over the years, and the number has significantly increased. Despite several initiatives taken by the government to tackle the issues, a large group of elderly are yet to benefit from the health campaign. Since the aging population is expected to rise in the future, it equally significant for the government to prepare proper measure to tackle the phenomenon in the coming years. This study, therefore, is to investigate the effect of factors of HPB on elderly health disease in Malaysia. The factors of HPB are measured in 6 aspects, namely, healthy eating, exercise, stress management, interpersonal relations, health responsibility and spiritual growth. A set of 520 survey questionnaires was distributed and collected from respondents located in Perak, Malacca, Penang and Selangor. The statistical analysis result is analysed by using SmartPLS Software 3.0. The data analysis implicated that, elderly health disease is significantly affected by the factors of HPB (healthy eating, exercise, Interpersonal relationship and health responsibility). Therefore, findings suggest that adequate policies for HPB programs is necessary to encourage the practices of healthy eating, exercise, good interpersonal relationship and health responsibility, among the elderly.
... There are several possible explanations for the relationship between high sensitivity (SPS/cSPS) and mental health and/or behaviour problems in both humans and dogs. Firstly, mental health and behaviour problems in humans 33,34 as well as behaviour problems in animals [35][36][37] are influenced by the ability of the individual to cope with stress. What is perceived as stressful depends on genetic predisposition, experience throughout life, individual differences in appraisal of the stimulus 38,39 and epigenetic influences 40 . ...
Sensory Processing Sensitivity (SPS) is a personality trait in humans characterised by a tendency to process information deeply, to be easily overstimulated, and to have strong emotional responses and an enhanced sensitivity to subtle stimuli. A trait similar to SPS has recently been identified in dogs (“canine Sensory Processing Sensitivity”, cSPS). In children, this trait interacts with parenting factors to influence emotional and mental development, which in turn are linked to behaviour problems. Paralleling these findings in humans, we demonstrate that cSPS interacts with owner personality and use of aversive communication to influence the likelihood of behaviour problems in dogs. More behaviour problems were reported for more highly sensitive dogs per se, when there was a relative mismatch between owner and dog personality, and when use of “negative punishment” was reported. These findings indicate that a dog’s personality might moderate how an individual is affected by environmental factors, particularly owner personality and communication style, emphasising the importance of considering individuality in prevention, development and treatment of behaviour problems in dogs.
... This is an important aspect of the BMP because stress can affect learning abilities, which could adversely affect the success of the BMP [42,43]. Also, anxiety and stress were found to have a negative effect on dog welfare, health and lifespan [44,45]. ...
Many domestic dogs are uncomfortable when humans perform trivial and benign actions that the animals perceive as threatening. A common technique for addressing canine emotional discomfort involves desensitization, where the intensity of a problematic stimulus is gradually increased while the dog remains relaxed. Desensitization requires a skillful owner and is complicated when actions of the owner are the stimuli to be desensitised. This paper introduces a behaviour modification programme for dogs with impaired social functioning in relation to the (inter)actions by their owners, consisting of (1) increasing owner knowledge and awareness regarding dog body language and perception of owner actions, (2) management of the daily life of the dog through general stress reduction and avoidance of stressful situations, and (3) behaviour modification through training. The latter component entails a non-threatening, predictable exercise in which the dog has control over any perceived threats, the introduction of the safety cue with subsequent desensitization, and engaging activities with the owner that the dog finds enjoyable. We also present a case series report to examine a selection of dogs with impaired social functioning, from signalment to outcome, when treated with the proposed behaviour modification and examine which adaptations were made to the plan according to individual dogs. Finally, we avenues for future research.
... Such findings lend support to the therapeutic use of medications that treat the itch and support the skin barrier as a regular practice even between allergen encounters. Additionally, as suggested in Reference [44], treatment of dermatoses in dogs and other animals should include management of environmental stressors; however, the extent to which this is practiced in veterinary settings is currently unknown. It is also possible that for dogs where environmental stressors and pruritus cannot be controlled, that the use of anxiolytics may result in improved skin barrier function. ...
Canine atopic dermatitis (cAD) is a common allergic skin condition in dogs that causes chronic pruritus. The overall quality of life in dogs with cAD is known to be reduced, and human patients with pruritic conditions report significant psychological burdens from pruritus-induced stress, and atopic dermatitis is associated with significant psychopathological morbidities. We tested the hypothesis that dogs with cAD would display more problem behaviours that could be indicative of stress than would healthy controls. Behavioural data were gathered directly from owners using a validated dog behaviour questionnaire for 343 dogs with a diagnosis of cAD and 552 healthy controls, and scores were also provided for their dog's pruritus severity. Regression modelling, controlling for potential confounding variables (age, sex, breed, neuter status or other health problem(s)) showed for the first time that pruritus severity in dogs with cAD was associated with increased frequency of behaviours often considered problematic, such as mounting, chewing, hyperactivity, coprophagia, begging for and stealing food, attention-seeking, excitability, excessive grooming, and reduced trainability. Whilst causality cannot be ascertained from this study, the behaviours that were associated with pruritus severity are redirected, self/environment-directed displacement behaviours, which are often considered indicative of stress. Further investigation is warranted, and stress reduction could be helpful when treating dogs with cAD.
... While an increase in resting (on average there was twice as much resting one week post-surgery) is unsurprising during the period immediately after surgery, other changes in behaviour may also be indicative of both physical and psychological statuses of the animals (Mills et al. 2014). There has been some research into the physiological effects of FP tumours (Aguirre et al. 1995), but less is known about the immediate behavioural effects of tumour removal. ...
Sea turtles, particularly green turtles (Chelonia mydas) are increasingly suffering from fibropapillomatosis, a disease that results in tumours that can severely inhibit normal movement and behaviour, leading to difficulty in feeding, obstructed vision, inhibited movement and inhibited internal organ functioning. The routine surgical removal of fibropapillomatosis tumours at rehabilitation facilities undoubtedly alleviates these behavioural and physiological burdens, but the immediate behavioural effects of removing tumours are not known. This study describes the activity budget of nine green turtles prior to undergoing surgical fibropapillomatosis tumour removal, one week after surgery, and one month after surgery. There were some significant changes in behaviour observed in each of the turtles one week after undergoing surgery. Turtles increased the time spent resting. Four turtles decreased and one increased the time spent investigating. Two turtles decreased the time spent swimming in repetitive patterns. Two decreased their time spent swimming randomly. Some behavioural changes were still present one month after surgery, and some behaviours that were significantly different one week after surgery reverted to pre-surgery levels after one month. A trend towards some more desirable behaviours (e.g. random swimming) and away from less beneficial behaviours (e.g. prolonged resting) was observed one month after surgery. This study highlights that surgery may result in behavioural changes in turtles, that the behavioural effect of surgery varies amongst individuals, and that the duration of the effects of surgery may also vary. We suggest that periodic behavioural monitoring of turtle behaviour before and after surgery would be helpful in tailoring husbandry practices to the needs of each individual, and increase our understanding of the immediate and longer-term effects of surgical tumour removal. Optimised post-operative care would promote recovery and encourage natural behaviour, thus contributing to the successful rehabilitation and long-term survival of endangered sea turtles in the wild.
... For the purposes of this review, stress is defined as "a response [that] consists of physiological, behavioural and psychologic changes that occur in the face of a challenge to an individual's well-being" (Mills et al., 2014, p. 525). Given that stress has been covered elsewhere in more depth (Beerda et al., 1996;Gregory, 2004;Mills et al., 2014;Moberg, 2000), we only cover this briefly. Both Moberg (2000) and Gregory (2004) agree that the stress response relies solely on the animal's perception of the stressor (the stimulus causing the stress). ...
For many dogs, receiving veterinary care can be a stressful, fearful or traumatic experience. However, understanding and improving the veterinary experience for dogs is challenging due to the dynamic nature of the veterinary visit, the number of stakeholders involved (veterinarian, guardian and dog), and the perception and prior experience of the dog. The majority of recommendations for reducing stress typically fall to either the owner or the veterinarian and involve changes to management or active training and counter-conditioning practices. While many recommendations to reduce fear or distress during veterinary visits are readily available, appear common-sense in nature, and are anecdotally successful, overall evidence of their efficacy is lacking. Further, it is not enough to simply identify strategies designed to reduce distress in the veterinary context; investigating ways in which they can be efficiently and successfully implemented is integral to the continual improvement of dog welfare in the veterinary industry. In this review, we summarise the current literature relating to companion dogs’ experience during veterinary visits, and explore the factors influencing that experience. We conclude by providing a summary of the recommendations available to reduce stress within the veterinary context, categorised by stakeholder responsibility, and highlight potential areas for future research.
