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Annales Societatis Geologorum Poloniae (2011), vol. 81: 487–522.
PE TRO LEUM SYS TEMS IN THE PALAEOZOIC–ME SO ZOIC
BASE MENT OF THE POL ISH AND UKRAI NIAN PARTS
OF THE CARPATHIAN FOREDEEP
Maciej J. KOTARBA1, Dariusz WIÊC£AW1, Pawe³ KOSAKOWSKI1, Magdalena WRÓBEL1,
Jacek MATYSZKIEWICZ1, Zbigniew BU£A2, Marcin KRAJEWSKI1, Yuriy V. KOLTUN3
& Jan TARKOWSKI1
1 AGH Uni ver sity of Sci ence and Tech nol ogy, Fac ulty of Ge ol ogy, Geo phys ics and En vi ron men tal Pro tec tion,
Al. Mickiewicza 30, 30-059 Kraków, Po land, e-mail: kotarba@agh.edu.pl
2 Pol ish Geo log i cal In sti tute – Na tional Re search In sti tute, Up per Silesian Branch, Królowej Jadwigi 1,
41-200 Sosnowiec, Po land
3 Na tional Acad emy of Sci ences of Ukraine, In sti tute of Ge ol ogy and Geo chem is try of Com bus ti ble Min er als,
3a Naukova Street, 79060 Lviv, Ukraine
Kotarba, M. J., Wiêc³aw, D., Kosakowski, P., Wróbel, M., Matyszkiewicz, J., Bu³a, Z., Krajewski, M., Koltun, Y. V.
& Tarkowski, J., 2011. Pe tro leum sys tems in the Palaeozoic–Me so zoic base ment of the Pol ish and Ukrai nian parts
of the Carpathian Foredeep. Annales Societatis Geologorum Poloniae, 81: 487–522.
Ab stract: Com pre hen sive geo chem i cal anal y ses (Rock-Eval py rol y sis, sta ble car bon iso topes, biomarkers and
ar o matic hy dro car bons and el e men tal com po si tion of kerogen) pro vide an ex pla na tion of ge netic re la tion ships
be tween dis persed or ganic mat ter in var i ous source rock ho ri zons of the Palaeozoic–Me so zoic base ment in the
Carpathian Foredeep and also the liq uid (oils and con den sates) and gas eous hy dro car bons ac cu mu lated in
res er voirs in the area be tween Kraków and Ivano-Frankivs’k. The study re gion was di vided into seven zones
around oil, con den sate and gas de pos its for de tailed de ter mi na tion of ge netic oil – nat u ral gas – source rock
cor re la tion. Based on source, res er voir, seal and over bur den rocks, gen er a tion, ex pul sion, mi gra tion and ac cu mu -
la tion of hy dro car bons and trap for ma tion along with 1-D and 2-D mod el ling, two sep a rated pe tro leum sys tems of
the Palaeozoic–Me so zoic strata were es tab lished. One pe tro leum sys tem oc curs in the west ern part of the
Ma³opolska Block, the sec ond one in the east ern part of the Ma³opolska Block and west ern part of the Kokhanivka
Zone (south-east ern Po land – west ern Ukraine). In ad di tion, nine gen er a tion and ex pul sion ar eas were iden ti fied.
The com par i son of the two pe tro leum sys tems re veals that the west ern part of the Ma³opolska Block has
con sid er ably greater pros pects for oil and gas ex plo ra tion than the east ern part of the Ma³opolska Block and the
west ern part of the Kokhanivka Zone.
Key words: source rock-oil/gas cor re la tions, pe tro leum sys tem, gen er a tion and ex pul sion ar eas, Palaeozoic–
Me so zoic base ment, Carpathian Foredeep, Po land, Ukraine.
Manuscript received 19 May 2011, accepted 13 October 2011
IN TRO DUC TION
In the Pol ish part of the Palaeozoic–Me so zoic base ment
of the Carpathian Foredeep twenty-six oil, con den sate and
gas de pos its have been dis cov ered since 1958. Here, the liq -
uid and gas hy dro car bons ac cu mu lated in the Cam brian, Or -
do vi cian, Si lu rian, Mid dle and Up per De vo nian, Lower
Car bon if er ous, Up per Ju ras sic and Up per Cre ta ceous res er -
voirs (Karnkowski, 1999; Myœliwiec et al., 2006). In the
Ukrai nian part of the Me so zoic base ment of the Carpathian
Foredeep only ten oil, con den sate and gas de pos its have
been dis cov ered since the World War II, and they all oc cur
in the Up per Ju ras sic and Cre ta ceous res er voirs (Glushko,
1968; Vul et al., 1998a, b).
The ob jec tive of this study is to de fine ge netic re la tion -
ships be tween dis persed or ganic mat ter in source rock ho ri -
zons and the liq uid (oils and con den sates) and gas eous hy -
dro car bons ac cu mu lated in the Palaeozoic–Me so zoic base -
ment. The re sults of geo chem i cal anal y ses of the Palaeozoic
(Wiêc³aw et al., 2011; Wiêc³aw et al., in press, a) and Me -
so zoic (Kosakowski et al., in press, c, d) source rocks,
petrophysical anal y ses (Kurovets et al., 2011; Kosakowski
et al., in press, a), re sults of 1-D (Kosakowski & Wróbel,
2011; Kosakowski & Wróbel, in press; Kosakowski et al.,
2011; Kosakowski et al., in press, b) and 2-D (Kosakowski
et al., in press, b; Wróbel et al., in press) mod el ling of pe tro -
leum pro cesses en able de ter mi na tion of the re gional pe tro -
leum sys tems and ar eas were where hy dro car bon gen er a tion
and ex pul sion pro cesses pro ceeded.
GEO LOG I CAL SET TING
Pre cam brian–Palaeozoic base ment
In south-east ern Po land and west ern Ukraine, the Pre-
cam brian and/or Palaeozoic (from the Cam brian to Carboni-
ferous) suc ces sions oc cur in the base ment of the Carpathian
Foredeep and in the mar ginal part of the Outer Carpathians,
be neath dis con tin u ous, lo cally de vel oped, Perm ian–Me so -
zoic sed i men tary cover. These de pos its are mem bers of re -
gional tec tonic units rep re sented by the Ma³opolska (MB)
and the £ysogóry-Radom (LRB) blocks (ter ranes) in Po land
as well as the Le¿ajsk Mas sif (LM), the Kokhanivka (KZ)
and Rava-Rus’ka (RRZ) zones in Ukraine (Fig. 1). These
clearly inter-re lated units (Bu³a & Habryn, 2011) are sit u ated
within the Trans-Eu ro pean Su ture Zone (TESZ) ex tend ing
along the south-west ern edge of the East-Eu ro pean Craton
(Baltica).
The sed i men tary-di a strophic pro cesses, oc cur ring from
the Pre cam brian to the Car bon if er ous (e.g., Golonka et al.,
2006) with vary ing in ten sity within each of the above-men -
tioned tec tonic units (that should be treated as sep a rate
lithospheric frag ments/blocks), re sulted in dis tinct geo log i -
cal struc tures. The bound aries be tween the units are marked
by re gional strike-slip fault zones that were re peat edly re ac -
ti vated. The Pre cam brian rocks are siliciclastic flysch de -
pos its, which un der went ei ther low-grade meta mor phism or
in ten sive diagenesis and fold ing due to Cadomian move -
ments rec og nised in both the MB and LM. Palynological
and ra dio met ric stud ies of Pre cam brian flysch in the MB
and LM in di cated their Ediacaran age (¯elaŸniewicz et al.,
2009). These rocks form char ac ter is tic horst struc tures, of
which one forms the prom i nent, Lower San River Horst
Struc ture and its ex ten sion – the Le¿ajsk Mas sif in the
Ukraine.
The frag men tary suc ces sions of the Lower, Mid dle and
Up per Cam brian clastic de pos its have been ex plored by
drill ing in the area of the Kielce Fold Belt (Fig. 1) and are
com posed of the SE parts of the MB, LRB, KZ and RRZ
(Dziadzio & Jachowicz, 1996; Kowalska et al., 2000;
Jaworowski & Sikorska, 2006; Bu³a & Habryn, 2011;
Jachowicz-Zdanowska, 2011). The Cam brian rocks repre-
sent claystones, sandy mudstones and quartz sand stones in
vari able pro por tions, of ten heterolithic (Fig. 2). It is im pos -
si ble to es ti mate the to tal thick ness of par tic u lar tec tonic
units be cause of frag men tary knowl edge of the sec tions and
vari able dip an gles of the strata.
The Or do vi cian and Si lu rian rocks form one struc tural
com plex de vel oped in the MB, LRB, KZ and RRZ (Fig. 3 in
Bu³a & Habryn, 2011). In the MB unit, these can be found
within tec tonic blocks in the Busko Zdrój-D¹browa Tar-
nowska, Pilzno-Rzeszów and Tarnogród-Lubaczów re -
gions, be neath Palaeozoic, Me so zoic and Ter tiary de pos its
(Fig. 4 in Bu³a & Habryn, 2011). Within the LRB and the
RRZ, Or do vi cian–Si lu rian strata form a con tin u ous cover
be neath the Me so zoic suite and, lo cally, also be neath the
Ter tiary and De vo nian suc ces sions (Bu³a & Habryn, 2011).
The Or do vi cian de pos its (Fig. 2) show dis tinct lithofacies
vari a tion (Modliñski & Szymañski, 2005; Bu³a & Habryn,
eds, 2008; Bu³a & Habryn, 2011), par tic u larly in the MB,
where a car bon ate plat form fa cies grade into a grap to lit ic
shale fa cies to wards the ba sin cen tre. Claystones and mud-
stones with graptolites are the dom i nant lithologies in the
Silurian. There is an in crease of sand stone ob served in sec -
tions cor re spond ing to the Ludlow. Strati graphic gaps com-
prise var i ous parts of the Or do vi cian and Si lu rian in the
MB.
Clear dif fer ences can be ob served in the de vel op ment
of the Up per Si lu rian and Lower De vo nian strata in the MB
and LRB. The Si lu rian de po si tion in the MB had prob a bly
ceased in the Ludlow and the Pridoli de pos its are lack ing;
the Si lu rian (or older) strata in this tec tonic unit are over lain
by Lower De vo nian (Emsian) siliciclastics or Mid dle De vo -
nian car bon ates. Lo cally, youn ger de pos its oc cur (Fig. 2).
