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www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol12/i1547-3465-12-051.pdf
Ethnobotany Research & Applications 12:051-069 (2014)
R. Takawira-Nyenya, Natural History Museum, Botanical
Garden, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1172, Blindern, N – 0318
Oslo, NORWAY. r.t.nyenya@nhm.uio.no
L.E. Newton, Department of Plant Sciences, Kenyatta
University, P.O. Box 43844, Nairobi. 00100, KENYA.
ellyen@yahoo.com
E. Wabuyele, National Museums of Kenya, East African
Herbarium, P.O Box 40658, 00100 GPO, Nairobi, KENYA.
ewabuyele@museums.or.ke
B. Stedje, Natural History Museum, Botanical Garden,
University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1172, Blindern, N – 0318 Oslo,
NORWAY. brita.stedje@nhm.uio.no
ince of Kenya and provides a basis for a broader inquiry
on the ethnobotany of genus Sansevieria based on wider
sampling.
Introduction
The genus Sansevieria is well known worldwide for its
range of xerophytic perennial plants that occur in dry trop-
ical and subtropical parts of the world. About 70 species
are known with a distribution range from Africa to south
east Asia and the islands of the Indian Ocean (Alfani et
al. 1989, Purseglove 1972). Mbugua and Moore (1996)
suggested East Africa to be the center of diversity for the
genus Sansevieria. Mbugua (2007) recognized 35 spe-
cies of Sansevieria occurring in Kenya in the revision of
family Dracaenaceae for ora of tropical Africa (Mwachala
& Mbugua 2007). More recently, three new species have
been described in Kenya (Newton 2009, 2010), further in-
creasing the number of Kenyan Sansevieria species and
Ethnobotanical Uses
of Sansevieria Thunb.
(Asparagaceae) in Coast
Province of Kenya
R. Takawira-Nyenya, L.E. Newton, E. Wabuyele,
and B. Stedje
Research
Abstract
Sansevieria Thunb. is a genus with diverse ethnobotanical
uses in its geographical range. The current study reports
on ndings from an ethnobotanical study carried out on
the genus Sansevieria in Coast Province of Kenya. Col-
lating of ethnobotanical uses of Sansevieria from existing
literature has been complicated by the fact that the ethno-
botany of the genus is poorly documented with most spe-
cies misidentied due to the nomenclatural confusion and
the unresolved taxonomy of the genus Sansevieria. The
aim of the current study was to correctly identify various
Sansevieria species from their natural habitats and type
localities where possible, to observe the plants in situ, and
to document ethnobotanical uses of different Sansevie-
ria species that occur in Coast Province of Kenya. Indig-
enous knowledge on the use of the plants by the local
communities was captured by interviewing people resid-
ing in the study area. Purposive sampling and snow ball
sampling were employed in the selection of informants.
Direct observation, open ended, informal, and semi struc-
tured interviews covering questions on local names of
species, plant uses, mode of administration, and the spe-
cic plant parts used were carried out with thirty respon-
dents. Responses were documented for ethnobotanical
uses of 9 Sansevieria species: S. conspicua N.E.Br., S.
dumetescens L.E. Newton, S. scheri (Baker) Marais, S.
kirkii Baker, S. nitida Chahin., S. perrotii Warb., S. pow-
ellii N.E.Br., S. rafllii N.E.Br., and S. volkensii Gürke. A
total of four broad use categories were identied from the
study: medicinal use, horticultural use, food additives, and
materials. Materials category was the most prevalent cat-
egory with 49% of the total responses, followed by Me-
dicinal category that accounted for 27%, the Horticultural
use category that accounted for 21%, and the Food addi-
tives category that accounted for 3% of the total respons-
es. The current study contributes to documentation of the
ethnobotany of genus Sansevieria species in Coast Prov-
Published: 06 March, 2014
Ethnobotany Research & Applications52
www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol12/i1547-3465-12-051.pdf
raising the total number of Sansevieria taxa with type lo-
calities in Kenya to twenty: S. ascendens L.E. Newton, S.
ballyi L.E. Newton, S. bella L.E. Newton, S. caulescens
N.E. Br., S. conspicua N.E. Br., S. dooneri N.E. Br., S.
dumetescens L.E. Newton, S. francisii Chahin., S. fre-
quens Chahin., S. gracilis N.E. Br., Sansevieria x itumea
(Mbugua) Jankalski, S. nitida Chahin., S. parva N.E. Br.,
S. patens N.E. Br., S. pinguicula P.R.O. Bally, S. powellii
N.E. Br., S. powysii L.E. Newton, S. rafllii N.E. Br., S. ro-
busta N.E. Br. (currently a synonym of S. perrotii Warb.),
and S. suffruticosa N.E. Br. The genus is currently treat-
ed under family Asparagaceae (APG 2009). The genus is
widely known by various common names: mother in law’s
tongue, bow string hemp, snake plant, zebra lily, leop-
ard lily, devil’s tongue, and good luck plant (Agnew 1974,
Cutak 1966, Everett 1982, Koller & Rost 1988, Kwembeya
& Takawira 1998, Pfennig 1979, Takawira-Nyenya 2006,
Turrill 1959).
Ethnobotanical data on the genus Sansevieria have
been documented in various locations in East Africa. Bal-
ly (1937) reported on the use of Sansevieria kirkii Baker
roots for treatment of foot sores. In studies carried out in
Nakuru and Maragua districts of Kenya by Khalumba et al.