... Dies kann z.B. dazu führen, dass Tiere nicht fressen (TANAKA et al., 2012), sich verstecken (KRY und CASEY, 2007) oder andere stressbedingte Verhaltensänderungen bzw. Erkrankungen entwickeln (MILLS et al., 2014). Dadurch wird nicht nur der Allgemeinzustand des Patienten beeinträchtigt, sondern möglicherweise auch die Heilung verzögert. ...
Zusammenfassung Der tierschutzkonforme Umgang mit den Patienten, ein kundenfreundliches Management und ein tierschut-zorientiertes Beratungsangebot für Tierhalterinnen und Tierhalter erhöhen den Standard der medizinischen Dienstleistungen und gewinnen daher in der tierärzt-lichen Kleintierpraxis zunehmend an Bedeutung. Da ein erhöhtes Wohlbefinden der Patienten beim Tierarztbesuch die Bereitschaft der Tierhalterinnen und Tierhalter zu regelmäßigen Konsultationen erhöht und den Genesungsprozess positiv beeinflusst, verbessern die genannten Maßnahmen auch die präventivmedizi-nische Versorgung und tragen zum Behandlungserfolg bei. Die in diesem Beitrag vorgestellten, auf Anregung des Vorstandes der Vereinigung Österreichischer Kleintiermediziner (VÖK) erarbeiteten Empfehlungen sollen praktizierende Tierärztinnen und Tierärzte da-bei unterstützen, den Schutz von Hunden und Katzen im beruflichen Alltag zu optimieren. Die Empfehlungen sollten zum Wohl der Patienten und ihrer Halterinnen und Halter, aber auch im Interesse des in der tierärztli-chen Praxis tätigen Personals in bestmöglicher Weise implementiert werden.
... We can speculate that exposure to traumatic experiences causes behavioral changes in dogs such as increased fearfulness and aggression to certain stimuli. Repeated exposure to these stressors can lead to elevated levels of stress hormones, immune system disorder and premature aging (91,92). Behavioral changes in dogs can often become problematic and are the most common reason behind relinquishment (93). ...
Although dogs' life expectancies are six to twelve times shorter than that of humans, the demographics (e. g., living conditions) of dogs can still change considerably with aging, similarly to humans. Despite the fact that the dog is a particularly good model for human healthspan, and the number of aged dogs in the population is growing in parallel with aged humans, there has been few previous attempts to describe demographic changes statistically. We utilized an on-line questionnaire to examine the link between the age and health of the dog, and owner and dog demographics in a cross-sectional Hungarian sample. Results from univariate analyses revealed that 20 of the 27 demographic variables measured differed significantly between six dog age groups. Our results revealed that pure breed dogs suffered from health problems at a younger age, and may die at an earlier age than mixed breeds. The oldest dog group (>12 years) consisted of fewer pure breeds than mixed breeds and the mixed breeds sample was on average older than the pure breed sample. Old dogs were classified more frequently as unhealthy, less often had a “normal” body condition score, and more often received medication and supplements. They were also more often male, neutered, suffered health problems (such as sensory, joint, and/or tooth problems), received less activity/interaction/training with the owner, and were more likely to have experienced one or more traumatic events. Surprisingly, the youngest age group contained more pure breeds, were more often fed raw meat, and had owners aged under 29 years, reflecting new trends among younger owners. The high prevalence of dogs that had experienced one or more traumatic events in their lifetime (over 40% of the sample), indicates that welfare and health could be improved by informing owners of the greatest risk factors of trauma, and providing interventions to reduce their impact. Experiencing multiple life events such as spending time in a shelter, changing owners, traumatic injury/prolonged disease/surgery, getting lost, and changes in family structure increased the likelihood that owners reported that their dogs currently show behavioral signs that they attribute to the previous trauma.
... The sound stimulus significantly increased the cortisol levels when compared to a situation of when a non-sound stimulus was applied [24]. Another important point about cortisol levels is that the results do not indicate a positive or negative valence of a reaction to the environmental stimulus, and a range of other measures are necessary to evaluate emotional distress [39]. Another aspect that should be addressed is the stressor effect of blood collection. ...
Sound sensitive dogs have exaggerated responses to sound stimuli that can negatively impact the welfare of the dog. Behavioural reactions combined with the response to sound involve a marked autonomic imbalance towards sympathetic predominance and release of cortisol. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate, in the laboratory, the cardiac autonomic modulation using heart rate variability (HRV) analysis, serum cortisol levels and behavioural parameters in response to sounds of fireworks in dogs with a history of sensitivity to fireworks. Based on these data, and combining qualitative measures and categorical measures, we propose one short and one full index of sound sensitivity in dogs. Six privately owned dogs with no history and another twelve dogs with a history of sound sensitivity to fireworks were used. The sound stimulus consisted of a standardised recording of fireworks (180-seconds long) with a peak intensity of 103–104 dB. The cardiac intervals were recorded using a frequency meter (Polar® RS800CX model) to evaluate the HRV, and the acquired data were processed using CardioSeries 2.4.1 software. Twenty-one behavioural parameters were analysed quantitatively by time, frequency or categorically by scores and were grouped in behavioural categories of arousal, fear, relaxation and “other”. Sound sensitive dogs had exacerbated autonomic responses to the sound stimulus in the laboratory compared to non-sensitive dogs, with higher LF/HF ratios suggesting autonomic imbalance towards sympathetic predominance, but the cortisol levels were similar between the sensitive and non-sensitive dogs. Sound sensitive dogs showed pronounced responses for the parameters: alert and attention, search sound, startle, trembling, hiding, run away and less intense responses for the parameters rest and wink/sleep. Furthermore, the behavioural categories of arousal, fear, relaxation (lack of) and LF/HF were correlated to the caregiver’s perception of the sound sensitivity of the dogs. Not only the short index for sound sensitivity (behavioural categories arousal, fear and relaxation, and LF/HF ratio) but also the full index for sound sensitivity (all behavioural categories, LF/HF and cortisol levels) was highly correlated to sound fear response at home. These indexes can contribute to the development of strategies to treat sound sensitive dogs.
Dogs in shelters are faced with the challenge of adapting to a kennel after relinquishment and to a novel home after adoption. To measure adaptability of dogs, more feasible behavioural and physiological parameters need to be validated in different contexts. To evaluate nocturnal activity as an indicator of adaptability, we compared nocturnal activity, urinary cortisol:creatinine ratio (UCCR), and body weight changes of sheltered dogs the first period after intake in the shelter and after adoption. Nocturnal activity and UCCRs were significantly lower the first days after adoption than in the shelter. After adoption, nocturnal activity was significantly lower on night 2 than night 1, but not on night 3 and 4, suggesting a form of rebound of resting’ during night 2 in the new home. UCCRs significantly decreased 7 days after adoption. Body weight decreased in the shelter but increased again after adoption. These findings suggest that overall, dogs rest better in a novel home than in a novel shelter but, in both contexts, some form of adaptation takes place. Nocturnal activity measured by an accelerometer differentiated well between shelter and home environments, and corresponded to UCCR responses, which supports usefulness of the method to monitor canine adaptability to novel environments.
Background
The use of naso‐esophageal feeding tubes (NFT) at home could represent an alternative way to reduce the costs for owners and facilitate enteral feeding until recovery of a spontaneous appetite.
Objective
To describe the use of NFT at home in dogs and cats and evaluate the satisfaction of owners and their capacity to handle the device.
Animals
One hundred nineteen client‐owned animals (90 cats and 29 dogs) which remained anorexic during hospitalization and were discharged with NFT for at least 24 hours after placement.
Methods
Medical records were reviewed retrospectively, and owners were contacted by telephone calls. Complications were reported according to their relative severity (minor and major). Owners were asked to report their experience and comfort with NFT management.
Results
Naso‐esophageal feeding tubes were kept in place at home for a median of 6 days (range, 1‐17) and 62.2% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 53.3‐70.7) of animals recovered a spontaneous appetite while wearing NFT, 60% (95% CI: 44.4‐75.6) of the remaining animals recovered a spontaneous appetite after removal. Overall complication rate was 65.5% (95% CI: 57.0‐74.0), but only 18.5% (95% CI: 11.5‐25.5) required a consultation and no life‐threatening complication occurred. Owners were satisfied in 94.1% (95% CI: 89.9‐98.3) of cases.