A discontinuous pat tern of oc cur rence of the Or do vi cian
and Si lu rian strata in the MB (Fig. 3 in Bu³a & Habryn,
2011) in di cates that in ten sive ero sion had oc curred be fore
the Emsian (Mid dle De vo nian). In the Bi³goraj-Narol re -
gion of the LRB, Si lu rian sec tions (in clud ing Pridoli and
Ludlow rocks) of vari able thick nesses oc cur be neath Ju ras -
sic strata, and their thick nesses are many times greater than
those of older Si lu rian stages (Modliñski et al., 1993). In the
£ysogóry re gion of the Holy Cross Mts., Pridoli ma rine de -
pos its grade with out a sed i men tary break into Lochkovian
ma rine de pos its (Malec, 2006; Koz³owski, 2008). The Si lu -
rian/De vo nian tran si tion of the RRZ shows sim i lar fea tures
(Kruglov & Tsypko, eds, 1988; Drygant, 2000). The thick -
ness of the Or do vi cian–Si lu rian com plexes ex ceeds 400 m
in the MB and in creases from 100 to over 1,400 m to wards
the NE in the LRB (Bu³a & Habryn, 2011).
The De vo nian and Car bon if er ous car bon ates and silici-
clastics of the Variscan struc tural com plex oc cur in the wes-
tern part of the MB (Fig. 2). The fol low ing lithostratigra-
phic com plexes were dis tin guished (e.g., Jawor & Baran,
2004; Bu³a & Habryn, 2011): (i) Lower De vo nian silici-
clastics (Old Red) rep re sented by mot tled quartz sand stones
(quartzites), mudstones and claystones, 15 m to 150 m
thick; (ii) Mid dle and Up per De vo nian strata com posed of
var i ous plat form type lime stones and dolomites, whose
thickness var ies from 87 m to over 1,000 m; (iii) Car bon -
ate-siliciclastic com plex “A” in cluded in the Up per Tourna-
isian is com posed of red and grey ish-green sand stones, lo -
cally con glom er atic, as well as claystones and mudstones of
sim i lar colours interbedded with car bon ates. This com plex
(up to 80 m thick) oc curs in the Dêbica re gion; (iv) Car bon -
ate com plex “B”, also called the “Car bon if er ous Lime -
stone”, in cluded in the Lower Visean and rep re sented by
crys tal line, cryptocrystalline and micritic lime stones and
dolomites. Its thick ness ranges from 80 m to 590 m; (v)
Siliciclastic com plex “C” (Culm), which ranges from the
?Mid dle Visean to the Lower Namurian A (Serpukhovian).
It is com posed of claystones, grey mudstones and fine- to
me dium-grained sand stones (Culm fa cies) of thick ness up
to 500 m.
488 M. J. KOTARBA ET AL.
PE TRO LEUM SYS TEMS IN THE PALAEOZOIC–ME SO ZOIC BASE MENT 489
.1 .giF )1102( nyrbaH dna a³uB re tfa ,ecafrusoealap cio zo seM–na imreP-bus eht ta eniarkU nr etsew dna dna loP fo trap nr etsae-htuos eht fo noi si vi dbus lanoi ger cino tceT
490 M. J. KOTARBA ET AL.
Fig. 2.Gen er al ized lithostratigraphic col umns of (left side) the Ma³opolska Block to the west of the Lower San Horst Struc ture and
(right side) the Kielce-Kokhanivka Fold Belt and mar ginal part of the £ysogóry-Radom-Rava Rus’ka Block to the north east of the Lower
San Horst Struc ture (Le¿ajsk Mas sif), show ing dis tri bu tion of pe tro leum ac cu mu la tions and or ganic-rich fa cies. E – Early, M – Mid dle, L
– Late, Pl – Palaeo cene, Ec – Eocene, Ol – Oligocene, N – Neo gene, P – Plio cene
Me so zoic base ment
The stud ies of the Carpathian Foredeep fo cused on a
belt be tween Kraków (south-east ern Po land) and Ivano-
Frankivs’k (west ern Ukraine) (Fig. 1). The south ern bound -
ary of the belt is marked by the Carpathian mar gin, and the
north ern one is de ter mined by the ex tent of ma rine, auto-
chthonous Mio cene strata. In the Carpathian Foredeep base -
ment the Me so zoic rocks oc cur in two zones, sep a rated by
the Lower San Horst Struc ture. The west ern part is sit u ated
be tween Kraków and Rzeszów, and the east ern one cov ers
the area be tween Lubaczów and Stryi. These two zones dif -
fer in their fa cies de vel op ment, thick nesses, com plete ness
of suc ces sions and the struc tural pat tern of the Me so zoic
strata. The tec tonic frame work of the area be tween Kraków
and Ivano-Frankivs’k is out lined, with cer tain sim pli fi ca -
tion, by the ex ten sive, Palaeozoic fault zones: Kraków-
Lubliniec Fault Zone in the west, and Holy Cross Fault
Zone in the east (Horodok Fault Zone in the Ukrai nian part).
The prin ci pal part of the study area be longs to the Palaeo-
zoic Ma³opolska Block (Bu³a & Habryn, 2011). The block
char ac ter of the Palaeozoic base ment struc ture and the tec -
tonic ac tiv ity of the main trans con ti nen tal dis lo ca tions have
gen er ally in flu enced the de vel op ment of Ju ras sic sed i men -
ta tion in the base ment of the Carpathian Foredeep (Kra-
jewski & Matyszkiewicz, 2004; Jêdrzejowska-Tyczkowska
et al., 2006; Matyszkiewicz et al., 2006a, b; Krajewski et
al., 2011a, b).
In the Pol ish part of the Carpathian Foredeep base ment,
in the Kraków and Ropczyce ar eas, the Me so zoic sed i ments
form three com plexes: (i) the Tri as sic com plex, (ii) the Mid -
dle Ju ras sic–Lower Cre ta ceous com plex, and (iii) the Up per
Cre ta ceous com plex (Fig. 2). The thick ness and ex tent of
these com plexes are re lated to the pre-Ju ras sic (late Tri as -
sic), early Ju ras sic, and Palaeogene ero sion, as well as to the
polyphase, mainly late Cre ta ceous–Palaeo cene block tecto-
nics (e.g., Moryc, 2006). The Mid dle Ju ras sic–Lower Cre ta -
ceous com plex ap pears to be the most im por tant for geo log -
i cal struc ture of the Me so zoic in the Carpathian Foredeep.
In the cen tral part of the Carpathian Foredeep base -
ment, the Mid dle Ju ras sic strata (Bajocian–Bathonian–Cal-
lovian) are rep re sented by sand stones, claystones, and silt-
stones with abun dant plant de tri tus, and with car bon ate in -
ter ca la tions in the up per part of the se quence (e.g., Moryc,
2006). At the top of the Mid dle Ju ras sic se quence, a 1–2 m
thick layer of nod u lar lime stones ap pears lo cally. The total
thick ness of Mid dle Ju ras sic strata usu ally var ies from a
dozen or so up to sev eral doz ens of metres, only rarely ex -
ceed ing 100 metres. The Mid dle Ju ras sic sed i ments rep re -
sent a typ i cal transgressive se quence. At the end of the Cal-
lovian, the Mid dle Ju ras sic sea cov ered a con sid er able part
of the study area, whereas the emerg ing land ar eas formed
an ar chi pel ago of the so-called “Ma³opolska is lands”.
A thick Up per Ju ras sic–Lower Cre ta ceous com plex
rests upon the Mid dle Ju ras sic, and lo cally, Tri as sic and
Palaeozoic strata. The re cent pres er va tion of these strata
var ies de pend ing on the ex tent of ero sion. In the vi cin ity of
Kraków this com plex is about 300 m thick, while in the sur -
round ings of Rzeszów (Dêbica-Ropczyce area) the thick -
ness reaches even 1,300 m. Geo log i cal stud ies car ried out
for years led to the dis tin guish ing of Oxfordian, Kimmerid-
gian, Tithonian, Berriasian, Valanginian and per haps Hau-
terivian sed i ments in the base ment of the Carpathian Fore-
deep, be tween Kraków and Ropczyce (e.g., Morycowa &
Moryc, 1976; Golonka, 1978; Matyszkiewicz, 1997; Ol-
szewska, 1999; Krajewski, 2001; Gutowski et al., 2007;
Matyja, 2009). These form three sed i men tary suc ces sions:
(i) Callovian–Oxfordian, (ii) Kimmeridgian, and (iii) Titho-
nian–Berriasian–Valanginian of var i ous thick nesses and di -
ver si fied con tents of the marly-car bon ate fa cies (Krajewski
et al., 2011a). The Oxfordian, Kimmeridgian, and Tithonian
sed i ments cor re spond to the outer-mid plat form fa cies, in
which the pelitic and de tri tal sed i ments rep re sent the bed -
ded fa cies, and the pre dom i nant, mi cro bial-sponge and mi -
cro bial-coral-sponge fa cies cor re spond to the reef and bio-
strom com plexes. At the end of the Tithonian, the mid plat -
form fa cies sed i ments changed into the in ter nal plat form,
high en ergy, ooidal-bioclastic shoals and open/re stricted la -
goon, mostly peloidal fa cies, pre dom i nat ing in the Berria-
sian–Valanginian sed i ments. The Lower Cre ta ceous (Ber-
riasian–Valanginian) lime stones and marly lime stones up to
190 m thick are known from the Dêbica re gion (cf. Urbaniec
et al., 2010). Sed i ments of the Mid dle Ju ras sic–Lower Cre -
ta ceous com plex are cov ered with Up per Cre ta ceous and/or
Ter tiary ones.
In the study area be tween Lubaczów and Ivano-Fran-
kivs’k, the Me so zoic strata are rep re sented by two sed i men -
tary com plexes: (i) the ?Lower-Mid dle Ju ras sic (?Hettan-
gian–Callovian), and (ii) the Up per Ju ras sic–Lower Cre ta -
ceous (Oxfordian–Valanginian) ones. At pres ent, this area
is sit u ated in the nar row Bilche-Volytsia tec tonic zone (Lu-
baczów and Kokhanivka blocks) lo cated at the SW edge of
the East-Eu ro pean Plat form and the NE mar gin of the
Lower San River Horst Struc ture. This zone is bor dered
from the NE by the Horodok Fault (which is the SE con tin u -
a tion of the Holy Cross Fault Zone), and from the SW by the
Krakovets Fault (Bu³a & Habryn, 2011). In the dis cussed
part of the Carpathian Foredeep base ment, the Jurassic sed i -
ments, de pos ited di rectly on the Palaeozoic, mainly Cam -
brian se quence (Bu³a & Habryn, 2011), re veal broad fa cies
di ver sity. Sed i ments of the Mid dle Ju ras sic com plex were
doc u mented in the SW part of the Ukrai nian Carpathian
Foredeep and in the Lubaczów area only. The po si tion of
Lower Ju ras sic de pos its is dis put able and re mains stratigra-
phically un doc u mented (Dulub et al., 2003; Moryc, 2004;
Œwidrowska et al., 2008).
The Mid dle Ju ras sic strata show vari able thick nesses.