(2005), they identied ve use categories, namely medi-
cine (33% of the reports), bers (24%), soil conservation
(22%), fodder (18%), and other uses (14%) for four spe-
cies, Sansevieria ehrenbergii Schweinf. ex Baker, S. par-
va, S. rafllii, and S. suffruticosa. Chhabra et al. (1987)
mentioned the use of Sansevieria bagamoyensis N.E.Br.
for treatment of convulsive fever in Tanzania. Watt & Brey-
er-Brandwijk (1962) listed the use of Sansevieria hyacin-
thoides (L.) Druce in the treatment of toothache and ear-
ache and the use of the rhizome decoction of S. kirkii as
a purgative, both reported from East Africa. Kiringe (2006)
reported on the use of Sansevieria volkensii Gürke for the
treatment of sexually transmitted diseases such as gonor-
rhea. Owuor & Kisangau (2006) included the use of San-
sevieria parva N.E.Br. leaf sap for treatment of snake bite
wounds and S. kirkii extracts for treatment of snakebite
wounds in Kenya. In spite of these reported uses, the doc-
umentation of ethnobotanical uses of genus Sansevieria
is incomplete. Khalumba et al. (2005) acknowledged the
deciency of data and published documentation on the
ethnobotany of the genus Sansevieria in Kenya despite
the many species that occur there.
Collating of ethnobotanical uses of Sansevieria from ex-
isting literature has been complicated by the fact that the
ethnobotany of the genus is poorly recorded (Khalumba
et al. 2005), and where documented, some species are
identied using different synonyms due to nomenclatural
confusion and the unresolved taxonomy of the genus San-
sevieria. Correct taxonomy and identication of a plant
species is key to unlocking its ethnobotany, economic and
pharmacological importance, and eventual exploitation of
the plants for commercial purposes. The aim of the current
study was to correctly identify various Sansevieria species
KENYA
Nairobi
ETHIOPIA
Indian
Ocean
TANZANIA
UGANDA
N
Mombasa
that occur in Coast Province of Kenya based on observa-
tions of the plants in situ, to interview the local people on
the uses of Sansevieria species in their habitats, and to
capture indigenous knowledge on the genus Sansevie-
ria’s economic and cultural value in the study area.
Kenya has about 42 different tribes with different cultures
and beliefs, and these differences contribute to a rich di-
versity of knowledge and practices (Jeruto et al. 2008).
Different tribes use different local names for the vari-
ous Sansevieria species in Kenya. Capturing the uses
of plant species from various ethnic groups is therefore
a signicant contribution to the documentation of indig-
enous knowledge on the use of plant resources in Kenya.
The study area, the people
Coast Province of Kenya (Figure 1) currently includes
six counties: Kili, Kwale, Lamu, Mombasa, Taita-Taveta
and Tana River. The areas visited during the study were
mostly in the Taita-Taveta and Kili counties. Taita-Tave-
ta County lies about 200 km northwest of Mombasa and
360 km south east of Nairobi. The population of Taita-
Taveta County is estimated to be 250,000 people (2009
Census). Taita-Taveta County covers an area of 16,975
km2, about 62% of which is within Tsavo National Park.
About 5,876 km2 of the area is occupied by ranches and
sisal estates, and water bodies which cover less than 100
km2. Taita-Taveta County has approximately 25 ranches
with the main land use being cattle grazing. The Coast
Province is also home to three operating sisal estates in
Taita-Taveta County, namely Taita Sisal Estate, Voi Si-
sal Estate, and Taveta Sisal Estate. Many ranches in the
area are also utilized for wildlife tourism and conserva-
Figure 1. Coast Province of Kenya.
Takawira-Nyenya et al. - Ethnobotanical Uses of Sansevieria Thunb.
(Asparagaceae) in Coast Province of Kenya
www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol12/i1547-3465-12-051.pdf
53
tion, for example the Taita Hills forest which holds unique
biodiversity and many endemic plant and animal species.
Main occupations of the people include subsistence and
smallholder farming of maize and cashew nuts among
other crops (Giyethe pers. comm.) Off-farm income-gen-
erating activities include charcoal sale and employment in
the tourism industry in Mombasa and Taita-Taveta, in the
Tsavo National Park, or in the sisal estate industry.
Kili County is bordered to the south by Mombasa, to the
north by Malindi, Tana River, and Lamu Counties, and to
the west by Taita-Taveta and the Indian Ocean to the east.
The County covers an area of about 12,000 km2 that in-
cludes about 109 km2 occupied by water. The population
of Kili is estimated to be 720,000 with the majority from
the Mijikenda, a loose grouping of 9 tribes from the area
whose Bantu languages are closely related to Swahili (the
main language used in Kenya). The Giriama and Digo
subgroups are the largest tribes. Kili is a small town 60
km north of Mombasa of around 10,000 people. The two
primary forms of economic activity in Kili County are ag-
riculture and tourism. The tourism is concentrated around
Malindi and to a lesser extent Kili. About 85% of the pop-
ulation is involved in subsistence and smallholder farm-
ing, but since the population density is high in relation to
the agricultural potential, Coast Province of Kenya is one
of the poorest in terms of per capita income. Only 4% of
the population is employed for wages.
The selection of Coast Province as the study area was
motivated by prior knowledge of the rich diversity of San-
sevieria species in the area including many of type locali-
ties cited in the Sansevieria monograph (Brown 1915).
Methods
Ethnobotanical data were collected in the eld as part of
a taxonomic study conducted in August and September
2007. A non-probabilistic, purposive sampling approach
was used for selecting informants (Guest et al. 2006).
Bryan (2004) describes purposive sampling as essential-
ly strategic, where a researcher samples on the basis of
wanting to interview people relevant to specic research
questions. We targeted groups of the local people living
in the vicinity of Sansevieria type localities (Brown 1915).