Conclusion and Clinical Importance
Although most animals discharged with NFT at home presented complications, no major adverse effects were reported and NFT were easily handled by owners. This study provides evidence that NFT can be well tolerated at home.
Excessive emotional arousal has been shown to impact physiological health in both veterinary species and human animals. The focus of work in many models of veterinary behavioural medicine has predominantly been associated with reducing activation of the protective emotional systems; in particular, fear-anxiety. The management of the engaging emotional systems of desire-seeking, social play, care and lust has not traditionally been considered in the treatment of physiological health of veterinary species. This article reviews the literature in both veterinary and human fields on the relationship between emotional arousal of both protective and engaging emotional systems and physical health conditions. The current literature describing the regulatory control of sleep on emotional arousal is also discussed. An exemplary case report of a seven month old male entire Cocker Spaniel showing fly-snapping behaviour which had been non-responsive to leviteracetam (Keppra) is presented. The emotional health assessment and treatment of this case is described along with the short and long term (fourteen month follow up) outcomes to demonstrate that some patients presenting in this way can be effectively managed with an appropriate behavioural medicine treatment plan. The authors put forward the argument that an emotional health assessment should be considered an essential component of the work up of all such cases.
PKL is an activity that must be done by SMK students. However, not every student is able to pass the PKL period smoothly. The unpreparedness of students to face PKL becomes a stressor for these students, causing anxiety. If this anxiety is not immediately addressed, it will ultimately have an impact on student performance that is not optimal. This study aims to determine the effectiveness of the systematic desensitization technique in reducing student’s anxiety facing PKL. This research method uses the One-group Pretest-Posttest Design. The sampling technique used in this research is purposive sampling technique or a purposive sampling technique. To test the hypothesis, the data were analyzed using the Wilcoxon analysis technique. 25.90. Based on the calculation, the Z score is -2.807, while Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) of 0.005 (p<0.05). The average score of anxiety facing PKL in Catholic Pharmacy Vocational School Bina Farma Madiun after being given systematic desensitization techniques decreased from 25.90 to 14.90. The conclusion is that the application of systematic desensitization techniques is effective in reducing student anxiety in dealing PKL.
Clinically relevant biomarkers have long been sought in behavioral medicine as a means to enhance diagnoses and treatment beyond the assessment of clinical symptoms. The monoamine neurotransmitters (NT) serotonin (5HT), dopamine (DA), norepinephrine (NE) and epinephrine (E), as well as glutamate (Glu) and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) have been implicated in anxiety and other neuropsychiatric disorders. Analysis of urine presents the potential for non-invasive, high-throughput NT level evaluation. In this exploratory study, we evaluated a first-morning urine sample collected from 19 healthy dogs undergoing the stress of kennel boarding (Boarding) and 24 healthy dogs in the typical home environment (Home). NE (P <0.001) and DA (P = 0.02) were significantly higher in the Boarding group dogs compared to the Home group dogs. 5HT, Glu, and GABA did not differ significantly between the two groups. These findings suggest urinary NT assays may provide additional biomarkers for stress research as well as neuropsychiatric disorder diagnosis and therapeutic monitoring in canine patients.
When an owner notices a behavior change in their cat that concerns them enough to present the cat to the vet, there are 3 possibilities: the behavior change reflects a change in behavioral health (a change in psychological state), a change in medical health (a change in physical state), or a combination (comorbid medical and behavioral pathologies). Because many behavioral pathologies are diagnoses of exclusion, it is important that the veterinarian rule out all of the likely medical differentials for the changed behavior. This article is a behavior-by-behavior guide to the more common differentials for the most common problem behaviors.
This second edition of Mental Health and Well-Being in Animals is fully revised, expanded, and comprehensively updated with the most current knowledge about the full array of mental health issues seen in animals. Written by key opinion leaders, internationally-recognized experts and specialists, it is comprehensive covering basic principles to mental wellness, emotional distress, suffering and mental illness, through to measurement and treatment. With even more practical information and clinical pearls, this book remains invaluable to veterinary professionals, animal welfare researchers and advocates, and other animal caregivers. This edition has 388 pages with 25 chapters divided into five parts: foundational issues of animal mental health and well-being (Part I, covers chapters 1-4); the pleasant experiences: mental wellness (Part II, chapters 5-10); the unpleasant experiences: distress, suffering, and mental illness (Part III, chapters 11-14); mental health issues in special populations (Part IV, covers chapters 15-22); assessment and management of emotional distress and disorders (5th part, chapters 23, 24, and 25).
Ghrelin has been proposed as an essential element regulating the stress response in both humans and rodents. The aim of this work was to study the relation between cortisol and ghrelin in companion dogs showing chronic stress-related behaviour problems and the effect of the administration of high energy palatable food on these hormones. Baseline and post-prandial serum concentrations of both hormones were analyzed in a group of stressed companion dogs (n = 16)showing social conflict-related aggression (SCA, n = 10)or separation anxiety (SA, n = 6), and in a group of non-stressed control companion dogs (n = 16). Significant differences (p < 0.05)between groups emerged for post-prandial levels, with SCA dogs showing higher cortisol than the control group. The change in cortisol levels (%)after eating in this group was positive, differing from the SA and control groups, which decreased their cortisol after food consumption. Ghrelin also decreased significantly in SA dogs after eating. Taking together, these findings suggest that a parallel meal-induced decrease in both cortisol and ghrelin occurred in the SA group, but not in the SCA group, pointing towards a failure to suppress ghrelin (and cortisol)after intake in the latter. Thus, even though SCA and SA were considered chronic stress-related behaviour problems, their different nature may affect animals in their stress response to the administration of palatable food. The possible alleviatory effect of food consumption, particularly “comfort foods”, after the owner is back home in SA dogs, as well as the changes in dogs’ eating behaviour in response to emotional states or stress (“emotional eating”)will require further studies.
Objective
To review the sources, adverse effects, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of psychogenic stress in hospitalized human and veterinary patients.
Data Sources
Data were collected by searching PubMed for veterinary and human literature from the past 10 years.
Human Data Synthesis
Psychogenic stress has been linked to immune suppression; gastrointestinal, cardiovascular, and cutaneous diseases; delayed wound healing; alterations in pain perception; and neurologic impairment. Sources of psychogenic stress include environmental alterations such as excessive noise and light, social and physical factors, sleep disruption, drugs, and underlying disease. Nonpharmacologic options for stress reduction include environmental and treatment modifications, music therapy, and early mobilization. Pharmacologic options include sedation with benzodiazepines and dexmedetomidine. Trazodone and melatonin have been examined for use in sleep promotion but are not currently recommended as standard treatments in ICU.
Veterinary Data Synthesis
Activation of the stress response in veterinary patients is largely the same as in people, as are the affected body systems. Possible sources of stress can include social, physical, and environmental factors. No gold standard currently exists for the identification and quantification of stress. A combination of physical examination findings and the results of serum biochemistry, CBC, and biomarker testing can be used to support the diagnosis. Stress scales can be implemented to identify stressed patients and assess severity. Nonpharmacologic treatment options include low‐stress handling, pheromones, environmental modifications, and sleep promotion. Pharmacologic options include trazodone, benzodiazepines, dexmedetomidine, and melatonin.
Conclusion
The prevalence and clinical significance of psychogenic stress in hospitalized veterinary patients is unknown. Future studies are needed to specifically examine the causative factors of psychogenic stress and the effects of various therapies on stress reduction. The recognition and reduction of psychogenic stress in veterinary patients can lead to improvements in patient care and welfare.
Awareness for improving patients’ veterinary experiences is growing. A patient-friendly approach is not only considered better for our patients, but it makes working with them easier and safer for staff, saves time and makes day-to-day work with animals more fulfilling. This article discusses approaches to caring for patients’ behavioural/emotional welfare while attending to their clinical needs, highlighting ways to achieve this. Patients’ emotional welfare could be argued to be the animal’s highest priority, so how can we make this happen alongside providing the best possible clinical care, as part of our aspiration towards an evidence-based approach to veterinary care?
Aims:
This review is intended to help veterinarians recognize physical and behavioral changes associated with acute stress through to chronic distress, including stress-associated diseases. An emphasis on thorough history-taking will allow the clinician to ascertain which signs are behavioral and which are medical, with the understanding that they are not mutually exclusive. Equally important is the contribution of pain, chronic disease and poor environmental situations to behavioral changes and the expression of medical disorders. Evidence base: There is an increasing amount of evidence that stress and distress have profound effects on feline health, behavior and welfare. The authors have drawn on a substantial body of published veterinary research in producing this review.