In the Lubaczów area, in var i ous tec tonic blocks the thick -
ness of the Mid dle Ju ras sic sed i ments changes from sev eral
doz ens up to sev eral hun dreds of metres (Moryc, 2004). In
the Ukrai nian part (the Kokhanivka Zone), the Mid dle Ju -
ras sic com plex shows greater thick ness and more com plete
strati graphic se quence. In some ar eas the thick nesses of
Mid dle Ju ras sic de pos its reach about 1 km, what is most
probably due to de for ma tions and tec tonic rep e ti tion of sed -
i men tary se quences. The true thick ness of these de pos its is
dif fi cult to es ti mate; pre sum ably it amounts to hun dreds of
metres (cf. Dulub et al., 1986, 2003; Moryc, 2004; Œwi-
drowska et al., 2008). In the lit er a ture, the Mid dle Ju ras sic
sed i ments were iden ti fied as the Bajocian, Bathonian, and
PE TRO LEUM SYS TEMS IN THE PALAEOZOIC–ME SO ZOIC BASE MENT 491
Callovian (e.g. Dulub et al., 2003; Moryc, 2004), how ever,
the bound aries be tween in di vid ual com plexes were un clear.
Li thol ogy in cludes dark-grey claystones and siltstones with
scarce in ter ca la tions of sand stones with coalified plant
detritus and with py rite. In the up per parts of suc ces sions,
grey dolomites and lime stones with fos sil re mains can be
ob served, up to sev eral centi metres thick (Dulub et al.,
2003).
Both the Up per Ju ras sic and Lower Cre ta ceous strata
cover a much larger area. In the Ukraine, these rocks oc cur
in the whole area of the Carpathian Foredeep and en ter the
East-Eu ro pean Plat form up to the Nizhniev area. Car bon ate,
evaporite, and siliciclastic fa cies were de vel oped there
(Gutowski et al., 2005; Zhabina & Anikeyeva, 2007; Ani-
keyeva & Zhabina, 2002; Olszewska, 2010; Krajewski et
al., 2011b). In the Lubaczów area, Ju ras sic sed i ments are
poorly pre served (Moryc, 2004; Olszewska, 2010). Fa cies
de vel op ment of the Up per Ju ras sic (Oxfordian–Tithonian)–
Lower Cre ta ceous (Berriasian–Valanginian) com plex in the
nar row Bilche-Volytsia Zone dem on strates high di ver sity
of sed i ments. In the Ukrai nian part, deep-ma rine, radiola-
rian-saccocoma fa cies, grav ity-flow plat form slope fa cies,
shal low-ma rine, ooidal- bioclastic mar ginal-plat form fa cies
and in ner-plat form, peri-tidal and peri-shore lac us trine fa -
cies were dis tin guished (Dulub et al., 2003; Zhabina &
Anikeyeva, 2007; Krajewski et al., 2011b). These rocks
rep re sent mainly the Kimmeridgian and Tithonian. The
Lower Cre ta ceous sed i ments re veal sim i lar, ooidal-bio-
clastic fa cies de vel op ment in most of the study area. To -
wards the East-Eu ro pean Plat form, deep-wa ter and plat form
slope fa cies grade in a nar row zone into the shal low-wa ter,
rimmed plat form fa cies of lower thick nesses, laid down di -
rectly on the Palaeozoic strata. The plat form-mar gin sed i -
ments are dom i nated by ooidal-bioclastic fa cies. The ex tent
of Kimmeridgian and Tithonian sed i ments is closely re lated
to the block struc ture of the base ment, and to the course of
the prin ci pal tec tonic zones (Gutowski et al., 2006; Zhabina
& Anikyeva, 2007; Krajewski et al., 2011b). In the Bilche-
Volytsia Zone, lo cated upon the Palaeozoic Kokhanivka
Zone be tween the Krakovets and the Horodok faults, ba sin
and plat form-slope fa cies pre dom i nate. Plat form fa cies are
lo cal ized in the Rava Rus’ka Zone, be tween the Holy Cross
and Rava Rus’ka faults (Fig. 1). The oolite-bioclastic bar -
rier, which sep a rates the plat form slope from the in ner-plat -
form set tings, runs along the fault sys tem of the SW bound -
ary of the Holy Cross Fault Zone.
The Lower Cre ta ceous strata are spread along the com -
plete Ukrai nian part of the Carpathian Foredeep. The fa cies
change from car bon ate in the north west ern part, ad ja cent to
the Pol ish bor der, con tin u ing in the Pol ish ter ri tory, to car -
bon ate-terrigenous in the cen tral part and terrigenous in the
south east ern part. Lower Cre ta ceous sed i ments in the north-
west ern and cen tral parts of the base ment of the Ukrai nian
Carpathian Foredeep are of Valanginian–Hauterivian (Du-
lub, 1965) age and their thick ness is from 140 to 150 m,
while the Valanginian–Hauterivian sed i ments in the south-
east ern part are cov ered by the Barremian–Aptian (Gavryly-
shyn, 1998; Ohorodnik, 2005) black shales and the thick -
ness of the whole se quence is from 0 to 70 m (Shcherba &
Radkovets, 2008; Radkovets, 2010).
PE TRO LEUM OC CUR RENCE
The fron tal part of the Pol ish and Ukrai nian Carpa-
thians is one of the old est pe tro leum-pro duc ing re gions in the
world. The ex ploi ta tion of oil started in 1853 in the Outer
(Flysch) Carpathians and that of nat u ral gas com menced in
1920 in autochthonous Mio cene strata of the Carpathian
Foredeep (Karnkowski, 1999; Vul et al., 1998a, b). At the
end of the 1930s, pe tro leum ex plo ra tion started in the
Carpathian Fore land. In the years 1945–1955 the Pol ish pe -
tro leum in dus try had un der gone res to ra tion and re or ga ni za -
tion. The ex plo ra tion ac tiv ity was fo cused mainly on the
Outer (Flysch) Carpathians and partly on the Carpathian
Foredeep (Karnkowski, 1999). In ten sive pe tro leum ex plo -
ra tion took place in the mid dle of the 1960s and in the 1970s
(Karnkowski, 1999; Myœliwiec et al., 2006). Up to now,
twenty-six oil, gas-con den sate and gas fields were dis cov -
ered within the Palaeozoic–Me so zoic base ment of the Pol -
ish part of the Carpathian Foredeep (from 1948) (Figs 3, 4),
and eleven de pos its were found within the Me so zoic base -
ment of the Ukrai nian part of the Carpathian Foredeep
(since 1944) (Fig. 3).
The Pol ish part of the Palaeozoic–Me so zoic base ment
of the Carpathian Foredeep
The ma jor pe tro leum res er voir rocks in the Palaeozoic–
Me so zoic base ment include (Karnkowski, 1999; Florek et
al., 2006; Myœliwiec et al., 2006): (i) Mid dle and Up per De -
vo nian car bon ates (Trzebownisko and Zalesie de pos its, and
Lachowice de posit be neath the Carpathian Overthrust, lo -
cated SW from Kraków); (ii) Lower Car bon if er ous car bon -
ates (Nosówka de posit); (iii) Malm lime stones (Tarnów,
Lubaczów, Korzeniów, Partynia-Podborze, D¹browa Tar-
nowska and Smêgorzów de pos its); (iv) Cenomanian sand -
stones (Brzezowiec, Grobla, £¹kta and Rylowa de pos its);
and (v) Up per Cre ta ceous (Senonian) sand stones lo cally in -
ter ca lated with Up per Cre ta ceous marls, Malm lime stones
and Cenomanian sand stones (Jastrz¹bka Stara and Swarzów
de pos its). More over, some hy dro car bon ac cu mu la tions
were dis cov ered also in the Cam brian sand stones (small Ce-
tynia de posit) and in the Or do vi cian/Si lu rian strata (small
Uszkowce de posit) (Karnkowski, 1999).
The res er voir prop er ties of the Cam brian sand stones in
the Kielce Fold Zone are highly vari able. Modal value of po -
ros ity is be tween 5 and 10%, and the fil tra tion prop er ties are
poor. The fil tra tion prop er ties of the Cam brian sand stones are
lim ited to frac tures (Kosakowski et al., in press, a).
The Cetynia gas de posit (Figs 3, 4) is a small ac cu mu la -
tion of mixed, massive and lay ered type. The res er voirs are
Cam brian sand stones as well as Lower Badenian Lithotam-
nion Lime stones, Baranów Sand stones and the anhydrite se -
ries. The ef fec tive thick ness of the Cam brian res er voir is
about 20 m, po ros ity ranges up to about 4%, and per me abil -
ity does not ex ceed 13 mD (Karnkowski, 1999).
The Uszkowce gas de posit (Figs 3, 4) com prises a few
pro duc ing ho ri zons, in clud ing the Or do vi cian, Si lu rian, Up -
per Ju ras sic and Mid dle Badenian strata (Karnkowski,
1999). The Uszkowce de posit was dis cov ered in a nar row
anticline cut by an oblique fault zone. Gas ac cu mu lated east
492 M. J. KOTARBA ET AL.
PE TRO LEUM SYS TEMS IN THE PALAEOZOIC–ME SO ZOIC BASE MENT 493
.3 .giF ni st iso ped sag dna eta sne dnoc-sag ,lio eht fo noi ta col fo pam hctekS )A( dna ,hs iloP eht fo tne mesab cio zo seM–ciozoealaP eht )B( noi ta coL .peederoF naihtapraC eht fo strap nai niarkU
luV re tfa dei f idom st iso ped mue lor tep fo .la te ceiwilœyM dna )9991( ikswoknraK ,)b ,a8991( .la te ainauhtiL – .htiL .)6002(
of the fault zone, whereas the pro duc ing Mio cene strata can
be found to the west of it. The east ern part of the gas de posit
is of mas sive type, sealed by the Mio cene strata. Gas ho ri -
zons in the Mio cene se quence form lay ered-type de pos its.
The mas sif-type part of the Uszkowce de posit shows vari -
able per me abil ity caused by its lithological di ver sity (Pala-
eozoic–Me so zoic reservoirs) (Karnkowski, 1999).
The first dis cov ery of com mer cial gas ac cu mu la tion in
the Zalesie area, made in 1982, re vealed the per spec tive
char ac ter of De vo nian res er voir rocks in the Rzeszów re -
gion (east ern part of the Carpathian Foredeep) (Figs 3, 4).
Later, the Trzebownisko and Niwiska gas and con den sate
de pos its were dis cov ered in De vo nian car bon ates (Figs 3, 4)
(Karnkowski, 1999).
The thick ness of De vo nian rocks in creases to the south,
be neath the Carpathian Overthrust and de creases to the
north, northwest and north east from the Zalesie field (My-
œliwiec et al., 2006). Li thol ogy of the De vo nian res er voir
in cludes lime stones and dolomites interbedded with fine-
grained quartz sand stones and con glom er ates (Myœliwiec et
al., 2006). Petrophysical anal y ses of De vo nian car bon ates
showed that car bon ates po ros ity in the entire Rzeszów re -
gion var ies from 1.18 to 11.56%. Only in the Trzebow-
nisko-3 well the De vo nian rocks did dem on strate higher po -
ros ity, up to 16.7% (Kosakowski et al., in press, a). These
pa ram e ters in di cated fa vour able fil tra tion prop er ties. The
per me abil ity was mea sured in a sin gle sam ple (55 mD)
only. Ac cord ing to Myœliwiec et al. (2006), the De vo nian
de pos its are very prom is ing res er voir rocks and in the Rze-
szów area these strata were located on the most probable
migration path.