Snowball sampling was used, whereby informants told re-
searchers about specic plants found in their area and
then led the research team to other informants who knew
more about the use of plants. Direct observations and
open-ended and semi-structured interviews using a stan-
dardized set of questions were used, modied from Cun-
ningham (2001), Martin (1995), and Cotton (1996). Prior
informed consent was obtained from the informants be-
fore the interviews. Local plant names and samples al-
ready collected were sometimes used as prompts at the
beginning of the interview in order for the informants to
understand which plants were in question. Informants
were shown specimens of Sansevieria and asked if they
recognized the plant. In some cases informants took the
research team to more localities where the species were
occurring in the area. One of the co-authors served as a
translator from Swahili to English and vice-versa.
Responses to questions covering aspects on local names,
uses, mode of preparation, and methods of administration
(in case of medicines) were recorded. Each time a plant
was mentioned as “used” the report was recorded as “one
use-report.” Data were collected from independent events
where an event is dened as the process of interviewing
one informant on one occasion on their knowledge of the
use of any Sansevieria using methods modied from Phil-
lips & Gentry (1993). Demographic data of respondents
such as age and gender were also recorded. All plant
specimens were identied using Brown (1915), Mbugua
(2007), Newton (2009, 2010), and voucher specimens de-
posited at the East African herbarium (EA) in Kenya.
Use categories
Ethnobotanical data recorded from interviews with 30 in-
formants were classied into categories according to the
Economic Data Collection Standard (Cook 1995) for the
purpose of illustrating and summarizing the data. For
each category the data were quantied by adding up the
individual reports on use of each plant species.
Results
Thirty respondents (Table 1) were interviewed about uses
of Sansevieria species. Half of the respondents were be-
low 30 years old. There were no respondents in the age
group 46-90. Nine Sansevieria species were identied as
having uses (Table 2). Sansevieria scheri was the most
mentioned (Table 2, Figure 2).
Ethnotaxonomy
Almost all the respondents interviewed knew at least one
local name for each Sansevieria species that occurred in
Age group (years old) Male Female Total
15 or younger 4 6 10
16-30 4 1 5
31-45 9 5 14
Age group (years old) Male Female Total
46-90 0 0 0
over 90 1 0 1
Total 18 12 30
Table 1. Ethnobotanical respondents’ gender and age groups in Coast Province of Kenya.
Ethnobotany Research & Applications54
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Table 2. Ethnobotanical uses and use categories of Sansevieria from interviews conducted with 30 informants in Coast
Province of Kenya. Each row represents one respondent. Parts used are leaf (L), rhizome (R), or entire plant (E). Voucher
specimens are deposited at the East African Herbarium, Kenya. Use categories: Materials (M), Medicinal use (O),
Horticultural uses (H), and Food additives (F). Parts used are leaf (L), rhizome (R), or entire plant (E). Voucher specimens
are deposited at the East African Herbarium, Kenya. Specimens already collected in the area were sometimes shown to
the informants as interview prompts; hence for some voucher specimens numbers are repeated.
Sansevieria
species
Vouchers (Takawira
Nyenya & Wabuyele #s)
Part used
Use categories and uses Use
Respondents
Locality Coordinates
and altitude
M O H F
Processed ber
Unprocessed ber
Crafts
Brushes
Play
Trapping animals
Medicinal
Ornamental
Live fencing
Soil conservation
Culinary
S. conspicua
N.E.Br
K34 L X Making rope
for tying goats
29 6.2 km from
Kaloneni
along Malindi
Sala gate of
the Tsavo
National Park,
Kili County
03 11 17.0 S
39 48 40.1 E
100 m
S.
dumetescens
L.E. Newton
K33 E X Collected
from the wild
and cultivated
around the
homestead as
ornamental
28 3.7 km east
of Kakoneni,
Malindi
along Road
to Tsavo
National Park,
Kili County
03 10 51.9 S
39 53 24.7 E
70 m
S. scheri
(Baker)
Marais
K9 L X Making ber
for rope
4 4 km south
of Voi, along
Mwatate
Road.
03 30 34.4 S
38 20 46.1 E
960 m
L X Making
brushes
L X Making ber
for rope
5 Turnoff
to Sechu
Primary
School,
Mwatate.
03 29 45.8S
38 18 20.2 E
960m
L X Tying rewood
L X Tying rewood 6
L X Treating
abdominal
pains
7
K14 E X Ornamental 9 13 km after
Mwatate
on road to
Mombasa,
Taita.
03 30 11.6 S
38 15 03.0 E
960 m
L X Making
thatching rope
15 Landi Village,
Taita.
03 29 00.9 S
38 26 35.0 E
770m
L X Treating
wounds
inicted by
Sansevieria
tips
16 Torienyi
Village,
Mengo
sublocation
Kishamba.
03 27 06.0 S
38 28 42.4 E
770 m
Takawira-Nyenya et al. - Ethnobotanical Uses of Sansevieria Thunb.
(Asparagaceae) in Coast Province of Kenya
www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol12/i1547-3465-12-051.pdf
55
Sansevieria
species
Vouchers (Takawira
Nyenya & Wabuyele #s)
Part used
Use categories and uses Use
Respondents
Locality Coordinates
and altitude
M O H F
Processed ber
Unprocessed ber
Crafts
Brushes
Play
Trapping animals
Medicinal
Ornamental
Live fencing
Soil conservation
Culinary
S. scheri
(cont.)
K14 L X Making ber
for rope
16 Torienyi
Village,
Mengo
sublocation
Kishamba.
03 27 06.0 S
38 28 42.4 E
770 m
L X Making
brushes
17
S. kirkii
Baker
K51 R X Cut rhizome
pieces added
to a glass
of water
for treating
malaria
30 Along
Kaloneni
Mariakani
Road, 8.6
km before
Mariakani,
Kili County
03 44 18.0 S
39 41 43.9 E
140 m
S. nitida
Chahin.