Humans and companion animals share a long, increasingly co-reliant history that continues to flourish today, yet only within the past century have we begun to fully appreciate the beneficial and detrimental effects of our interaction with each other and the environment. As the growing pet population nuzzles its way into every aspect of our lives, from bedroom to business and beyond, more beneficial and adverse health outcomes can be expected within the human-pet-environment triad. This is particularly true, perhaps, for the pets, which are more reliant on people for their welfare than vice versa. Psychological, social, and physical health benefits to people and, to a much lesser extent, companion animals have been scientifically documented, both within and outside the home. Such benefits are being leveraged in various, now ubiquitous programs to the advantage of people primarily (e.g., animal-assisted activities and interventions) or both people and pets (e.g., dog-walking or prisoner dog-training programs). Shared threats consist of injury (intentional or accidental), zoonoses (including antimicrobial-resistant infections), foodborne disease, chronic disease such as obesity, and various environmental hazards, including natural disasters. Most of these threats are avoidable or can be mitigated through commonsense practices and education, particularly if both owner and pet are healthy, allowing for maximal enhancement and longevity of the human-animal bond.
There are many aspects of care involved in patient-friendly practice. Veterinary professionals may utilise recognition and response to canine and feline body language and behavioural signals to affect patient-friendly practice and improve safety in the context of the veterinary environment. Visits to the veterinary clinic are potentially stress-inducing for many reasons. Stress and distress have potentially problematic physical and emotional impacts on patients, both in health and disease, and therefore recognition and pre-emption of problems could reduce the impact of escalating stress during veterinary interactions.
The welfare assessment of owned pet cats has been neglected in research. The aim of this study was to assess owners’ perception and recognition of impaired welfare in their own cats.
One-hundred-ninety four cat owners were interviewed face-to-face by a veterinary behaviorist, completing a 42-item questionnaire.
Most owners (71.1%/N=138) correctly included both physical and psychological features within their definition of stress, but 9.8% (19) thought that stress had no consequences for the cat.
When asked to rate the overall stress level of their own cats in a non-numerical scale based on frequency , 56.7% (N=110) chose low, 38.1% (N=74) chose medium, and 5.2% (N=10) chose high.
Owners whose cats played little or not at all were more likely to rate the level of stress of their cats as high (90.0%) than to rate it as low or medium (33.2%/64; χ² = 13.290; p < 0.001). Similarly, owners whose cats showed over-grooming were more likely to rate the level of stress of their cats as high (30.0%/58 vs 7.6%/15; χ² = 4.948; p = 0.015). The display of aggression or house-soiling was not associated with the owner’s rating of stress level.
The number of signs recognized by respondents as potential indicators of stress in cats and the rating of the level of stress in their own cats were weakly correlated (ϱ = 0.217; p = 0.002). This may be due to possible biases in the interviews as well as to an overall good welfare in the cat sample associated to a moderately good understanding of feline signs of stress in owners.
A principal components analysis applied to the listed signs of stress identified four components which were termed: body posture, social avoidance, house soiling, and self-directed behavior.
However, some of the signs that behaviorists regard as crucial in their anamnesis, such as scratching the furniture, freezing, mydriasis and recurrent cystitis, were the least recognized signs of stress by cat owners. Only very prominent, common or potentially disturbing behaviors such as excessive vocalization, posture with the ears back, and urinating out of the litter tray were regarded as potential signs of stress by more than two thirds of owners. These findings suggest that owners tend to overlook certain signs, and that owners’ perception of stress partially depends on their false preconceptions about cat normal ethology (e.g., playfulness, social relationships, aggression et cetera ). This ill-informed perception is likely to prevent owners from correctly indentifying, and intervening in, situations of poor welfare.
Why do dogs behave in the ways that they do? Why did our ancestors tame wolves? How have we ended up with so many breeds of dog, and how can we understand their role in contemporary human society? Explore the answers to these questions and many more in this study of the domestic dog. Building on the strengths of the first edition, this much-anticipated update incorporates two decades of new evidence and discoveries on dog evolution, behavior, training, and human interaction. It includes seven entirely new chapters covering topics such as behavioral modification and training, dog population management, the molecular evidence for dog domestication, canine behavioral genetics, cognition, and the impact of free-roaming dogs on wildlife conservation. It is an ideal volume for anyone interested in dogs and their evolution, behavior and ever-changing roles in society. The ultimate book about the domestic dog, ideal for anyone interested in their evolution, behavior and ever-changing roles in society A new edition of a classic text, presenting the latest research on dog behavior, training, domestication, genetics and cognition Includes seven entirely new chapters by leading experts in the field, incorporating two decades of new evidence and discoveries.
During their second or third day in public animal shelter, juvenile/adult dogs were exposed to a venipuncture procedure. Then the dogs were either not petted or were petted in a prescribed manner by either a man or a woman; 20 min later, a second blood sample was collected. There was a clear increase in cortisol levels 20 min after the first venipuncture in juvenile/adult dogs that were not petted, but not in dogs that were petted by either a man or a woman. Additional comparisons showed that the petting procedure also inhibited the cortisol response following venipuncture in puppies. However, petting did not reduce the cortisol response to housing in the shelter per se. During petting, dogs made few attempts to escape, frequently were observed in a relaxed posture, and panting was common in juvenile/adult dogs. When dogs were petted immediately following removal from the living cage, those petted by women yawned more often and spent more time in a relaxed, head-up posture. Together, these results indicate that a previously observed sex difference in the effectiveness of petters in reducing the cortisol response was not due to some difference in odor or other nonbehavioural stimulus quality of men and women. Subtle aspects of petting technique appear to have pronounced effects on physiological and possibly behavioural responses of dogs confined in a shelter. Petting may be an effective means of reducing the cortisol responses of dogs to other common aversive situations, such as routine medical examinations and vaccination procedures at veterinary clinics as well as shelters.
The secure base and safe haven effects of the attachment figure are central features of the human attachment theory. Recently, conclusive evidence for human analogue attachment behaviours in dogs has been provided, however, the owner's security-providing role in danger has not been directly supported. We investigated the relationship between the behavioural and cardiac response in dogs (N = 30) while being approached by a threatening stranger in separation vs. in the presence of the owner, presented in a balanced order. Non-invasive telemetric measures of heart rate (HR) and heart rate variability (HRV) data during the threatening approaches was compared to periods before and after the encounters. Dogs that showed distress vocalisation during separation (N = 18) and that growled or barked at the stranger during the threatening approach (N = 17) were defined as behaviourally reactive in the given situation. While characteristic stress vocalisations were emitted during separations, the absence of the owner did not have an effect on dogs' mean HR, but significantly increased the HRV. The threatening approach increased dogs' mean HR, with a parallel decrease in the HRV, particularly in dogs that were behaviourally reactive to the encounter. Importantly, the HR increase was significantly less pronounced when dogs faced the stranger in the presence of the owner. Moreover, the test order, whether the dog encountered the stranger first with or without its owner, also proved important: HR increase associated with the encounter in separation seemed to be attenuated in dogs that faced the stranger first in the presence of their owner. We provided evidence for human analogue safe haven effect of the owner in a potentially dangerous situation. Similarly to parents of infants, owners can provide a buffer against stress in dogs, which can even reduce the effect of a subsequent encounter with the same threatening stimuli later when the owner is not present.
Canine psychodermatopathies are appreciated, but our knowledge of this field is extremely limited. We suspect that psychodermatopathies could be expanded to include dermatoses featuring pruritic behavior such as licking, scratching and biting. The purpose of this study was to evaluate these clinical findings of a series of suspect dogs. Seven dogs with psychogenic dermatoses featuring pruritic behavior are described. Differential diagnoses including infectious disease, allergy, congenital disorder, metabolic and neurological disturbances, and previous trauma at the lesions were all ruled out. All dogs had concurrent behavior problems or inductive life events, and both skin and behavior problems were improved with behavior modification with or without psychopharmacological therapy. The type and distribution of the skin lesions and incidental context of pruritic behavior were evaluated. Histopathological examination of the skin lesion was performed in five cases. In the seven dogs, characteristic skin lesions included: broken hairs (n = 7); and erythema and/or excoriation (n = 3); broken hairs located on the lateral thigh (n = 4), medial forearm (n = 4), flank (n = 3), and perioral area (n = 3); and erythema and/or excoriations located on the cheek (n = 2), perioral area (n = 2), periocular area (n = 1) and nails (n = 1). In all cases, the onset of pruritic behavior was associated with emotionally unstable situations, and did not appear during sleep or during periods of focused attention. Histopathological findings were unremarkable in all cases. In conclusion, psychogenic disorders should be considered as a cause of dermatoses in dogs with pruritic behavior, and this disorder can be identified with clinical evaluation of skin lesions and the relationship between the behavior and its context.