The dis cov ery of the Nosówka oil field (Figs 3, 4) in the
Visean car bon ates pointed to the Lower Car bon if er ous
limestones and dolomites as po ten tially pro duc ing Palaeo-
zoic res er voir rocks. The Lower Car bon if er ous de pos its are
well-de vel oped only west ward and south ward from Rze-
szów (Myœliwiec et al., 2006). The roof sur face of the
Lower Car bon if er ous com plex is ero sional and is sealed by
the Mio cene shale-mudstone-sand stone com plex. The
Lower Car bon if er ous lime stones are interbedded with sets
of thin, mudstone-shale lay ers (Karnkowski, 1999). Only a
small pop u la tion of mea sured sam ples did show fa vour able
res er voir prop er ties. The intercrystalline po ros ity changes
from 0 to 5%, whereas microfracture and cav ern ous po ros i -
ties reach 17%. Per me abil ity of the reservoir rocks does not
exceed 30 mD (Karnkowski, 1999).
The Me so zoic res er voir rocks are pres ent in the Up per
Ju ras sic and Up per Cre ta ceous suc ces sions, and are the
most im por tant res er voirs con tain ing the larg est oil ac cu mu -
la tions within the Carpathian Foredeep basement.
Hy dro car bon ac cu mu la tions dis cov ered in the Me so -
zoic base ment of the Carpathian Foredeep be tween Kraków
and Rzeszów (Fig. 2) are hosted mainly in struc tural and
strati graphic traps formed di rectly be neath the Mio cene un -
con formity. The com bined, struc tural-strati graphic traps are
lo cated in the mas sive, ero sional or tec tonic blocks of the
base ment and are sealed by clayey Mio cene strata or by
marly Senonian–Turonian sed i ments, some times also by
494 M. J. KOTARBA ET AL.
Fig. 4.Dis tri bu tion of gas, gas-con den sate and oil de pos its of the lithostratigraphic for ma tions of the Palaeozoic and Me so zoic base -
ment of the Pol ish Carpathian Foredeep, mod i fied af ter Karnkowski (1999), Myœliwiec et al. (2006) and un pub lished data of the Pol ish Oil
& Gas Com pany. N. A. – non-com mer cial ac cu mu la tion
fault planes. The strati graphic traps rec og nised in the
Grobla and P³awowice oil and gas fields, and in the £¹kta
gas field are pinch-outs of Cenomanian sand stones. In some
cases the traps rep re sent car bon ate build ups (reefs) (Myœli-
wiec et al., 2006).
The Lubaczów ac cu mu la tion was the first dis cov ered
oil, gas and condesate field in the Me so zoic base ment of the
Carpathian Foredeep. It is reservoired in the Up per Ju ras sic
lime stones (Kimmeridgian) of the Tarnogród-Lubaczów
area near the Pol ish-Ukrai nian bor der (Fig. 3). The gas-sat -
u rated lime stones show av er age po ros ity of 1.2%, lo cally
3.2%, and per me abil ity from 0 to 677 mD (Karnkowski,
1999; Myœliwiec et al., 2006). An other Uszkowce com mer -
cial gas field in that area is reservoired in Ju ras sic (Dogge-
rian) clastics (Figs 3, 4). The high-meth ane gas is ac cu mu -
lated in sand stones char ac ter ized by po ros ity of about 13%
and per me abil ity up to 840 mD (Karnkowski, 1999; Myœli-
wiec et al., 2006). Both de pos its are lo cated in struc tural-
strati graphic traps, in the mas sive, ero sional or tec tonic
blocks of the base ment. The car bon ate and clastic res er voir
fa cies are sealed by Mio cene shales and by fault planes
(Myœliwiec et al., 2006).
In the Me so zoic base ment of the Carpathian Foredeep
be tween Kraków and Rzeszów, six hy dro car bon ac cu mu la -
tions were dis cov ered in the Up per Ju ras sic car bon ates: Par-
tynia-Podborze (oil), Wojs³aw, £¹czki Brzeskie, Mêdrze-
chów (gas), Góra Ropczycka and Tarnów (gas-con den sate)
(Figs 3, 4).
A few pro duc ing ho ri zons were dis cov ered in the Up -
per Ju ras sic and Up per Cre ta ceous suc ces sions of the D¹-
browa Tarnowska, Grobla, Korzeniów-Mêciszów, £apa-
nów, £¹kta, P³awowice, Smêgorzów and ¯ukowice fields
(Figs 3, 4). In the Brzezówka oil and gas field, the res er voirs
are the Up per Ju ras sic and Lower Cre ta ceous car bon ates,
while in flow of gas and con den sate in Zagorzyce came from
the Up per Jurassic–Lower Cre ta ceous ho ri zon (Figs 3, 4).
More over, the Brzezowiec, Rajsko, Rylowa and Swarzów
gas fields, and the Jastrz¹bka Stara oil field were dis cov ered
in the Up per Cre ta ceous sand stones only (Figs 3, 4) (Karn-
kowski, 1999; Maksym et al., 2001; Florek et al., 2006;
Myœliwiec et al., 2006).
The av er age po ros ity of Up per Ju ras sic car bon ates is
low and ranges from 2% in Partynia-Podborze and £¹czki
Brzeskie de pos its, through about 6% in the Góra Ropczyc-
ka, Tarnów, P³awowice and Brzezówka fields, up to even
10% in the D¹browa Tarnowska and £¹kta fields (Karn-
kowski, 1999; Florek et al., 2006; Myœliwiec et al., 2006).
The per me abil ity of Up per Ju ras sic microfactured and frac -
tured res er voirs changes from 5 mD in the Brzezówka field
to over 180 mD in the Partynia-Podborze oil field. In the
P³awowice field per me abil ity of frac tured res er voir reaches
150 mD (Karnkowski, 1999; Myœliwiec et al., 2006). The
ef fec tive thick ness of this res er voir var ies from 13 m in the
Partynia-Podborze oil field to 30 m in the £¹kta gas and
con den sate field (Karnkowski, 1999; Florek et al., 2006;
Myœliwiec et al., 2006).
The av er age po ros ity of Up per Cre ta ceous sand stones
is high and in most fields ex ceeds 30% (Grobla oil and gas
field, Jastrz¹bka Stara oil field, Rajsko gas field, Rylowa
gas field). In the P³awowice oil and gas field, po ros ity of
Cenomanian sand stones ranges from 6 to 13% (Karnkow-
ski, 1999; Myœliwiec et al., 2006). The per me abil ity of this
res er voir var ies from a few doz ens to even 2,630 mD in the
Grobla field (Karnkowski, 1999; Myœliwiec et al., 2006).
The ef fec tive thick ness of Up per Cre ta ceous res er voirs var ies
from 10 m in the £¹kta gas and con den sate field, through 22
m in the Jastrz¹bka Stara oil field, up to 59 m in the Rylowa
gas field (Karnkowski, 1999; Florek et al., 2006). The Ceno-
manian res er voir sand stones show good and, lo cally, even
very good res er voir prop er ties (Myœliwiec et al., 2006).
The traps in oil and gas de pos its of the Palaeozoic–Me -
so zoic base ment are sealed ei ther by the Mio cene strata
alone (e.g., D¹browa Tarnowska, Smêgorzów), or by the
Miocene cover and the Up per Cre ta ceous marls (e.g.,
Grobla, Rylowa, Wierzchos³awice). The Carpathian Over-
thrust and the flysch strata pro vide an ad di tional seal (e.g.,
Leszczyna-£¹kta) (Kotarba & Jawor, 1993).
Ukrai nian part of the Me so zoic base ment
of the Carpathian Foredeep
Eleven fields were dis cov ered within the Me so zoic
base ment of the Ukrai nian part of the Carpathian Foredeep
(Vul et al., 1998a, b; Shcherba et al., 1987; Kurovets et al.,
2011). Three of them are oil fields: the Kokhanivka and
Orkhovychi fields are heavy oil ac cu mu la tions in Up per Ju -
ras sic res er voirs (Fig. 3), and the Lopushna oil field in the
south-east ern part of the plat form base ment un der the
Carpathian Overthrust (Fig. 3) is in Up per Ju ras sic, Cre ta -
ceous (Albian–Cenomanian) and Eocene res er voirs. Seven
fields con tain con den sate and/or gas in com bined Me so -
zoic–Mio cene res er voirs (Fig. 3) (Kurovets et al., 2011).
The Rudkivske – gas and con den sate ac cu mu la tion in the
Up per Ju ras sic–Lower Badenian Sandy-Cal car e ous Se ries
res er voir and 5 gas ac cu mu la tions in Lower Sarmatian,
Vereshchytsia – gas in the Up per Ju ras sic–Lower Badenian
Sandy-Cal car e ous Se ries, Medenychi – gas and con den sate
in Up per Cre ta ceous–Lower Badenian Sandy-Cal car e ous
Se ries, Bilche-Volytsia – gas and con den sate in Up per Cre -
ta ceous–Lower Badenian Sandy-Cal car e ous Se ries and 4
gas ac cu mu la tions in Lower Sarmatian, Uhers’ko – gas and
con den sate in Up per Cre ta ceous–Lower Badenian Sandy-
Cal car e ous Se ries and 5 gas ac cu mu la tions in Lower Sar-
matian, Pivdenne Uhers’ko – gas in Up per Cre ta ceous–
Lower Badenian Sandy-Cal car e ous Se ries and 4 gas ac cu -
mu la tions in Lower Sarmatian and Letnia – gas and con den -
sate in Up per Ju ras sic–Lower Badenian Sandy-Cal car e ous
Se ries, Up per Cre ta ceous–Lower Badenian Sandy-Cal car e -
ous Se ries and 9 gas ac cu mu la tions in Lower Sarmatian
strata.