K3 L X Treating ear
infections
3 4 km south
of Voi, along
Mwatate
Road.
03 30 34.4 S
38 20 46.1 E
960 m
K13 L X Various uses 8 13 km after
Mwatate
on road to
Mombasa,
Taita.
03 30 11.6 S
38 15 03.0 E
960 m
L X Weaving
crafts / tying
roof poles
K15 E X Ornamental 10 03 29 00.9 S
38 26 35.0 E
770 m
K22 L X Making rope
used in dik
dik traps
19 Ndara village,
Taita.
03 29 35.3S
38 40 56.6 E
K23 L X String woven
in crafts
20
K22 L X Making
childrens’
play sandals
22 Sagala
sublocation,
Voi.
03 30 00.7 S
38 41 18.7 E
530 m
L X Leaf sap treats
cuts and open
wounds
24 Kajire 03 30 00.7 S
38 41 18.7 E
530 m
L
R
X Tender white
leaf base with
sliced rhizome
pieces cooked
in soups /
meat dishes
25 Wagala, near
Bachuma
station
along Voi -
Mombasa
Road.
03 36 20.6 S
38 49 56.1 E
440 m
Ethnobotany Research & Applications56
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Sansevieria
species
Vouchers (Takawira
Nyenya & Wabuyele #s)
Part used
Use categories and uses Use
Respondents
Locality Coordinates
and altitude
M O H F
Processed ber
Unprocessed ber
Crafts
Brushes
Play
Trapping animals
Medicinal
Ornamental
Live fencing
Soil conservation
Culinary
S. nitida
(cont.)
K22 R X Cut rhizome
pieces added
to a glass
of water
for treating
malaria
26 Wagala, near
Bachuma
station
along Voi -
Mombasa
Road.
03 36 20.6 S
38 49 56.1 E
430 m
S. perrotii
Warb.
K21 L X Thatching rope 13 Landi Village,
Taita.
03 29 00.9 S
38 26 35.0 E
770m
L X Tying rewood
E X Ornamental 18 Ndara village,
Taita.
03 29 35.3S
38 40 56.6 E
L X Making ber
for rope
S. powellii
N.E.Br.
K28 E X Live boundary
fences
between
homesteads
21 Sagala
sublocation,
Voi.
03 30 00.7 S
38 41 18.7 E
530 m
K30 E X Grown as live
fencing and
as a hedge
to demarcate
boundaries
between
homesteads
27 Jilore Village. 03 12 02.8 S
39 55 20.1 E
1000 m
E X Planted to
control soil
erosion
S. rafllii
N.E.Br
E X Ornamental 14 Landi Village,
Taita.
03 29 00.9 S
38 26 35.0 E
770m
S. volkensii
Gürke
K8 L X Making rope
for construction
1 4 km south
of Voi, along
Mwatate
Road.
03 25 10.0 S
38 31 43.8 E
630 m
L X Treating ear
infections
2
K19 L X Treating ear
infections
11 Landi Village,
Taita.
03 29 00.9 S
38 26 35.0 E
770m
R X Treating
abdonimal
pains
12
K24 L X Leaf sap treats
cuts and open
wounds
23 Kajire 03 30 00.7 S
38 41 18.7 E
530 m
Takawira-Nyenya et al. - Ethnobotanical Uses of Sansevieria Thunb.
(Asparagaceae) in Coast Province of Kenya
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57
Figure 2. Percentage and number of times different Sansevieria species were reported in interviews with 30 respondents
in Coast Province of Kenya. Data from Table 2 and are further sorted in Appendix 1.
1 Sansevieria conspicua N.E.Br.
1 Sansevieria dumetescens L.E. Newton
5 Sansevieria volkensii Gürke
1 Sansevieria raffillii N.E.Br.
3 Sansevieria powellii N.E.Br.
4 Sansevieria perrotii Warb.
10 Sansevieria nitida Chahin.
1 Sansevieria kirkii Baker
11 Sansevieria fischeri (Baker) Marais
30%
13%
11%
8%
3%
3% 3% 3%
27%
Fig 2
Table 3. Some local names for Sansevieria species
and the associated languages as recorded from the
informants in the Coast Province of Kenya.
Sansevieria species Common name used
in folk taxonomy
(language)
S. conspicua N.E.Br. Konge (Giriama)
S. scheri (Baker) Marais Madango (Taita)
Nona (Taita)
S. nitida Chahin. Chongwa (Giriama)
Madango (Taita)
Makonge (Taita)
Nona (Taita)
Oldopai (Maasai)
Shambalala (Kisagala)
S. perrotii Warb. Konge (sing.),
makonge (pl.) (Taita)
Ngonge (Kisagala)
S. powellii N.E.Br. Ngonge (Kisagala)
S. rafllii N.E.Br. Madango (Taita)
S. volkensii Gürke Dango (sing.),
madango (pl.) (Taita)
Sansevieria spp. Konge (Swahili)
Nkonje (Giriyama)
their area, and respondents were able to identify differ-
ent species and describe the distinguishing features be-
tween them in cases where more than one species oc-
curred in their area. Table 3 presents the local names for
Sansevieria that were reported and the languages spoken
by the respondents. Some of the names had no appar-
ent meaning while some common names had indications
to the characteristic features of the Sansevieria species
named. Names related to the latter included “makonge
akenyeji”, a Taita common name that was mentioned for
S. scheri meaning “traditional sisal” and “shambalala-
handini” meaning “small shambalala” with shambalala
being the Kisagala common name given for S. powellii.