To identify associations among change in body weight, behavioral stress score, food intake score, and development of upper respiratory tract infection (URI) among cats admitted to an animal shelter.
Prospective cohort study. Animals-60 adult cats admitted to an animal shelter.
Body weight was measured on days 0 (intake), 7, 14, and 21. Behavioral stress and food intake were scored daily for the first 7 days; cats were monitored daily for URI.
49 of the 60 (82%) cats lost weight during at least 1 week while in the shelter. Fifteen (25%) cats lost ≥ 10% of their body weight while in the shelter. Thirty-five of the 60 (58%) cats developed URI prior to exiting the shelter, and only 4 cats remained at least 21 days without developing URI. Cats with high stress scores during the first week were 5.6 times as likely to develop URI as were cats with low stress scores. Food intake and stress scores were negatively correlated (r = -0.98).
Results indicated that cats admitted to an animal shelter were likely to lose weight while in the shelter and likely to develop URI, and that cats that had high stress scores were more likely to develop URI.
To compare sickness behaviors (SB) in response to unusual external events (UEE) in healthy cats with those of cats with feline interstitial cystitis (FIC).
Prospective observational study.
12 healthy cats and 20 donated cats with FIC.
Cats were housed in a vivarium. Sickness behaviors referable to the gastrointestinal and urinary tracts, the skin, and behavior problems were recorded by a single observer for 77 weeks. Instances of UEE (eg, changes in caretakers, vivarium routine, and lack of interaction with the investigator) were identified during 11 of the 77 weeks. No instances of UEE were identified during the remaining 66 weeks, which were considered control weeks.
An increase in age and exposure to UEE, but not disease status, significantly increased total number of SB when results were controlled for other factors. Evaluation of individual SB revealed a protective effect of food intake for healthy males. An increase in age conferred a small increase in relative risk (RR) for upper gastrointestinal tract signs (RR, 1.2) and avoidance behavior (1.7). Exposure to UEE significantly increased the RR for decreases in food intake (RR, 9.3) and for no eliminations in 24 hours (6.4). Exposure to UEE significantly increased the RR for defecation (RR, 9.8) and urination (1.6) outside the litter box.
SB, including some of the most commonly observed abnormalities in client-owned cats, were observed after exposure to UEE in both groups. Because healthy cats and cats with FIC were comparably affected by UEE, clinicians should consider the possibility of exposure to UEE in cats evaluated for these signs.
The Regional Shelter Relinquishment Study sponsored by the National Council on Pet Population Study and Policy (NCPPSP) is a US research project designed to explore the characteristics of relinquished dogs and cats, their owners, and the reasons for relinquishment. The NCPPSP Regional Shelter Study, which was conducted between February 1995 and April 1996, found that behavioural problems, including aggression toward people or non-human animals, were the most frequently given reasons for canine relinquishment and the second most frequently given reasons for feline relinquishment. No association was found between category of relinquishment (behavioural, mixed, non-behavioural) and gender, number of times mated (males), number of litters (females), purebred status, declaw status, and number of visits to the veterinarian within the past year, for either dogs or cats. Associations were found between category of relinquishment and number of pets in the household, number of pets added to the household, neuter status of female dogs and cats , neuter status of male dogs, training level, age of pet relinquished, length of ownership, and pets acquired from shelters. Associations also were found between the state in which the pet was relinquished and income level of owner.
Molecular Psychiatry publishes work aimed at elucidating biological mechanisms underlying psychiatric disorders and their treatment
To identify factors associated with onset and continued elicitation of tail chasing in Bull Terriers and other terriers and to determine response to treatment with clomipramine hydrochloride, a serotonin-reuptake inhibitor.
Prospective study.
18 tail-chasing terriers (15 Bull Terriers, 1 Miniature Bull Terrier, 1 American Staffordshire Terrier, 1 Jack Russell Terrier).
5 dogs were evaluated for tail chasing by a veterinarian at the behavior clinic of the veterinary teaching hospital and 13 dogs were evaluated by the owner's local veterinarian, who confirmed the diagnosis and treated the dog. It was recommended that all dogs in the study be given clomipramine orally at a dosage of 1 to 2 mg/kg (0.5 to 0.9 mg/lb) of body weight, every 12 hours.
Of the 18 dogs, 15 were treated with clomipramine within the recommended dosage range, and 3 dogs required treatment at a slightly higher dosage range to control tail chasing. After 1 to 12 weeks of treatment, 9 of 12 (75%) dogs were reported to have a 75% or greater improvement (reduction) in tail chasing.
Findings of this study may aid in recognition and treatment of compulsive tail chasing. In conjunction with appropriate management changes, clomipramine administration appears to be an effective treatment for this otherwise refractory condition.
To evaluate effects of environmental management alone on marking frequency in cats with urine marking and to obtain demographic data on cats with urine marking and data on owner-perceived factors that contributed to urine marking behavior.
Single-intervention study.
40 neutered male and 7 spayed female cats.
During a 2-week baseline phase, owners maintained a daily record of the number of urine marks. This phase was followed by a 2-week environmental management phase during which owners cleaned recently deposited urine marks daily, scooped waste from the litter box daily, and changed the litter and cleaned the litter box weekly while continuing to record urine marks.
Male cats and cats from multicat households were significantly overrepresented, compared with the general pet cat population in California. The most commonly mentioned causative factors for urine marking were agonistic interactions with other cats outside or inside the home. Environmental management procedures resulted in an overall reduction in urine marking frequency. Among cats that marked > or = 6 times during the baseline phase, females were significantly more likely to respond to treatment (> or = 50% reduction in marking frequency) than were males.
Results suggest that male cats and cats from multicat households are more likely to exhibit urine marking behavior than females and cats from single-cat households. Results also suggest that attention to environmental and litter box hygiene can reduce marking frequency in cats, regardless of sex or household status of the cats, and may come close to resolving the marking problem in some cats.
Stress is a term that has become synonymous with modern life. This review aims to appraise the evidence linking stress with disease with particular reference to the major causes of morbidity and mortality in the Western World, cardiovascular disease, cancer, and depression. Changes in immune parameters in stressful situations were reviewed as a possible pathophysiological mechanism for such effects.
A Medline search was carried out for the period 1996-2000 to identify recent findings in this field using the terms "stress", "disease", "immune system". Relevant references that were found in all identified publications were also followed up.
There is evidence to link stress with the onset of major depression and with a poorer prognosis in cardiovascular disease and cancer. Few small studies suggest that stress management strategies may help to improve survival. Chronic stress appears to result in suppression of the immune response, whereas immune activation and suppression have been associated with acute stress. Inflammatory cytokines, soluble mediators of the immune response, can result in symptoms of depression.
Further prospective epidemiologically based studies are needed to clarify the role of stress on disease onset, course, and prognosis. Stress management strategies, aimed at prolonging survival in patients with cardiovascular disease, cancer, and possibly other chronic illnesses, are an exciting area of further research. Immune system changes may account for the relationship between stress and disease. We propose the "stress, cytokine, depression" model as a biological pathway to explain the link between stressful life events and depression.
This book is comprised of 11 chapters generally discussing different perspectives of stereotypic behaviour in man and animals. The chapters are divided into 3 parts (normal animal and abnormal environment, stereotypic behaviours as pathologies and treating stereotypic behaviours). The first chapter reviews the extent and nature of research into stereotypic behaviour. Chapters 2-4 (part I) focus on the ethological perspective. Behaviour is discussed, including stereotypies, in terms of its motivated basis (stereotyping subjects are normal animals responding in species-typical ways to an abnormal environment). Chapters 5-8 (part II) emphasize clinical psychology, psychiatry and neuroscience. Three assumptions are presented: stereotypies of focus are the products of dysfunction (animal is abnormal); fullest understanding of stereotypies will come from investigating the neurophysiological mechanisms involved; and processes involved at this level have great cross-species generality. Part III (chapter 9 and 10) illustrates how stereotypies can be tackled and reduced by those concerned about their unaesthetic appearance and/or welfare implications. Chapter 11 provides a synthesis of the book and future research and suggestions on how terminology can be improved.