The Up per Ju ras sic strata of the Oparska and Nyzhniv-
ska for ma tions are res er voir rocks in sev eral of the listed
above oil and gas fields. They are rep re sented by cav ern ous
and frac tured lime stones and dolomites with po ros ity rang -
ing from 2.3 to 29.6% and per me abil ity of 0.001 to 26 mD
(Scherba et al., 1987; Vul et al., 1998a, b; Kurovets et al.,
2011). The Cre ta ceous strata, res er voir rocks in sev eral gas
fields in the north-west ern part of the Bilche-Volytsia Unit
and in the Lopushna oil field in its south-east ern part, are
rep re sented by 3 to 12-m-thick quartz-glauconitic sand -
PE TRO LEUM SYS TEMS IN THE PALAEOZOIC–ME SO ZOIC BASE MENT 495
stones with po ros ity and per me abil ity lo cally reach ing
33.2% and 2,435 mD, respectively (Scherba et al., 1987;
Kurovets et al., 2011). These Up per Ju ras sic and Up per
Cretaceous res er voirs usu ally form an ero sional ledge join-
tly with the Lower Badenian Sandy-Cal car e ous Se ries, and
are sealed by the over ly ing Mio cene beds. Palaeogene strata
oc cur in the Carpathian fore land only lo cally, where in the
Lopushna field they are up to few metres thick. The Eocene-
age res er voir rocks are rep re sented by sand stones with po -
ros ity of 12.5% and per me abil ity of 0.7 mD (Vul et al.,
1998a, b) and are sealed by Badenian molasse de pos its.
CHAR AC TER IZA TION
OF SOURCE ROCKS
Based on the re sults of geo chem i cal anal y ses of sam -
ples col lected from Palaeozoic and Me so zoic strata, five
main pe tro leum source rock ho ri zons were iden ti fied: Or do -
vi cian–Si lu rian rocks, Mid dle and Up per De vo nian car bon -
ates, Lower Car bon if er ous clastics (Culm), Mid dle Ju ras sic
siliclastics and Up per Ju ras sic car bon ates (Kosakowski et
al., in press, c, d; Wiêc³aw et al., 2011; Wiêc³aw et al., in
press, a).
Or do vi cian and Si lu rian com plex
Due to their com pa ra ble and con tin u ous de vel op ment
Or do vi cian and Si lu rian strata were char ac ter ized as a sin -
gle source rock for two sep a rate ar eas (Bu³a & Habryn, eds,
2008): Busko Zdrój-Rzeszów and Tarnogród-Lubaczów
(Figs 5–8). In the first area sam ples were col lected from 15
wells and from 9 wells in the sec ond one (Fig. 5). In the
Ukrai nian part of the Carpathian Foredeep only one sam ple
was col lected (Wiêc³aw et al., in press, a) and thus our
source rock in ter pre ta tion is inconclusive.
In the Busko Zdrój-Rzeszów area, the best source rocks
were found in the Nawsie-1 (Nw-1) and Hermanowa-1
(He-1) wells where the me di ans of TOC con tent were 2.9
and 2.3 wt%, re spec tively (Fig. 5). In the ma jor ity of wells
the TOC con tents ex ceeded 1 wt%, in di cat ing gen er ally
high or ganic car bon con tent (Fig. 5). Me di ans of the hy dro -
gen in dex (HI) val ues (from 135 to 548 mg HC/g TOC, Fig.
6) in di cate rea son able hy dro car bon po ten tial from the Type-
II kerogen. Ma tu rity changes from the ini tial phase of the
“oil win dow” in the cen tral part of the ana lysed area (Mie-
lec-Tarnów) to the peak of the “oil win dow” in the east ern
and west ern parts (Fig. 7). The es ti mated source rock thick -
ness varies from 40 m to 220 m (Fig. 8).
Fa vour able source rocks with me dian TOC up to 1.74
wt% in Wola Obszañska-16 (WO-16) well were re corded in
the Tarnogród-Lubaczów area, but in the small zone in the
vi cin ity of above-men tioned well only (Fig. 5). The hy dro -
car bon po ten tial of these rocks was rather low and in the in -
di vid ual wells the me dian val ues never ex ceeded 150 mg
HC/g TOC (Fig. 6). This is prob a bly due to the in creased
sam ple ma tu rity (Fig. 7). The source rock thick ness var ies
here from 20 m to 180 m (Fig. 8).
The re sults show that the Or do vi cian–Si lu rian com plex
from the Busko Zdrój-Rzeszów area has good source rock
prop er ties, whereas in Tarnogród-Lubaczów area such pro-
perties oc cur only lo cally, in the vi cin ity of Wola Obszañska.
Mid dle and Up per De vo nian car bon ates
The Mid dle and Up per De vo nian strata are de vel oped
as carbonate de pos its: dolomites, detrial lime stones, dolo-
mitic lime stones, marls and marly lime stones. Their thick -
ness reaches 300–400 m in the vi cin ity of Rzeszów (Mak-
sym et al., 2003) and up to over 1,000 m in the Kraków-
Brzesko area (Zaj¹c, 1984).
These strata are gen er ally poor in or ganic mat ter. The
to tal or ganic car bon (TOC) con tent is usu ally be low 0.2
wt%. In the Grobla area (Grobla-28 and Rajsko-3 wells),
source rock lev els char ac ter iz ing in creased hy dro car bon po -
ten tial: TOC up to 2.6 wt% and hy dro car bon con tents up to
4.7 mg HC/g rock were re corded. Some parts of the section
of the Grobla-28 well could have the ini tial hy dro car bon po -
ten tial very good and even ex cel lent (Wiêc³aw et al., 2011).
In the Mid dle and Up per De vo nian car bon ates the oil-prone
496 M. J. KOTARBA ET AL.
Fig. 5.Con tour map of me dian val ues of to tal or ganic car bon (TOC) con tent of the Or do vi cian–Si lu rian source rocks in the area be -
tween Brzesko and Pol ish-Ukrai nian bor der. Lith. – Lith u a nia
PE TRO LEUM SYS TEMS IN THE PALAEOZOIC–ME SO ZOIC BASE MENT 497
Fig. 6.Con tour map of me dian val ues of hy dro gen in dex (HI) of the Or do vi cian–Si lu rian source rocks in the area be tween Brzesko and
the Pol ish-Ukrai nian bor der. Lith. – Lith u a nia
Fig. 7.Con tour map of val ues of reflectance of vitrinite-like macerals (Ro) at the bot tom of the Or do vi cian–Si lu rian strata in the area
be tween Brzesko and the Pol ish-Ukrai nian bor der. Lith. – Lith u a nia
Fig. 8.Con tour map of thick ness of source rocks of the Or do vi cian–Si lu rian strata in the area be tween Brzesko and the Pol ish-Ukrai -
nian bor der. Lith. – Lith u a nia
Type II kerogen dom i nates with lo cal ad mix tures of the gas-
prone Type III kerogen. Or ganic mat ter was de pos ited in
anoxic car bon ate en vi ron ment (Wiêc³aw et al., 2011). The
ther mal ma tu rity of or ganic mat ter dis persed in these strata
changes from the fi nal stage of im ma ture (mi cro bial pro -
cesses) in the vi cin ity of Rzeszów to the overmature zone
(high-tem per a ture thermogenic processes) in the western
part of the analysed area near Grobla.
Lower Car bon if er ous clastic fa cies (Culm)
The Lower Car bon if er ous clastic fa cies (Culm) oc curs
in the Pol ish part of the study area only (Bu³a & Habryn,
eds, 2008). Sam ples from 11 wells lo cal ized mostly be -
tween Dêbica and Rzeszów towns (Figs 9–12) were ana -
lysed for this study. The me dian TOC con tent for the source
rocks from in di vid ual wells is usu ally above 0.8 wt%, in di -
cat ing gen er ally high or ganic car bon con tent (Fig. 9). Hy -
dro car bon po ten tial is low and usu ally does not ex ceed 100
mg HC/g TOC (Fig. 10) from the gas-prone, Type-III ke-
rogen (Wiêc³aw et al., 2011). Or ganic mat ter ma tu rity, cal -
cu lated to the bot tom of the ana lysed strata, ex tends from
the ini tial to the main phases of the “oil win dow” (Fig. 11),
in di cat ing that source rocks are ca pa ble of gen er at ing ther-
mogenic hy dro car bons. The source rock thick ness var ies
over a wide range: from 50 to 300 m (Fig. 12). The great est
thick ness (300 m) was recorded in the Strzelce Wielkie-1
(SW-1) well (Fig. 12).
With re spect to the TOC con tent, the best source rocks,
with the high est hy dro car bon po ten tial, ma tu rity and thick -
ness oc cur in the Dêbica-Rzeszów area, be neath the Carpa-
thian Overthrust.
Mid dle Ju ras sic strata
The Mid dle Ju ras sic strata were char ac ter ized in the
Pol ish (20 wells sam pled) and Ukrai nian (10 wells sam pled)
parts of the study area (Figs 13–15) (Wiêc³aw et al., 2010;
Kosakowski et al., in press, c, d). Me dian val ues of the TOC
con tent vary over a wide range: from 0.0 to 6.4 wt% (Fig.
13). High me dian TOC value, above 2 wt%, occured in
seven wells, in the var i ous parts of the ana lysed area (Fig.
13). Gen er ally, the me dian TOC con tent is above 1 wt%,
be ing in dic a tive of high or ganic car bon con tent. Hy dro car -
bon po ten tial of dis persed or ganic mat ter is gen er ally low
and usu ally does not ex ceed 100 mg HC/g TOC (Fig. 14),
in di cat ing the pres ence of gas-prone, Type-III kerogen.
Only in the Tarnawa-1 (Ta-1) well the HI me dian value is
260 mg HC/g TOC (Fig. 14) sug gest ing the ad mix ture of
Type-II kerogen. The ma tu rity of or ganic mat ter changes
from 0.4 to 0.7% Ro, ev i denc ing the im ma tu rity of rocks in
the Kraków-Rzeszów area (Fig. 15). The high est ma tu ri ties
were re corded in the suc ces sions of deep est burial be low the
Carpathian Overthrust (Fig. 15). How ever, it was im pos si -
ble to de ter mine the source rock thick ness due to in suf fi -
cient sam pling den sity.
Based on geo chem i cal char ac ter is tics of the Mid dle Jura-
ssic strata it can be con cluded that the best source rocks, capa-
ble of gen er at ing thermogenic hy dro car bons, oc cur in the Dê-
bica-Rzeszów area and in the Ukrai nian part of the study area.
498 M. J. KOTARBA ET AL.
Fig. 9.Con tour map of me dian val ues of to tal or ganic car bon (TOC) con tent of the Lower Car bon if er ous ter res trial source rocks in the
Brzesko–Rzeszów area. Lith. – Lith u a nia
PE TRO LEUM SYS TEMS IN THE PALAEOZOIC–ME SO ZOIC BASE MENT 499
Fig. 10. Con tour map of me dian val ues of hy dro gen in dex (HI) of the ter res trial Lower Car bon if er ous source rocks in the Brzesko–
Rzeszów area. Lith. – Lith u a nia
Fig. 11. Con tour map of val ues of vitrinite reflectance (Ro) at the bot tom of the Lower Car bon if er ous ter res trial strata in the Brzesko–
Rzeszów area. Lith. – Lith u a nia
500 M. J. KOTARBA ET AL.
Fig. 12. Con tour map of thick ness of source rocks within the Lower Car bon if er ous ter res trial strata in the Brzesko–Rzeszów area. Lith.