Common names were recorded for 4 local languages spo-
ken in Coast Province (Kigiriama, Kisagala, Kimaasai, and
Kitaita) as well as Kiswahili, a language used in the entire
country. The common names “makonge” and “madango”
were indiscriminately used for many Sansevieria species
and were also used for the introduced species Agave si-
salana Perrine.
Plant parts used
The leaf was the main plant part used and was cited 25
times, which accounted for 67% of the uses reported. Use
of entire plants (8 citations, 22%) and rhizomes (4 cita-
tions, 11%) were also reported.
Use categories
Four main categories were identied (Materials, Medicinal
use, Horticultural use, and Food additives) based upon
11 reported use types (Figure 3). The Materials category
was the most common response (49%), followed by Me-
dicinal use (27%), Horticultural use (21%), and Food ad-
ditives use (3%) categories respectively. Each of the cat-
Ethnobotany Research & Applications58
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27%
14%
8%
5%
3%
3%
Fig 3
3%
3%
5%
5%
24%
Figure 3. Percentage and number of uses in use categories (Materials, Medicinal use, Horticultural use, and Food
additives) for Sansevieria species reported in interviews with 30 respondents in Coast Province of Kenya. Data from
Table 2, and are further sorted in Appendix 1.
2 Brushes
2 Fencing
5 Ornamental
1 Trapping animals
2 Crafts
3 Unprocessed fiber
9 Processed fiber
1 Play
10 Medicinal 1 Culinary
1 Soil conservation
Food additivesHorticultural useMaterials Medicinal use
2 Brushes
2 Fencing
5 Ornamental
1 Trapping animals
2 Crafts
3 Unprocessed fiber
9 Processed fiber
1 Play
10 Medicinal
1 Culinary
1 Soil conservation
Food additivesHorticultural useMaterials
Medicinal use
2 Brushes
2 Fencing
5 Ornamental
1 Trapping animals
2 Crafts
3 Unprocessed fiber
9 Processed fiber
1 Play
10 Medicinal 1 Culinary
1 Soil conservation
Food additives
Horticultural use
Materials Medicinal use
2 Brushes
2 Fencing
5 Ornamental
1 Trapping animals
2 Crafts
3 Unprocessed fiber
9 Processed fiber
1 Play
10 Medicinal
1 Culinary
1 Soil conservation
Food additives
Horticultural useMaterials Medicinal use
egories and the use reports as reported by the informants
are briey described below.
Materials
This category included reports on uses of Sansevieria
leaves for: processed rope, unprocessed ber, crafts,
brushes, trapping animals, and as material for play.
The processed ber uses included making rope or string
of various thicknesses. This use-report formed the second
largest group with nine reports. Sansevieria scheri was
the species mostly reported (four reports) for this use-re-
port.
The most common technique reported for extracting -
ber was to use two sticks with the leaf in between. The
sticks were continually moved up and down until the -
ber separated from the rest of the leaf tissue. One infor-
mant reported a different method of ber extraction that
included soaking the leaves in water over a period of 3 to
5 days and scraping off the leaf tissue after the macera-
tion, leaving just the ber. The extracted ber was inter-
twined to a desired thickness by dividing the ber strands
into three parts and then rolling them by laying the bers
on one’s foot or thigh and moving one’s hand backwards
and forwards to make a twisted rope of desired thickness.
Processed ber was reportedly extracted for the purpose
of making rope used in thatching huts, weaving, and in
various forms of construction. It was also used for lling
mattresses. Four reports were on the use of unprocessed
leaves as simple ropes for tying rewood and in thatch-
ing huts.
Two reports were on the use of Sansevieria for making
brushes. Brushes made from the thick cylindrical leaves
of S. scheri were used for various purposes: painting,
sweeping, or cleaning. A brush was made by hitting one
end of the leaf with a stone to make the bristles (Figure 4).
The informant reported that she added sand or detergents
to the bristles and used the brush for cleaning her kitchen
utensils and the inside of bottles or other containers too
narrow for inserting the hand for cleaning purposes.
Craft uses included weaving baskets, hats, and table and
door mats. Only two reports were given for this use, both
for S. nitida.
A single report was given on the use of S. nitida for setting
traps for small animals such as dik dik (Madoqua sp.). The
informant explained how they mounted nets made from S.
nitida bers to the ground by means of sticks in the area
where dik dik had previously been seen. One of the hunt-
ers startled the animal, usually out of its sleep, so that it
would run headlong into the net, while the other hunters
stood by on the sides with sticks, waiting to drive the ani-
mal toward the net in the event that it attempted to run in
a different direction. Similar traps were said to be used for
other small animals.
One informant reported on the use of S. nitida by children
for making miniature sandals during play. Sandal produc-
tion was demonstrated by drawing an outline of a sandal
on a broad, variegated, at leaf of S. nitida which was
then cut into a sandal sole shape and parts of the leaves
shredded longitudinally to make the upper part of the san-
dal (Figure 5).
Takawira-Nyenya et al. - Ethnobotanical Uses of Sansevieria Thunb.
(Asparagaceae) in Coast Province of Kenya
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59
Figure 4. Sansevieria scheri (Baker) Marais leaves used as brushes in Coast Province of Kenya. A stone is used to
gently crush the end of the leaf until the bers (for bristles) are separated from the soft leaf tissue. A detergent or sand
is added to the bristles before it is used for cleaning. The upper end shows a brush under preparation, the lower end
shows a previously made brush. (Photo by B. Stedje)
Ethnobotany Research & Applications60
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Figure 5. Sansevieria nitida Chahin. sandals made by children for play in Coast Province of Kenya. (Photo by B. Stedje)
Takawira-Nyenya et al. - Ethnobotanical Uses of Sansevieria Thunb.