Some investigators have argued that emotions, especially animal emotions, are illusory concepts outside the realm of scientific inquiry. With advances in neurobiology and neuroscience, however, researchers are proving this position wrong while moving closer to understanding the biology and psychology of emotion. In Affective Neuroscience, Jaak Panksepp argues that emotional systems in humans, as well as other animals, are necessarily combinations of innate and learned tendencies; there are no routine and credible ways to really separate the influences of nature and nurture in the control of behavior. The book shows how to move toward a new understanding by taking a psychobiological approach to the subject, examining how the neurobiology and neurochemistry of the mammalian brain shape the psychological experience of emotion. It includes chapters on sleep and arousal, pleasure and pain systems, the sources of rage and anger, and the neural control of sexuality. The book will appeal to researchers and professors in the field of emotion.
Stress and Pheromonatherapy in Small Animal Clinical Behaviour is about how stress impacts on animal behaviour and welfare and what we can do about it, especially by using chemical signals more effectively. This readily accessible text starts from first principles and is useful to both academics and practitioners alike. It offers a framework for understanding how pheromonatherapy can be used to encourage desirable behaviour in dogs and cats and also a fresh approach to understanding the nature of clinical animal behaviour problems. The authors have pioneered the use of pheromone therapy within the field of clinical animal behaviour. As the culmination of many years of research and experience, they offer sound evidence-based advice on how and when pheromones can be used most effectively. The first part of the book deals with some fundamental concepts, focusing on the key concepts of stress, communication and perception. It then provides a framework for the evaluation of problem behaviour to allow consideration of the possible role or not of pheromonatherapy. Part 2 covers the application of these concepts to a range of specific situations, concentrating on conditions in which there has been most research to support the efficacy of pheromonatherapy. Suitable for veterinarians in small animal practice, students of clinical animal behaviour, veterinary nurses and technicians, as well as specialists and researchers in animal behaviour therapy.
A postal survey was conducted of the owners of 152 cats, mainly of oriental breeds, which exhibited pica (defined broadly, as chewing, sucking or ingesting non-nutritive materials). The most common material was wool (93% of cases), followed by cotton, man-made fabrics, rubber/plastic and paper/cardboard (8%). Actual ingestion was as likely to occur in Burmese cats as in Siamese, in contradiction to a report from the USA (Houpt, 1985). Pica appeared to be linked to infantile behaviour in non-oriental cats, but possibly not in orientals. Onset of pica could occur at any time during the first 4 years of the cat's life, but was most frequent in the 2 months following rehoming. Onset in other cases could not be linked to rehoming, but tended to occur between 6 and 18 months of age, and may therefore be linked to the onset of sexual maturity or territorial behaviour. Neutering had little effect on the expression of pica.
Sixteen domestic cats were used to investigate the pituitary-adrenal, pituitary-gonadal and behavioral consequences of an unpredictable handling and husbandry routine. After a 10-day baseline period of standard laboratory procedures, eight cats (‘stressed cats’, STR) were subjected to a 21-day period of altered caretaking characterized by irregular feeding and cleaning times, absence of talking and petting by humans, and daily unpredictable manipulations. Eight control cats (CON group) were maintained for 21 days on the standard caretaking schedule. Behavior was recorded on time-lapse video 24 h day−1, urine was collected daily for cortisol analyses, and hormone stimulation tests with synthetic adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH) were conducted before and after the 3-week treatment period. Results indicate that the STR cats were chronically stressed by the altered caretaking routine. Urinary cortisol concentrations were consistently elevated throughout the 3-week period, adrenal sensitivity to ACTH was enhanced and pituitary sensitivity to LHRH was reduced. Active exploratory and play behavior was suppressed, and STR cats spent more time awake/alert and attempting to hide. Hiding was negatively correlated with cortisol concentration and, therefore, may be an important behavior for coping with uncontrollable and unpredictable captive environments. These results indicate that qualitatively poor caretaking is a potent psychological stressor for confined cats that may eventually compromise reproduction through behavioral or physiological mechanisms. To promote well-being, caged cats should be provided with appropriate places for concealment.
Glucocorticoids are widely used in veterinary medicine and their physical side effects are well-known; however, the effects on dog behavior linked to their role in the stress response and effects on mood have not been reported in previously published data. In this article, retrospective owner reports of the behavioral changes in dogs during corticosteroid therapy in a series of cases have been described so as to generate items for future use in a controlled structured questionnaire. The perceptions of behavioral changes in dogs during corticosteroid therapy were investigated through semi-structured open interviews of the owners of 31 dogs of different breeds, genders, and ages. All dogs had received corticosteroid therapies in the past 6 months. In all, 18 dogs had been administered methylprednisolone (dose range, 0.2-1 mg/kg), 8 were administered prednisolone (dose range, 0.2-1 mg/kg), and 5 were administered dexamethasone (dose range, 0.01-0.3). Methylprednisolone and prednisolone were used for dermatological conditions, and dexamethasone was used for orthopedic conditions. Owners were asked to describe their dog’s behaviors both on and off corticosteroid therapy. Interviews were ceased when answers became repetitive with no new reported behavioral change (interview to redundancy). In all, 11 owners reported behavioral changes in their dogs; 9 dogs were reported to show more than one behavioral change. Six dogs reportedly showed nervousness and/or restlessness, 3 showed an increase in startle responses, 3 showed food guarding, 2 showed a decrease in their activity level, 3 showed an increase in avoidance responses, 4 showed irritable aggression, and 2 dogs increased barking. Semi-structured interviews can be useful preliminary tools for the identification of areas of future investigation, and the outcomes of the interviews reported in this article will be used in further quantitative research, to investigate more rigorously the possible relationship between these signs and corticosteroid use in dogs.
A retrospective study was designed to assess the prevalence and clinical presentation of canine aggression problems in a referral practice in Spain. One thousand forty canine aggression cases seen at the Animal Behavior Clinic (Barcelona School of Veterinary Medicine) were analyzed. Each aggression problem was characterized according to 7 predefined diagnostic categories. Breed- and sex-related risk factors were calculated by comparing the aggressive dogs to a control population. Aggression problems were the most common behavior complaint (52.28% of all canine behavior cases). Complaints of owner-directed aggression were the most frequent (38.55%), followed by aggression toward other dogs (34.85%) and toward unfamiliar people (21.95%). A mean of 1.4 diagnoses of aggression per dog were established. Social conflict aggression toward family members was the most common diagnostic category (35.34%). Of the aggressive dogs, 69% were males and 31% were females, of which only 11% and 12% were neutered, respectively. Two breeds, the English cocker spaniel and the Catalan sheepdog, presented a particularly high risk for aggression in the studied population.
This study used The Canine Behavioral Assessment and Research Questionnaire (C-BARQ) and regression models to explore the relative importance of dog and owner characteristics, living environment and owner–dog interaction to household dogs’ aggressiveness towards strangers, owners and other dogs. Exploratory factor analysis revealed 10 interpretable factors from the Chinese translation of C-BARQ: stranger-directed aggression, owner-directed aggression, dog-directed aggression, social fear, nonsocial fear, separation-related behavior, attachment or attention-seeking behavior, trainability, excitability and pain sensitivity. The factor structure of our study largely resembled that reported in Hsu and Serpell (2003) and van den Berg et al. (2006; Dutch translation of C-BARQ). All factors of the translated C-BARQ have adequate reliability (Cronbach α: 0.74–0.93) and are thus suitable for measuring temperament traits in Taiwan's pet dogs. Intrinsic and environmental variables important to the three aggression subscales were not entirely the same, but breed (P≤0.020) and physical punishment (P≤0.053) had significant relationships with all of them. Golden Retriever scored the lowest while dogs subjected to physical reprimands scored significantly higher on aggression subscales. In addition, higher scores on stranger-directed aggression were associated (P≤0.027) with living in rural areas, in houses with yard space and with more household members and being acquired either as puppies or for guarding purposes. Higher scores on owner-directed aggression were associated (P≤0.040) with male and older dogs, being neutered/spayed, having female owners, fewer other dogs in the household and being kept outside the house. Higher scores on dog-directed aggression, on the other hand, were associated (P≤0.050) with living in houses with either yard space or more household members and with spending less time with owners. Stranger- and dog-directed aggression had more important intrinsic and environmental variables common to them than did owner-directed aggression, which suggests that aggression towards owners may be regulated by different mechanisms from aggression towards strangers and other dogs. Although no causal relationship between dog aggression and environmental variables can be implied from observational studies, the results of this and other studies lend support to the possibility of reducing dogs’ aggressive responses through proper management by owners.