– Lith u a nia
Fig. 13. Con tour map of me dian val ues of to tal or ganic car bon (TOC) con tent of the Mid dle Ju ras sic source rocks in the area be tween
Bochnia and Stryi towns. Lith. – Lith u a nia
PE TRO LEUM SYS TEMS IN THE PALAEOZOIC–ME SO ZOIC BASE MENT 501
Fig. 14. Con tour map of me dian val ues of hy dro gen in dex (HI) of the Mid dle Ju ras sic source rocks in the area be tween Bochnia and
Stryi towns. Lith. – Lith u a nia
Fig. 15. Con tour map of val ues of reflectance of vitrinite-like macerals (Ro) at the bot tom of the Mid dle Ju ras sic strata in the area be -
tween Bochnia and Stryi towns. Lith. – Lith u a nia
Up per Ju ras sic strata
In the Pol ish part of the Carpathian Foredeep, the Up per
Ju ras sic car bon ates are usu ally low in or ganic mat ter and
only lo cally show me dium TOC con cen tra tions (Kosakow-
ski et al., in press, c, d). The gen er ally low hy dro car bon po -
ten tial and ma tu rity cor re spond to the fi nal phase of mi cro -
bial pro cesses and the ini tial phase of the “oil win dow”.
Hence, these rocks can be con sid ered only as a sec ond ary
source of hy dro car bons (Kosakowski & Wróbel, in press;
Kosakowski et al., 2011). The source rocks of Ju ras sic
strata in the Pol ish Outer Carpthians were eval u ated by
Golonka et al. (2009).
In the Ukrai nian part, the Up per Ju ras sic strata show a
vari able or ganic car bon con tent, from 0.0 up to 2.1 wt%
(Fig. 16). The high est hy dro car bon po ten tial, up to 375 mg
HC/g TOC, is ob served in the vi cin ity of Mostys’ka and
Horodok (Fig. 17) in di cat ing the high est con tent of oil-
prone, Type-II kerogen. Low ma tu rity of the ana lysed strata
is com pa ra ble to that ob served in the Pol ish part of the study
area (Fig. 18), but the pres ence of the highly-re ac tive Type-
IIS kerogen (Kosakowski et al., in press, d) sug gests ca pa -
bil ity of Up per Ju ras sic source rocks for oil and gas gen er a -
tion. The most fa vour able area for thermogenic hy dro car -
bon generation is in the Mostys’ka-Horodok zone.
OIL – NAT U RAL GAS – SOURCE ROCK
COR RE LA TION
The ap pli ca tion of com pre hen sive meth ods (sta ble car -
bon iso topes, biomarkers and ar o matic hy dro car bons) al -
lows for an ex pla na tion of the ge netic re la tion ships be tween
dis persed or ganic mat ter and liq uid (oils and con den sates)
and gas eous hy dro car bons ac cu mu lated in the Palaeozoic–
Me so zoic base ment strata of the Carpathian Foredeep in the
Kraków and Ivano-Frankivs’k area (Figs 3, 4, 19). More -
over, in the case of oil-source rock cor re la tion, the pos si bil -
ity of hy dro car bon mi gra tion from the Menilite Shales of
the flysch se quence of the Outer Carpathians to the base -
502 M. J. KOTARBA ET AL.
Fig. 16. Con tour map of me dian val ues of to tal or ganic car bon
(TOC) con tent of the Up per Ju ras sic source rocks in the area be -
tween Lubaczów and Kalush towns. Lith. – Lith u a nia
Fig. 17. Con tour map of me dian val ues of hy dro gen in dex (HI)
of the Up per Ju ras sic source rocks in the area be tween Lubaczów
and Kalush towns. Lith. – Lith u a nia
ment was con sid ered. The entire study re gion was di vided
into seven zones around the dis cov ered oil and/or con den -
sate de pos its for the de tailed de ter mi na tion of ge netic oil –
source rock cor re la tion (Fig. 19).
Grobla-P³awowice zone (A)
In the Grobla-P³awowice zone (A), five oil and five nat -
u ral gas sam ples from Grobla and two oil sam ples from
P³awowice de pos its were col lected and ana lysed (Kotarba,
in press; Wiêc³aw, 2011).
The sta ble car bon iso tope com po si tion of sat u rated and
ar o matic hy dro car bons in di cates the pres ence of one fam ily
of oils and its ge netic cor re la tion with bi tu men ex tracted
from Si lu rian and De vo nian strata (Fig. 20A). Also, some
lev els of the Menilite Shales from the Dukla and Silesian
units of the Outer Carpathians cor re late with ana lysed oils
(Fig. 20A), though the re sults of other (Rock-Eval, biomar-
kers, ar o matic hy dro car bons) anal y ses (Wiêc³aw, 2002) re -
veal that their ma tu rity is too low for gen er a tion of oils.
Curtis et al. (2004) re corded a dif fer ent sta ble car bon iso -
tope com po si tion for oils from Grobla de posit and oils gen -
er ated from the Menilite Shales dur ing hy drous py rol y sis
(HP) ex per i ments. These facts and high H2S con tent in the
gas ac com pa ny ing oil in the Grobla-P³awowice de posit
(Kotarba, in press) sug gest the gen er a tion from or ganic
matter in the car bon ates, which do not oc cur in the Palaeo-
gene flysch sec tion of the Outer Carpathians. Thus, the idea
of ge netic con nec tion of oils from Grobla and P³awowice
de pos its with the Oligocene Menilite Shales (ten Ha ven et
al., 1993) must be re jected. The cor re la tion with Ju ras sic or -
ganic-rich rocks in the Outer Carpathian flysch and car bon -
ates (Mikulov Marls) of the Carpathian fore land (Golonka
et al., 2009) was not stud ied yet. The biomarker and ar o -
matic hy dro car bons data sup port cor re la tion of the Si lu rian
and De vo nian source rocks with ana lysed oils (Figs 21A,
22A). The lack of cor re la tion be tween oils (Fig. 22A) and
one De vo nian rock sam ple is a re sult of its low ma tu rity.
How ever, De vo nian sam ples from Grobla showed ma tu ri -
ties cor re spond ing to the final phase of the “oil window”
(Wiêc³aw et al., 2011).
Mo lec u lar and iso to pic com po si tions of nat u ral gases
as so ci ated with oils from the Grobla de posit show that they
were gen er ated from Type-II kerogen with sig nif i cant com -
po nent of Type-III kerogen, the ma tu rity of which is about
1.3% in vitrinite reflectance scale (Kotarba & Jawor, 1993;
Kotarba, in press). These gases lack the mi cro bial com po -
nent (Kotarba, in press) and the data sug gest a Devonian
source.
£¹kta-Tarnów zone (B)
In the £¹kta-Tarnów zone (B), nine oils and con den -
sates and six gas sam ples were col lected and ana lysed.
The sta ble car bon iso tope com po si tion of sat u rated and
ar o matic hy dro car bons of oils shows the pres ence of two oil
fam i lies (Fig. 20B). One oil fam ily, en riched in 13C iso tope,
con sists of £¹kta-27 (Lk-27) con den sate and Tarnów-47
(Ta-47) oil and the sec ond fam ily con sti tute all the re main -
ing oils and con den sates (Fig. 20B). Oils from the first fam -
ily cor re late very well with the Mid dle Ju ras sic strata from
the base ment and Oligocene Menilite Shales from the Dukla
and Silesian units (Fig. 21B). The ge netic cor re la tion based
on C27, C28 and C29 reg u lar aaa steranes of oils from the
sec ond fam ily and bi tu men ex tracted from Si lu rian strata is
vis i ble (Fig. 21B). Also some lev els of the Menilite Shales
from the Dukla Unit cor re late with these oils (Fig. 21B), but
the ma tu rity of those rocks is too low for gen er a tion of oils
(Wiêc³aw, 2002). The geo chem i cal data char ac ter iz ing the
Up per Palaeozoic strata in this zone are lim ited, but Dudek
et al. (2003) and Wiêc³aw et al. (2011) showed enough or -
ganic mat ter in lev els in the De vo nian and Lower Carboni-
ferous strata and we can not ex clude these as source rocks.
The most prob a ble source rock for the other oils are the
Si lu rian strata (Figs 20B, 21B). The vis i ble dif fer ences in
MDR val ues of oils and bi tu men (Fig. 22B) are prob a bly
caused by oil migration.
Mo lec u lar and iso to pic com po si tions of nat u ral gases
from £¹kta-Leszczyna, Wierzchos³awice, Rylowa, and Tar-
nów de pos its in di cate that they are gen er ated from Type-II
kerogen with sig nif i cant com po nent of Type-III kerogen.
PE TRO LEUM SYS TEMS IN THE PALAEOZOIC–ME SO ZOIC BASE MENT 503
Fig. 18. Con tour map of val ues of reflectance of vitrinite-like
macerals (Ro) at the bot tom of the Up per Ju ras sic strata in the area
be tween Lubaczów and Kalush towns. Lith. – Lith u a nia
Their ma tu rity from vitrinite reflectance is about 1.3%
(Kotarba & Jawor, 1993; Kotarba, in press). Nat u ral gas
from £apanów ac cu mu la tion has a sig nif i cant thermogenic
com po nent, but also in cludes a mi cro bial or i gin com po nent.
These data sug gest that Mid dle Ju ras sic and prob a bly De vo -
nian kerogens are their source (Kotarba, in press). Mo lec u -
lar and iso to pic com po si tions of nat u ral gas from Brzezo-
wiec ac cu mu la tion in di cate that it was gen er ated in the auto-
chthonous Mio cene strata and mi grated to a Cenomanian
trap (Kotarba & Jawor, 1993; Kotarba & Koltun, 2006).
Jastrz¹bka Stara-Partynia Podborze zone (C)
In the Jastrz¹bka Stara-Partynia Podborze zone (C),
three oil and six gas sam ples from D¹browa Tarnowska, Ja-
strz¹bka Stara, Partynia-Podborze, Smêgorzów and ¯uko-
wice de pos its (Figs 3A, 19) were ana lysed (Figs 20–22).
The Si lu rian, De vo nian, Car bon if er ous and Ju ras sic source
rocks also were ex am ined (Figs 20–22).
The sta ble car bon iso tope com po si tion of sat u rated and
ar o matic hy dro car bons of oils proves the pres ence of one oil
fam ily (Fig. 20C), where dis tri bu tion of reg u lar aaa stera-
nes show lit tle dif fer ences be tween the oil of Jastrz¹bka
Stara de posit and the re main ing oils (Fig. 21C). The di rect
isotopic cor re la tion of oils and bi tu men dem on strate a ge -
netic re la tion of oils with Menilite Shales from the Silesian
Unit (Fig. 20C) in Dwernik-3 (Dw-3) sec tion near the
Ukrai nian bor der (Fig. 19). Con sid er ing the 100 km dis -
tance be tween this rock and oil de pos its we be lieve that oil
mi gra tion is rather im pos si ble. A good iso to pic and
biomarker cor re la tion be tween oils and the Mid dle Ju ras sic
strata is ob served (Figs 20C, 21C), which ne gates a Menilite
Shales re la tion. The or ganic mat ter in these rocks is im ma -
ture and could not gen er ated the ana lysed oils (Fig. 22C).