(Asparagaceae) in Coast Province of Kenya
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61
Medicinal use
The medicinal use category included reports on a variety
of treatments. Sansevieria volkensii was most often re-
ported. Information given on medical uses included three
reports on the use of Sansevieria for treatment of ear in-
fections. The most frequently described application meth-
od used for treating ear infections was to heat a leaf over
a ame or live hot embers and then to squeeze out the
sap of the heated leaf into the infected ear. One informant
specied S. volkensii as the species mostly used for treat-
ment of ear infections in their area, but also added that all
the madango (Sansevieria) were generally used in the
same way for treating ear infections.
Sansevieria scheri was reported once for the treatment
of abdominal pains by adding the leaf or rhizome cut into
small pieces to drinking water. The same species was also
reported once for treating wounds inicted by the sharp
tips of the same plant’s leaf. This report was given in Lan-
di village where large S. scheri populations occurred in
thick clusters covering wide areas and over rocky out-
crops, increasing the risk of people suffering wounds from
the species’ spiny leaf tips while walking through the area.
An illustration on how sap was expressed from the leaf
straight onto a freshly inicted wound by wringing the leaf
is shown in Figure 6.
The use of S. kirkii and S. nitida in treatment of malaria
was reported once for each species. When using the latter
species, the rhizome was cut into small pieces and add-
ed to a glass of boiled water and the mixture cooled and
given to a malaria patient. The report was given by a Maa-
sai man who emphasized the importance of this medicinal
use in their ethnic group’s semi-nomadic way of life and
the central role played by traditional medicine over mod-
ern medicines in their life. The second report on the treat-
ment of malaria was on the use of S. kirkii. The mode of
preparation of the medicine differed from the report given
for S. nitida. The leaf of S. kirkii was put in a re for about
three minutes and the sap squeezed into a container. One
teaspoon of the sap was added to a glass of water and the
mixture given to the patient.
Horticultural uses
This category is comprised of reports on ornamental use,
fencing, and soil conservation. This includes growth of
Sansevieria around homesteads as ornamentals and for
decorative purposes. Five different species were reported
for this category.
Sansevieria powellii was reported twice as being used for
fencing. The plants were planted or alternatively used as
live fencing in their natural habitat. One of the informants
pointed out that the sharp ends of the leaves and the
numerous leaves distichously arranged along the stem
made the species ideal for fencing. The species was also
planted for marking boundaries between homesteads.
Only one report was recorded for use of Sansevieria in soil
conservation. Sansevieria powelli was reportedly planted
on gullies and steep slopes to control soil erosion. One in-
formant mentioned that the growth habit of all members of
genus Sansevieria, forming colonies and the occurrence
of vegetative propagation through rhizomes that form a
thick network below ground, makes them efcient in hold-
ing soil particles together.
Food additives
There was only one report on the use of Sansevieria in
cooking. The cream-colored tender base of leaves and
rhizome of S. nitida were reported to be chopped and
added to soups and meat dishes by the Maasai people
(Figure 7). The parts were added to well-cooked and ten-
der meat stock.
Discussion
In the current study we refrained from making compari-
sons about species preference between contributions by
groups in the sample (e.g., males and females, or differ-
ent age groups) because for concrete conclusions to be
drawn a larger sample would be required. However, while
a sample size of 30 informants could be deemed small,
Warren (2001) states that a minimum number required for
a qualitative interview study to be published can be be-
tween 20 and 30 with sample size able to support con-
vincing conclusions varying from situation to situation. In
the current study, the sample size, obtained through pur-
posive sampling as we carried out eld work for the study
guided by the recorded type and specimen localities, pro-
vided preliminary data that can be used as a basis for a
more in-depth study.
More male respondents (18) were interviewed than wom-
en (12). This could have been partly coincidental and part-
ly due to the fact that more men were encountered dur-
ing the eld studies as most interviews were carried out
around the localities of the species. This is in contrast to
encountering women, who mostly could have been at their
homesteads at the times of the interviews. Other studies,
for example Zobolo & Mkabela (2006), have reported on
women and girls as the main custodians of indigenous
plant knowledge in South Africa. A total of 10 informants
below or equal to the age of 15 were interviewed show-
ing that indigenous knowledge is still passed on to the
younger generation.
Several of the local names of Sansevieria species given
by the respondents were related to the use of Sansevieria
for making rope. The common name madango was re-
Ethnobotany Research & Applications62
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Figure 6. Informant demonstrating how sap is squeezed straight from the leaf of Sansevieria scheri (Baker) Marais
onto a wound, in Coast Province of Kenya. (Photo by B. Stedje)
Takawira-Nyenya et al. - Ethnobotanical Uses of Sansevieria Thunb.
(Asparagaceae) in Coast Province of Kenya
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63
Figure 7. Maasai men showing two Sansevieria species; S. volkensii Gürke (L) and S. nitida Chahin (R), with the
one to the right indicating the specic plants of S. nitida used for culinary purposes in soup and meat dishes in Coast
Province of Kenya. (Photo by B. Stedje)
Ethnobotany Research & Applications64
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ported by a number of informants as meaning “rope.” This
name was also said to be locally used for A. sisalana be-
cause of the common use of Sansevieria and A. sisalana
for making rope. Common names recorded in Giriama,
Taita, Kisagala, and Maasai for different species indicate
that people of these tribes are able to discriminate be-
tween species of Sansevieria and that these species play
a role in their daily lives. The name mkonge is used to
describe various Sansevieria species (Table 3) but also
Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Delile, a useful timber tree, and
A. sisalana. There is need to relate common names from
different ethnic groups to the correct scientic species as
they are identied by people from the ethnic groups (of the
plants) in situ.
Two major sisal industries are found in Coast Province of
Kenya with the sisal reported as mainly for export. The si-
sal from A. sisalana is used for making sacks for export.