Defining objective, reproducible and standardized parameters for the evaluation of patients is one of the main academic focuses of veterinary behaviour medicine. Prolactin, a peptidic neurohormone and a cytokine, whose main regulator is dopamine, seems to be of particular interest in relation to chronically distressed patients. The aim of this clinical study was to assess the correlation between prolactin levels in the blood (prolactinaemia) and chronic anxiety and to evaluate its value in helping to guide the choice of the most appropriate drug in dogs displaying emotional disorders. The inclusion criteria included an EDED score superior or equal to 10 and the absence of any previous treatment or physical condition, which could modify prolactin secretion or emotional reactions. After inclusion, a randomization number was assigned to the dog, with a preselected treatment: fluoxetine (1mg/kg once a day) or selegiline (0.5mg/kg once a day). Each dog was evaluated with a complete behaviour examination, a physical examination, EDED score and a blood sample to measure prolactinaemia.The dogs were re-evaluated 4 weeks, 8 weeks and 16 weeks later. The follow-up visits were organised the same way as the inclusion visit, including EDED scoring and prolactinaemia evaluation.A population of 84 dogs was enrolled in study. The analysis of the correlations between prolactinaemia and EDED score show a positive significant correlation.Evaluation of treatment follow up showed a statistically significantly greater improvement with selegiline in the dogs with higher levels of prolactinaemia compared to those with lower levels of prolactin, who were significantly more improved by fluoxetine.
The post-conflict stress-response of aggressed upon confined group-living (n=8 males and n=9 females) domestic cats (Felis silvestris catus) was studied. The rates of autogrooming, oral behaviour, scratching and shaking head—markers of the acute stress-response in cats—were significantly elevated above baseline level in the first minute following a conflict. These data suggest that the acute stress-response due to conflicts was only short-lasting in this stable colony of cats.
In 1878, Bernard5 first recognized the physiologic response of animals to environmental stimuli when he described the "milieu interieur" of the animal, characterized by its constancy, and the external environment, characterized by its variability. Cannon'O later redefined this concept as "homeostasis," in which a steady state is obtained by the optimal interaction of counteracting processes within the host. He also defined the flightfight reflex of animals exposed to undue stress and identified the potentially damaging effects of stress on the individual. The physiologic basis of the stress response was attributed to activation of endocrinologic factors involving the sympathetic adrenomedullary axis." Selye106 then described the response of laboratory animals experimentally exposed to noxious stimuli, which he classified as the "general adaptation syndrome." The syndrome was classified as having three distinct phases:
The behavioural effects of a puppy socialisation training program were evaluated in 58 purebred and 10 crossbreed puppies. Each subject was randomly allocated to one of five groups: Socialisation plus Training (S & T, n=12), Socialisation (n=10), Training (n=13), Feeding (n=12) and Control (n=11). The S & T group received a full training program which included both operant training for commands (come, sit, stay, drop and heel) and social interaction with other puppies during four, weekly 1 h sessions. Subjects in the training or socialisation groups received either the commands or socialisation aspects of the program. The feeding group received food items equivalent in amount to those given to the previous three groups during weekly attendance at the training centre. The control group only attended the centre for rating. A series of rating scales assessed the puppies' responses to novel, social, handling and commands stimuli. All puppies were tested prior to the program (baseline), after the second and fourth sessions, and 4 to 6 months after completion of the program. No groups differed significantly at baseline on any of the scales. Puppies in the S & T and training groups received significantly higher ratings for their responses to commands at 2 and 4 weeks. There were no significant group effects on any of the other scales. Although the program was successful in training the puppies on commands, experiencing additional social interaction (play) with other puppies did not lead to significant changes in responses to social stimuli as assessed by the rating scales. Additionally, the exposure to novel or handling stimuli in the context of the program did not significantly improve responses in comparison to animals without such exposure. The data suggest that socialisation and training programs may be useful as a starting point for assessing possible problematic behaviour in puppies and are effective in producing well trained dogs.
In recent years we have seen the emergence of "personalised medicine." This development can be seen as the logical product of reductionism in medical science in which disease is increasingly understood in molecular terms. Personalised medicine has flourished as a consequence of the application of neoliberal principles to health care, whereby a commercial and social need for personalised medicine has been created. More specifically, personalised medicine benefits from the ongoing commercialisation of the body and of genetic knowledge, the idea that health is defined by genetics, and the emphasis the state places on individual citizens as being "responsible for" their own health. In this paper I critique the emergence of personalised medicine by examining the ways in which it has already impacted upon health and health care delivery.
Prenatal anxiety has been linked with altered immune function in offspring in animal studies, but the relevance for human health is unknown. We examined prenatal maternal anxiety as a predictor of adaptive immunity in infants at 2 and 6months of age as part of a prospective longitudinal study. The humoral immune response to hepatitis B vaccine was assessed at 2months (n=80) and 6months (n=76) of age. Prenatal anxiety predicted lower hepatitis B antibody titers at 6months of age independent of obstetric and socio-demographic covariates; the effects were limited to those infants who had not completed the 3-dose vaccine series (for transformed titer values, r=-.36, p<.05). Cell-mediated immune responses at 2 (n=56) and 6 (n=54) months of age were examined by ELISpot assays for interferon(IFN)-γ, interleukin(IL)-2, and IL-4 responder cell frequencies to three antigens: hepatitis B surface antigen, tetanus toxoid, and phytohaemagglutinin (PHA). Prenatal maternal anxiety was associated with reduced IFN-γ and increased IL-4 responder cell frequencies at 6months of age, independent of obstetric and socio-demographic covariates. No effect of prenatal anxiety was found on adaptive immunity at 2months of age. The findings provide the first demonstration in humans that prenatal anxiety alters adaptive immunity in the infant.
The frequency of diagnosis of feline hyperthyroidism has increased dramatically since the late 1970s. Whether this increase reflects enhanced diagnostic acumen or an actual increase in the incidence of this disease, or both, is unknown. It seems likely, in view of the distinctive nature of the signs and the lack of evidence of thyroid enlargement and clinical signs in previous feline necropsy series, that feline hyperthyroidism is truly occurring with increased frequency today.A case-control study was undertaken to identify possible risk factors for this disease. Owners of 56 cats with feline hyperthyroidism and 117 controls were questioned about their cats' exposure to various potential risk factors (e.g., diet, medications) and these exposures were compared. Elevated odds ratios were associated with regular treatment with flea sprays or powders, living strictly indoors and having reported exposure to lawn herbicides, fertilizers or pesticides. Cases were also more likely to receive canned food and were less likely to be Siamese than controls. The relevance of these factors to the etiology of feline hyperthyroidism is discussed.
Fear and anxiety-related behaviors are common in pet dogs and are likely to cause a physiological stress response in individuals that are exposed to those things they find fear or anxiety-inducing. Stress responses are related to a number of changes in hormonal and immune modulation and have been shown in many species to be related to disease processes and shortened lifespan. It was predicted that dogs with fear and anxiety disorders would have decreased lifespan and increased disease frequency and severity.In this retrospective study, owners of 721 deceased dogs completed a 99 question on-line survey that asked about the demographics, training, behavioral characteristics, health history, age at and cause of death in their pets. Correlational and regression analyses were performed to explore relationships between behavior; fear and anxiety subscales; lifespan; and specific diseases and causes of death.Results show that how “well-behaved” an owner felt their dog was positively correlated with lifespan (R2 = 0.18, P < 0.001). Dogs with extreme non-social fear and separation anxiety were found to have an increased severity and frequency of skin disorders (R2 = 0.03, P < 0.001). While neither stranger-directed fear nor any other fear or anxiety scales were related to specific causes of death, fear of strangers was found to be related to a significantly shortened lifespan (R2 = 0.16, P < 0.001). There is evidence to suggest that the stress of living with a fear or anxiety disorder can have negative effects on health and lifespan in the domestic dog.
Complete case histories from 120 dogs referred because of aggression were reviewed to determine what trends, if any, were present. Sixty percent of the animals were male, with the remaining 40% divided almost equally between females, neutered males, and neutered females. The mean age for dogs presented was 3.0 years, although females tended to be younger and neutered males somewhat older. Mixed-breed dogs (18.3%) were the most common, while Cocker Spaniels and German Shepherds (10% each) were the most commonly seen purebreds. Attacks or threats were directed to adults by 54.2% of the dogs, toward children by 21.7% of the dogs, and toward other dogs by 41.7% of the patients. Twenty animals (16.7%) threatened more than one category. Competitive (dominance) aggression, the most frequent type diagnosed, was expressed by 59.2% of the dogs and was generally responsive to treatment.