Biomarker and methyldibenzotiophenes data also re veal
probable sour cing of oils from the De vo nian rocks (Figs
21C, 22C). All data and high sul phur con tent in oils (Wiêc-
³aw, 2011) in di cate that the Mid dle and Up per De vo nian
and Lower Car bon if er ous car bon ates are the most prob a ble
source rock for these oils. Also, a Si lu rian source could not
be ex cluded (Figs 21C, 22C). Some dif fer ences in d13C val -
ues of sat u rated and ar o matic hy dro car bons of oils and bi tu -
mens (Fig. 20C) may be an ef fect of ma tu rity, as dem on -
strated by Curtis et al. (2004) from hy drous py rol y sis ex per -
i ments made on sam ples from the Oligocene Menilite
Shales. Dur ing trans for ma tion, or ganic mat ter gen er ates oil
en riched in 13C and gas is de pleted in this iso tope (e.g.,
Lewan, 1983). The pres ence in oils of oleanane re ported by
ten Ha ven et al. (1993) and Curtis et al. (2004) is prob a bly
caused by its elu tion and other biomarkers orig i nated from
an gio sperms by mi grat ing oil through the Cre ta ceous strata.
504 M. J. KOTARBA ET AL.
Fig. 19. Sketch map of lo ca tion of zones se lected for oil – gas – source rock cor re la tion and mod el ling of pe tro leum pro cesses in the
Palaeozoic–Me so zoic base ment of the Pol ish and Ukrai nian parts of the Carpathian Foredeep. Zones: (A) Grobla-P³awowice, (B)
£¹kta-Tarnów, (C) Jastrz¹bka Stara-Partynia Podborze, (D) Pilzno-Rzeszów: (D1) Pilzno-Bêdzienica, (D2) Bêdzienica-Rzeszów, (E)
Lubaczów-Orkhovychi, (F) Kokhanivka-Boryslav and (G) Letisivka–Bytkiv. Codes of wells: Dw-3 – Dwernik-3, Oh-2 – Orkhovychi-2,
Ok-1 – Opaka-1, Kh-26 – Kokhanivka-26, VB-31 – Vola Blazhivska-31, Zz-2 – Za³azie-2
PE TRO LEUM SYS TEMS IN THE PALAEOZOIC–ME SO ZOIC BASE MENT 505
Fig. 20. d13C (ar o matic hy dro car bons) ver sus d13C (sat u rated hy dro car bons) in oils and bi tu mens in ar eas A to G se lected for oil–source
rock cor re la tion in the Palaeozoic–Me so zoic base ment of the Pol ish and Ukrai nian parts of the Carpathian Foredeep and the Oligocene
Menilite Shales of the Outer Carpathians. Ge netic fields af ter Sofer (1984). Ex pla na tion of sam ple codes – see Wiêc³aw (2011) and
Wiêc³aw et al. (2011c)
Mo lec u lar and iso to pic com po si tions of nat u ral gases
from the D¹browa Tarnowska, Jastrz¹bka Stara, Smêgo-
rzów and ¯ukowice de pos its in di cate that these gases in -
clude both thermogenic and mi cro bial com po nents (Ko-
tarba & Jawor, 1993; Kotarba, in press) with the mi cro bial
com po nent be ing dom i nant (about 60–70%). The thermo-
genic com po nent is from Type-III kerogen, with in sig nif i -
cant com po nent of Type-II kerogen on ma tu rity 1.1–2.0%
in vitrinite reflectance scale. These data sug gest that most
prob a bly the Lower Car bon if er ous and also De vo nian kero-
gens are the source of these gases (Kotarba, in press).
Pilzno-Rzeszów zone (D)
In the Pilzno-Rzeszów zone (D), eleven oil and con den -
sate sam ples and eleven gas sam ples from Brzezówka,
Korzeniów, Góra Ropczycka, Zagorzyce (Up per Ju ras sic),
Cierpisz and Pilzno (Mio cene), Nosówka (Lower Car bon if -
er ous), Trzebownisko and Zalesie ac cu mu la tions (De vo -
nian) and oil from the in flow of Pilzno-12 well were ana -
lysed (Figs 3A, 19). The Or do vi cian, Si lu rian, Lower Car -
bon if er ous and Mid dle Ju ras sic source rocks also were
examined (Figs 20–22).
The col lected oils ap pear to be de rived from three fam i -
lies: (i) Nosówka de posit (Na-1 and Na-2 wells), (ii) Pilzno
and Cierpisz de pos its (Pi-37 and Ci-3 wells) of the Mio cene
res er voir, and (iii) the re main ing oils from Brzezówka, Góra
Ropczycka, Trzebownisko and Zagorzyce de pos its (Fig.
20D). The last two fam i lies have very sim i lar iso to pic char -
ac ter is tics. Dis tri bu tion of reg u lar aaa steranes in di cate
only two oil fam i lies (Fig. 21D) be cause no biomarkers
were re corded in the Mio cene con den sates (Wiêc³aw,
2011). Biomarker and ar o matic hy dro car bon in di ces re veal
a change able ma tu rity of the ana lysed oils (Fig. 22D). The
con den sate col lected from the Góra Ropczycka de posit
(GRp-1 well) is less ma ture than oil from the Brzezówka de -
posit (Bw-24 well). The iso tope and biomarker com po si -
tions of oils from the Nosówka de posit di rectly cor re late
with bi tu men from Or do vi cian and Si lu rian rocks (Figs
20D, 21D). The sta ble iso tope com po si tion of the Mio cene
con den sates from the Cierpisz and Pilzno de pos its is the
506 M. J. KOTARBA ET AL.
Fig. 21. Ter nary di a grams of C27, C28 and C29 reg u lar aaa steranes in bi tu mens and oils for oil–source rock cor re la tion in ar eas (A to
G) of the Palaeozoic–Me so zoic base ment of the Pol ish and Ukrai nian parts of the Carpathian Foredeep and the Oligocene Menilite Shales
of the Outer Carpathians
PE TRO LEUM SYS TEMS IN THE PALAEOZOIC–ME SO ZOIC BASE MENT 507
Fig. 22. Methyldibenzotiofene ra tio (MDR) ver sus S/(S+R) ra tio for C31 homohopane in bi tu mens and oils in ar eas A to G se lected for
oil–source rock cor re la tion in the Palaeozoic–Me so zoic base ment of the Pol ish and Ukrai nian parts of the Carpathian Foredeep and the
Oligocene Menilite Shales of the Outer Carpathians. Ex pla na tion of sam ple codes – see Wiêc³aw (2011)
same as in bi tu men ex tracted from these strata pre sented by
Kotarba et al. (2005b) iden ti fy ing their ge netic cor re la tion.
The re main ing oils cor re late best with the Menilite Shales
from the Skole, Silesian and Boryslav-Pokuttya units (Fig.
20D). Be sides the above mentioned Menilite Shales there is
a good iso to pic cor re la tion be tween oils and the lo cal lev els
of Car bon if er ous and Ju ras sic strata (Fig. 20D), al though
or ganic mat ter in these rock is im ma ture for oil gen er a tion
(Fig. 22D). Biomarker and methyldibenzotiophenes data
also sug gest prob a ble sour cing of oils from the Or do vi cian
and Si lu rian rocks (Figs 21D, 22D). Tak ing into con sid er -
ation all pre sented data and the fact that these oils are gen er -
ally high-sul phur ones (Wiêc³aw, 2011), the Lower Car bon -
if er ous car bon ates are most prob a ble source rocks for these
oils. Also, sour cing from the Or do vi cian and De vo nian car -
bon ates and mix ing with the Up per Ju ras sic and also Mio -
cene bi tu men can not be ex cluded (Figs 21C, 22C). Some
dif fer ences in d13C val ues for sat u rated hy dro car bons and
aromatics of oils and bi tu men (Fig. 20C) may be an ef fect of
ma tu rity, mi gra tion and mix ing. The oleanane pres ence in
oils re ported by ten Ha ven et al. (1993) and Curtis et al.
(2004) is prob a bly caused by elu tion of an gio sperm bio-
mark ers by oil mi grat ing through the Cre ta ceous and prob a -
bly also Mio cene strata, seal ing the de pos its from the top.
Mo lec u lar and iso to pic com po si tions of nat u ral gases
from the Nosówka and Trzebownisko de posit re veal that
they are gen er ated from Type-II kerogen on ma tu rity about
1.1–1.2% in vitrinite reflectance scale (Kotarba & Jawor,
1993; Kotarba et al., 2004a; Kotarba, in press). The gases
from the Trzebownisko de posit con tain sig nif i cant mi cro -
bial com po nent. These data sug gest that most prob a bly Or -
do vi cian–Si lu rian kerogen is the source of these gases. The
thermogenic gases from the Brzezówka, Góra Ropczycka,
Korzeniów, Zalesie and Zagorzyce ac cu mu la tions are gen -
er ated from Type-II kerogen with an ad mix ture of Type-III
kerogen on ma tu rity about 1.0–1.6 % in vitrinite reflectance
scale (Kotarba, in press). These data sug gest, that most pro-
bably, Lower Car bon if er ous kerogen is source of these
gases (Kotarba, in press).
Lubaczów-Orkhovychi zone (E)
In the Lubaczów-Orkhovichi zone (E), five oil and two
gas sam ples were ana lysed from the Lubaczów, Kokha-
nivka and Orkhovychi de pos its and oil from the in flows of
the Opaka-1 (Ok-1) and Za³azie-2 (Zz-2) wells (Figs 3A,
19). The Cam brian, Or do vi cian, Si lu rian, Ju ras sic and Mio -
cene source rocks were ana lysed as well (Figs 20–22).
The sta ble car bon iso tope com po si tion of sat u rated and
ar o matic hy dro car bons of oils ev i dences the pres ence of
two sep a rate oil fam i lies (Fig. 20E). One of them, en riched
in 13C iso tope, con sists of Za³azie-2 (Zz-2) oil, and the sec -
ond one com prises all the re main ing oils (Fig. 20E). Oil
from the first fam ily cor re lates very well with the Ju ras sic
and Mio cene strata (Fig. 20E). Be cause the Za³azie-2 well is
lo cated in the Lower San Horst Struc ture (Fig. 19), where
the autochthonous Mio cene strata lie di rectly on the Cam -
brian or Pre cam brian rocks (Bu³a & Habryn, 2011), the ana -
lysed oil could not be gen er ated from the Ju ras sic source
rocks. Biomarker and ar o matic hy dro car bons in di ces re veal
high ma tu rity of that oil (Fig. 22E). The only ex pla na tion of
or i gin of this oil is its sour cing from the Cam brian rocks.