There could be a possible competition between rope from
Sansevieria and that from sisal by the local communities
as reported for Sansevieria species in a similar study in
Zimbabwe (Takawira-Nyenya 2012, Takawira-Nyenya &
Stedje 2011).
Limitations of the Economic Botany Data Collection Stan-
dard (Cook 1995) have been highlighted before by Bar-
fod (1997). While an attempt was made to force all of the
ethnobotanical uses into categories based on the Bio-
diversity Information Standards (TDWG) standard, this
tended to cause mists for certain uses that could not ex-
actly t into the categories outlined in this standard, there-
by overshadowing some of the ethnobotanical uses that
the genus Sansevieria is well known for.
Many studies have reported on the economic importance
of Sansevieria worldwide in horticulture where various
species are grown in pots and in gardens as ornamen-
tals (Koller & Rost 1988, Takawira-Nyenya 2006, Takawi-
ra-Nyenya & Stedje 2011). Our studies report on the cul-
tivation of ve Sansevieria species, S. scheri, S. rafllii,
S. perrotii, S. dumetescens, and S. nitida, around home-
steads for ornamental purposes. Cultivation of various
species of Sansevieria was also reported elsewhere in
Kenya (Khalumba et al. 2005), in Zimbabwe (Takawira-
Nyenya & Stedje 2011), and South Africa (Zobolo & Mka-
bela 2006). Additional knowledge of species of Sansevie-
ria that can be successfully cultivated as ornamentals re-
ported here widens the knowledge on the range of genetic
resources that can be potentially exploited commercially.
Medicinal plants are of signicance in conservation due
to the cultural, livelihood, or economic roles they play in
many people’s lives (Hamilton 2004). Ethnomedicines
play important roles in the lives of most rural communities
due to their relatively low cost compared to clinical treat-
ments. Most informants mentioned the use of Sansevieria
species for treatment of earache. This treatment has been
reported elsewhere in Africa, for example in South Africa
and Zimbabwe (Takawira-Nyenya & Stedje 2011) and oth-
er parts of the world.
The treatment of ear infections using Sansevieria spe-
cies was the most common medicinal use reported in
this study. Our ndings on the use of various Sansevieria
species for medicinal purposes in the current study con-
rm the importance of the genus Sansevieria in traditional
medicine reported elsewhere in the healthcare system of
the people of Kenya. Anti-inammatory property of leaves
of Sansevieria liberica Gérôme & Labroy have been test-
ed to ascertain the toxicity and phytochemical proles of
the leaf extracts, and results showed that leaves of S. li-
berica possess anti-inammatory effects which may be
due to its bioactive constituents. Further purication of
these constituents may result in the development of anti-
inammatory agents (Chinasa et al. 2011).
Our ndings on the use of Sansevieria species for treat-
ment of ear infections in Coast Province are consistent
with reports on use of Sansevieria species for treatment
of ear infections reported internationally in India (Mohan
et al. 2008), in Kenya, (Khalumba et al. 2005), in South
Africa (Van Wyk et al. 2008, Zobolo & Mkabela 2006), and
in Zimbabwe (Gelfand et al. 1985, Takawira-Nyenya 2012,
Takawira-Nyenya & Stedje 2011). Morgan (1981) reported
the use of S. ehrenbergii sap for treatment of cuts by ap-
plying the sap in the same way as reported in the current
study. Uses of Sansevieria species for treatment of open
wounds was reported by Khalumba et al. (2005), Dargol
& Gurung (1991), and Takawira-Nyenya (2012) with differ-
ences only in the particular species used.
We report in this study the use of S. nitida and S. kirkii for
treating malaria. Use of S. liberica for treatment of malaria
has been reported before by Hermans et al. (2004) who
made an inventory of medicinal plants used against ma-
laria in Benin. Lack of precision and standardization in the
quantities and dosage of medicine were common in this
study as has been widely discussed (Giday et al. 2003,
Jeruto et al. 2008, Muthee et al. 2011).
Sansevieria scheri and S. perrotii have been reported
here for tying rewood and for use in thatching without
prior extraction of ber. This included shredding the green
outer tissue of the leaf and tying the strands end to end
for use in tying rewood and during thatching without prior
extraction of ber. Similar results were reported in Takawi-
ra-Nyenya & Stedje (2011) and elsewhere in Kenya by
Ngugi (2007) whereby informants reported using the un-
processed ber in place of nails when thatching.
Our ndings on the use of Sansevieria leaves for mak-
ing ber are in accordance with other studies (Khalumba
et al. 2005, Morgan 1981, Takawira-Nyenya 2006, 2012,
Takawira-Nyenya & Stedje 2011, Van Wyk & Gericke
2000). While methods of ber extraction and the species
reported in these studies may differ, the concept of inter-
Takawira-Nyenya et al. - Ethnobotanical Uses of Sansevieria Thunb.
(Asparagaceae) in Coast Province of Kenya
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65
twining the extracted ber to make rope of desired thick-
ness is the same. Use of Sansevieria for weaving crafts
has been reported in other studies (Khalumba et al. 2005,
Takawira-Nyenya & Stedje 2011) and is consistent with
our ndings.
Reports on direct ingestion of Sansevieria are not com-
mon in the literature. Addition of Sansevieria leaf sap to
fresh milk to speed up the souring process was reported in
Kenya and application of leaf sap to maternal breasts for
stimulation of milk production has been reported among
the Bushmen in Namibia (Takawira-Nyenya 2012). The
current study documented the use of S. nitida leaf and
rhizome as a food additive chopped and added to soup
and meat dishes by the Maasai people. No other uses of
Sansevieria for purely culinary purposes were known to
us prior to this study although the use of Sansevieria in
drinks or soups for medicinal purposes has been reported
before (Johns et al. 1994, Kiringe 2006, Takawira-Nyenya
& Stedje 2011).