Review on the mechanisms behind stress-induced immune modulation of antimicrobial responses.
Leukocytes and epithelial cells are fundamental to antimicrobial immunity. Their antimicrobial responses are an evolutionarily conserved component of the innate immune system and are influenced by the host's response to external stimuli. The efficacy of host defense via antimicrobial responses derives from the ability of AMPs to rapidly identify and eradicate foreign microbes and activate proinflammatory pathways, and from the capacity of later innate and adaptive immune responses to amplify protection through distinct biochemical mechanisms. Recent advances in neuroimmunology have identified a direct link between the neuroendocrine and immune systems, where environmental stimuli are generally believed to promote a transient effect on the immune system in response to environmental challenges and are presumably brought back to baseline levels via neuroendocrine pathways. Stress is an environmental stimulus that flares from a variety of circumstances and has become engrained in human society. Small bouts of stress are believed to enhance the host's immune response; however, prolonged periods of stress can be detrimental through excess production of neuroendocrine-derived mediators that dampen immune responses to invasive pathogens. Elucidation of the mechanisms behind stress-induced immune modulation of antimicrobial responses will ultimately lead to the development of more effective therapeutic interventions for pathologic conditions. It is the intent of this review to broaden the existing paradigm of how stress-related molecules dampen immune responses through suppression of antimicrobial mechanisms, and to emphasize that bacteria can use these factors to enhance microbial pathogenesis during stress.
Stress parameters that can be measured noninvasively may help to identify poor welfare in dogs that live in private homes and institutions. Behavioural parameters are potentially useful to identify stress, but require further investigation to establish which behaviours are appropriate. In the present study, behaviours were recorded and analysed for signs of acute stress in dogs. Simultaneously, saliva cortisol and heart rate were measured to support the interpretation of the behavioural data with regard to stress. Ten dogs of either sex, different ages and various breeds were each subjected to six different stimuli: sound blasts, short electric shocks, a falling bag, an opening umbrella and two forms of restraint. Each type of stimulus had been selected for its assumed aversive properties and was administered intermittently for 1 min. The stimuli that could not be anticipated by the dogs, sound blasts, shocks and a falling bag, tended to induce saliva cortisol responses and a very low posture. The remainder of the stimuli, which were administered by the experimenter visibly to the dog, did not change the cortisol levels but did induce restlessness, a moderate lowering of the posture, body shaking, oral behaviours, and to a lesser extent, yawning and open mouth. Pronounced increases in the heart rate were nonspecifically induced by each type of stimulus. Heart rate levels normalized within 8 min after stressor administration had stopped. Saliva cortisol levels decreased to normal within the hour. Correlations between behavioural and physiological stress parameters were not significant. From the present results, we conclude that in dogs a very low posture may indicate intense acute stress since dogs show a very low posture concomitant with saliva cortisol responses. Dogs may typically show increased restlessness, oral behaviours, yawning, open mouth and a moderate lowering of the posture when they experienced moderate stress in a social setting. The nonspecific character of canine heart rate responses complicates its interpretation with regard to acute stress.
We propose a unifying hypothesis of schizophrenia to help reconcile findings from many different disciplines. This hypothesis proposes that schizophrenia often involves pre- or perinatal exposure to adverse factors that produce a latent immune vulnerability. When this vulnerability is manifested, beginning around puberty with changes in immune function and involution of the thymus, individuals become more susceptible to infections and immune dysfunctions that contribute to schizophrenia. Our hypothesis suggests theoretical bridges between different lines of evidence on schizophrenia and offers explanations for many puzzling findings about schizophrenia. For example, the hypothesis helps account for why schizophrenia patients tend to have had increased exposure to neurotropic infections, but most individuals with such exposure do not develop schizophrenia, and why prenatal hardships increase risk for schizophrenia, but the onset of symptoms typically does not occur until after puberty. The hypothesis also explains another paradox: lower socioeconomic status and poor prenatal care increase risk for schizophrenia at the same geographic site, but international comparisons indicate that countries with higher per capita incomes and better prenatal care actually tend to have higher schizophrenia prevalences. As the hypothesis predicts, (1) prenatal adversity, which increases risk for schizophrenia, also impairs post-pubertal immune competence, (2) schizophrenia patients experience elevated morbidity from infectious and auto-immune diseases, (3) genetic and environmental risk factors for schizophrenia increase vulnerability to these diseases, (4) factors that exacerbate schizophrenic symptoms also tend to impair immune function, (5) many anti-psychotic medications combat infection, (6) effects of early infections may not appear until after puberty, when they can produce neurologic and psychiatric symptoms, and (7) immune dysfunctions, such as imbalances of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines, may contribute to the onset of psychotic symptoms and the progressive loss of brain tissue in schizophrenia. The disruptive effects of prenatal adversity on the development of the immune system may often combine with adverse effects on prenatal brain development to produce schizophrenia. This paper focuses on the adverse immune system effects, because effects on the brain have been extensively discussed in neurodevelopmental theories of schizophrenia. We propose new tests of scientific predictions. We also point out potential clinical implications of the hypothesis; for example, individuals with schizophrenia may often have underlying infections or immune dysfunctions, such as imbalances in inflammatory cytokines, that contribute to the illness. This possibility could be tested experimentally--e.g., by clinical trials in which patients' exposure to infection is reduced or immune function is normalized.
Aggression by cats towards humans is a serious behavioural, welfare and public health problem, although owners may believe it is an inevitable part of cat ownership. There has been little scientific investigation of the risk factors associated with this problem. One hundred and seven owners in the Sao Paulo region of Brazil, took part in a survey aimed at investigating the perceived prevalence of the problem, defining the most common contexts of human directed aggression and identifying associated potential risk factors. Human directed aggression occurred in 49.5% of cats and was most commonly associated with situations involving petting and play, followed by protection of a resource, when startled, when observing an unfamiliar animal and least commonly when unfamiliar people were present. Pedigree status, neuter status, a history of early trauma, sensitivity to being stroked, the absence of other cats in the home, relationship with other animals, level of background activity at home, access to the outside and tendency to be alone (meaning tendency to staying far from the family members) were all associated with an increased risk in one or more context. However, sex, age, age when acquired, source of pet, attachment to a specific household member, type of domestic accommodation, relationship with another cat if present and contact with other animals did not appear to increase the risk. The results suggest sensitivity to being stroked and background levels of stress in the home are the most pervasive risk factors, and future research should aim to investigate these factors further. These data are of relevance when advising owners about the risk and development of this problem.
To evaluate the association between pruritus and anxiety-related and aggressive behaviors in dogs.
Cross-sectional survey.
238 dogs between 1 and 8 years old.
Information including a score for general degree of pruritus (visual analogue scale from 0 to 10) and frequency of anxiety-related and aggressive behaviors was collected via a survey distributed to clients at 3 privately owned practices.
Median score for pruritus was 2.4. Dogs were assigned to 2 groups on the basis of pruritus score (nonpruritic [0 to 2.4] and pruritic [2.5 to 10]). There was no significant difference between pruritic and nonpruritic dogs with regard to aggression or with regard to reactivity to being alone; to thunderstorms or noises; or to unfamiliar people, animals, or objects. Post hoc analysis revealed significantly more reactivity to thunderstorms or noises in dogs treated with glucocorticoids (18/37 [49%]) than in those not administered glucocorticoids (57/197 [29%]).
An association was not detected between pruritus and aggressive, anxious, or fearful behavior in dogs. There was greater reactivity to thunderstorms or noises in glucocorticoid-treated dogs. These findings do not preclude the possibility of a relationship between certain dermatoses or pruritic conditions and behavior. However, a concurrent behavioral abnormality cannot be assumed to result from a dermatosis and be expected to resolve with treatment of only the skin disease. Dogs with behavioral disorders and pruritic disease require primary treatment of both conditions. Additional studies to examine the effect of disease and glucocorticoids on canine behavior are warranted.
Companion dogs commonly experience states of anxiety, fears, and phobias. Separation anxiety and noise aversions, as discussed in this article, are especially prevalent. Veterinarians are encouraged to recognize and treat such conditions on first presentation to address welfare issues and optimize successful management. New data suggest new treatment modalities, including behavioral management, pharmacotherapy, and species-specific pheromone use. Failure to treat can result in disruption of the human-animal bond and subsequent abandonment, relinquishment, or even euthanasia of the affected dog.