Use of Sansevieria species for making sandals used for
play reected creativity in an environment where children
have no access to modern and sophisticated tools for
play. Sansevieria nitida was probably the preferred spe-
cies for this use due to the broad, at shape of the leaves
and the large surface area compared to the other species.
We report for the rst time the use of S. nitida by children
for making miniature sandals, with the sandals probably
serving a dual purpose of being a play tool and practical
providing protection from the tropical heat.
The two reports on the uses of S. scheri for making
brushes are in accordance with Pandey & Gupta (2003)
reporting on the use of ber-yielding plant species of In-
dia for making brushes. No other reports of Sansevieria
being used for making brushes were known to us prior to
this study.
The documentation of ethnobotanical uses involving the
whole plant meant that the plants could be conserved
both in situ, in the case of live fencing involving plants in
their natural habitats, and ex situ, in cases where plants
were collected from their natural habitats for cultivation in
home gardens as ornamentals. Muthee et al. (2011) re-
ported on harvesting of medicinal plants by the people
in the Loitoktok district of Kenya from natural vegetation,
home gardens, roadsides, farmlands, and live fences im-
plying that live fences served as readily accessible sourc-
es of medicine.
The part of a Sansevieria plant that is harvested has a
bearing on sustainable utilization, management, and con-
servation of the resource (Kakudidi et al. 2000, Takawi-
ra-Nyenya & Stedje 2011). Our study showed that use of
leaves was the most prevalent. These results concur with
ndings of Khalumba et al. (2005) who found that most of
the respondents (83%) used leaves. They also reported
that the prevalent use of leaves was detrimental to the sur-
vival of single leaf species like S. rafllii. However, Giday
et al. (2003) and Srithi et al. (2009) found that harvesting
of leaves was generally more sustainable for most plants
than harvesting of underground parts. No threats to the
survival of the Sansevieria species related to the harvest-
ing of plant parts were reported in our study. An observa-
tion of numerous S. powelli plants that had been cut and
arranged in a row for fencing purposes however raised
conservation concerns, as harvesting of each plant had
involved cutting the entire part of the plant above ground,
leaving just the rhizome below the ground. Further studies
into how rampant such practices are in the area and how
detrimental they are to the existence of the species could
shed light on the threats to its existence.
The use of Sansevieria species in soil conservation is
consistent with observations of Khalumba et al. (2005)
who found that 22% of their respondents reported this
purpose. Their study also included use of Sansevieria
species as live fencing, ornamentals, rehabilitation of de-
graded sites, and stabilization of river banks. The growth
habit of the genus Sansevieria, forming colonies and veg-
etative propagation through rhizomes that form a thick
network below ground, makes them ideal for holding soil
particles together. Newton (2004) also reported on the
use of S. perrotii in controlling soil erosion elsewhere in
Kenya. While the cultivation of Sansevieria plants in the
current study was mainly for ornamental use and soil ero-
sion control, these uses also indirectly result in the prop-
agation and conservation of Sansevieria species. Prop-
agation of Sansevieria species for dual purposes of soil
conservation and species conservation has been reported
before in Zimbabwe by Sangarwe (2005) who described
the importance of such an ecosystem approach as a strat-
egy for integrated management of land, water, and living
resources, thereby promoting conservation and sustain-
able use of natural resources.
Conclusion and Recommendations
This study documented ethnobotanical knowledge of
nine species of Sansevieria in Coast Province of Ke-
nya. The range of reported uses for the genus Sansevie-
ria in Kenya has been broadened. The results comple-
ment ethnobotanical studies carried out by Khalumba et
al. (2005). The purposive sampling approach employed
in this study allowed us to overcome time constraints and
to generate preliminary results for future work. It is hoped
that this study, together with the work of Khalumba et al.
(2005), will form basis for in-depth studies on the genus
Sansevieria in Kenya. Future studies on the conservation
of Sansevieria species should focus on the sustainability
of harvesting methods and their impact on the conserva-
tion of respective Sansevieria species.
Ethnobotany Research & Applications66
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Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to all the respondents who took
part in this study and their willingness to share with our
team their ethnobotanical knowledge. Special thanks go
to Defchand Manyuma and Jacqueline Mlanda and two
anonymous Maasai men for their detailed descriptions
and demonstrations, and for granting their prior consent
to being photographed. Dr. Geoffrey Mwachala and staff
at the East African (EA) herbarium are acknowledged
for their hospitality and for the processing of the vouch-
er specimens deposited at EA herbarium. The study was
made possible by the nancial support from the Norwe-
gian Programme for development, Research and Educa-
tion (NUFU), and the Norwegian State Quota Education
Programme.
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Appendix 1. Data extracted from Table 2 to produce Figures 2 and 3. Number of responses for different ethnobotanical
uses reported for each of the species recorded from interviews with 30 informants in Coast Province of Kenya.
Uses as reported
by informants
Total number of uses per species
S. conspicua N.E.Br.
S. dumetescens L.E. Newton
S. scheri (Baker) Marais
S. kirkii Baker
S. nitida Chahin.
S. perrotii Warb.
S. powellii N.E.Br.
S. rafllii N.E.Br.
S. volkensii Gürke
Total
Medicinal use 0 0 2 1 3 0 0 0 4 10
Processed ber 1040120019
Ornamentals 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 5
Unprocessed ber 0020010003
Crafts 0000200002
Fencing 0000002002
Making Brushes 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 2
Culinary use 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
Play 0000100001
Soil conservation 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
Trapping animals 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
Total 1 1 11 1 10 4 3 1 5 37
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