The dif fer ences in the sta ble car bon iso tope com po si tion of
oil and bi tu men ex tracted from the Cam brian strata (Fig.
20E) are a re sult of high ma tu rity of the ana lysed oil (Fig.
22E). The ge netic cor re la tion of oils from the sec ond fam ily
and bi tu men ex tracted from the Cam brian, Or do vi cian, Si -
lu rian and some lev els of Ju ras sic strata is vis i ble (Fig.
20E). These oils are heavy, high-sul phur ones. They were
gen er ated from high-sul phur or ganic mat ter (kerogen Type-
IIS) de pos ited in car bon ates (Wiêc³aw, 2011; Wiêc³aw et
al., in press, b). From the above men tioned strata only Type-
IIS kerogen was re ported in the Up per Ju ras sic car bon ates
(Kosakowski et al., in press, d), hence, these strata are con-
sidered as the source rock for the discussed heavy oils.
In one block of the Lubaczów de posit (sam ple Lu-22)
and in the Orkhovychi de posit (sam ple Oh-2), the mi cro bial
meth ane pre vails which was gen er ated by car bon di ox ide re -
duc tion pro cess. This mi cro bial meth ane mi grated from the
autochthonous Mio cene strata to the Up per Ju ras sic res er voir
of the Lubaczów de posit and the Up per Ju ras sic–Lower Ba-
denian Sandy-Cal car e ous Se ries res er voir of the Orkhovychi
de posit (Kotarba, 2011; Kotarba & Koltun, 2011).
Kokhanivka-Boryslav zone (F)
In the Kokhanivka-Boryslav zone (F), four teen oil sam -
ples were ana lysed from the Kokhanivka (Kh) and Orkho-
vichi (Oh) de pos its from the base ment of the Carpathian
Foredeep, Blazhiv (Bh), Nova Shidnytsya (NS), Oriv (Or),
Pivdenno Stynava (PS), Pivdenny Monastyrets (PM), Uly-
chno (Ul), Vola Blazhivska (VB) and Stary Sambir (SS)
depos its from Boryslav-Pokuttya Unit, and Zvorivska (Zv),
Vovchenska (Vv), Nova Shidnytsya (NS) and Verchnyo
Maslovetska (VM) de pos its from the Skiba Unit (Figs 3B, 19).
More over, four gas sam ples were ana lysed in this zone
from the Letnia, Rudky and Vereshchytsia ac cu mu la tions
(Fig. 3B). The or i gin of gas from the Orkhovychi ac cu mu la -
tion was con sid ered in pre vi ous chap ter (E zone). In this
zone, the source rocks from Ju ras sic and Cre ta ceous strata
of the base ment of the Carpathian Foredeep and the Outer
Carpathians, and Oligocene Menilite Shales from the Bory-
slav-Pokuttya and Skiba (Skole) units were ana lysed (Figs
20–22).
The sta ble car bon iso tope com po si tion of sat u rated and
ar o matic hy dro car bons of oils in di cates the pres ence of two
oil fam i lies (Fig. 20F). One of them, de pleted in 13C iso -
tope, con sists of the Kokhanivka-26 (Kh-26), Orkhovichi-2
(Oh-2) and Vola Blazhivska-31 (VB-31) oils and the sec -
ond fam ily is formed by all the re main ing oils (Fig. 20F).
The oil from the first fam ily cor re lates very well with the se -
lected lev els of the Ju ras sic strata (Fig. 20F). Also, sterane
com po si tion ev i dences cor re la tion of these oils with the Ju -
ras sic source rocks. It is worth men tion ing that oil from the
Vola Blazhivska-31 well came from the Boryslav-Pokuttya
Unit, very close to other oils ac cu mu lated in this unit, hav -
ing a dif fer ent sta ble car bon iso tope com po si tion (Wiêc³aw
et al., in press, b). The iso to pic com po si tion of all other oils
ac cu mu lated in the Boryslav-Pokuttya and Skiba (Skole)
units changes in a nar row range in di cat ing that they had one
source. Kotarba et al. (2007) re ported Menilite Shales of the
Boryslav-Pokuttya Unit as the source rock for oils ac cu mu -
508 M. J. KOTARBA ET AL.
lated in the Carpathian units in this zone. Current data
confirm this thesis.
Mo lec u lar and iso to pic com po si tions of nat u ral gases
from the Letnia, Orkhovychi, Rudky and Vereshchytsia de -
pos its re veal that they are gen er ated dur ing mi cro bial pro -
cesses (Kotarba & Koltun, 2011). The mi cro bial gases
(meth ane, eth ane and hy dro gen) gen er ated dur ing mi cro bial
pro cesses within the Mio cene strata have later mi grated to
the Up per Ju ras sic and Up per Cre ta ceous (Cenomanian)
res er voirs of the Me so zoic base ment, and to the bot tom most
Lower Badenian Sandy-Cal car e ous Series reservoirs (Ko-
tarba & Koltun, 2011).
Lytisivska-Bytkiv zone (G)
In the Lytisivska-Bytkiv zone (G), eleven oil sam ples
from the Chechvynska (Cv), Monastyrchany (Mo), Mar-
kova (Ma), Gvizd (Gv) and Bytkiv (By) from Boryslav-
Pokuttya Unit, and Letisivka (Lyt), Vilkhivka (Vi) and
Cherlenska (Ce) de pos its and five gas sam ples from Gvizd,
Monastyrchany, Markova and Starunia (Nadzieja-1 well)
ac cu mu la tions from the Boryslav-Pokuttya Unit were col -
lected and ana lysed (Kotarba et al., 2005a). The Oligocene
Menilite Shales source rocks from the Boryslav-Pokuttya
and Skiba units were also ex am ined (Figs 20–22).
The sta ble car bon iso tope com po si tion of sat u rate and
ar o matic hy dro car bons of oils ev i dences the pres ence of
two oil fam i lies (Fig. 20G). One of them, de pleted in 13C
iso tope, con sists of the Gvizd-200 oil and the sec ond one
com prises the re main ing oils (Fig. 20G). No rocks cor re lat -
ing with the Gvizd-200 oil were sam pled or ana lysed (Fig.
20G). All ana lysed Menilite sam ples cor re late very well
with oils form ing the sec ond fam ily (Fig. 20G). The dis tinct
oil was prob a bly gen er ated from other or ganic fa cies in the
Menilite Shales, or sim i larly to oil col lected from Vola
Blazhivska-31 well, was gen er ated by Me so zoic strata de -
pos ited in the Carpathian base ment. The most prob a ble
source for this oil is the first so lu tion be cause of the oil from
Gvizd-200 has low sul phur con tent and was gen er ated from
or ganic mat ter de pos ited in shales (Kotarba et al., 2005a).
The sterane com po si tion of all oils is sim i lar and ev i dences
cor re la tion of all oils with the Menilite Shales from the
Boryslav-Pokuttya and Skiba (Skole) units (Fig. 21G). Tak -
ing into con sid er ation ma tu rity in di ces (Fig. 22G), a di rect
cor re la tion of oils and the Menilite Shales from the Bory-
slav-Pokuttya Unit is ob served (Fig. 22G). The Menilite
Shales from the Skiba Unit are immature for generation of
liquid hydrocarbons (Fig. 22G).
Gases ac cu mu lated in the Oligocene and Eocene res er -
voirs of the Borislav-Pokuttya Unit were gen er ated dur ing
low-tem per a ture thermogenic pro cesses (“oil win dow”) at a
ma tu rity level 0.7 to 0.9% on the vitrinite reflectance scale
based on the as sump tion that Type-II/III kerogen oc curs in
the Menilite Shales (Kotarba et al., 2005a).
MOD EL LING OF THE PE TRO LEUM
PRO CESSES
Both the 1-D and 2-D mod el ling of pe tro leum pro -
cesses was car ried out in se quences of twenty-seven wells
and along nine cross-sec tions (Kosakowski & Wróbel,
2011; Kosakowski & Wróbel, in press; Kosakowski et al.,
in press b; Wróbel et al., in press; Wróbel et al., 2010). Re -
sults of these mod el lings are dis cussed for the fol low ing de -
pos its: Grobla-P³awowice (A), £¹kta-Tarnów (B), Jastrz¹b-
ka Stara-Partynia Podborze (C), Pilzno-Bêdzienica (D1),
Bêdzienica-Rzeszów (D2) and Lubaczów-Orkhovychi (E)
zones (Fig. 19).
The Grobla-P³awowice zone (A)
Pe tro leum mod el ling in the Grobla zone in di cated that
the De vo nian car bon ates were the best source rocks for hy -
dro car bon gen er a tion (Wróbel, et al., 2010). Ma tu rity of the
De vo nian source rocks reached the late phase of the “oil
win dow”. The ma tu rity of Car bon if er ous source rock did
not ex ceed 1.0% Ro. Gen er a tion of hy dro car bons started in
the late Car bon if er ous, but the main stage took place in the
late Neo gene, dur ing Mio cene de po si tion in the Carpa-
thian Foredeep ba sin of the Ma³opolska Block (Wróbel, et
al., 2010). The max i mum amount of hy dro car bons gen er -
ated from the De vo nian source rocks reached 420 mg/g
TOC (Figs 23A, 24A) whereas the vol ume of gen er ated oil
from the Car bon if er ous source horizon did not exceed 220
mg/g TOC (Fig. 23A).
The pe tro leum ex pul sion pro cess oc curred in the De vo -
nian source rocks only. The high est vol ume of ex pelled hy -
dro car bons was no ticed in the Grobla zone – up to 0.024
m3/m3 rock. The ac cu mu la tion of hy dro car bons in the res er -
voir took place al most ex clu sively in the Mio cene, dur ing
the overthrusting of the Carpathian tec tonic units. Hy dro -
car bons were ex pelled from the Up per Palaeozoic strata and
mi grated to the Up per Ju ras sic and Up per Cre ta ceous struc -
tural and strati graphic traps lo cated in the tec tonic blocks
(Wróbel, et al., 2010). Both the mi gra tion and ac cu mu la tion
pro cesses pro ceeded also dur ing the overthrusting of the
Outer Carpathians. In the Grobla re gion, the Up per Ju ras sic
car bon ates and the Up per Cre ta ceous sand stones were char -
ac ter ized as best res er voirs (Myœliwiec et al., 2006). Ver ti -
cal mi gra tion con nected with a dense fault sys tem moved
the hy dro car bon mass to the Up per Ju ras sic car bon ates and
the Up per Cre ta ceous sand stones. The vol ume of oil ac cu -
mu la tion ranged to 0.45 m3/m3 rock, and the gas ac cu mu la -
tion vol ume did not ex ceed 0.025 m3/m3 rock in the Grobla
field zone (Fig. 25A).
The £¹kta-Tarnów (B) and Jastrz¹bka Stara-Partynia
Podborze zones (C)
In the £¹kta-Partynia Podborze zone, the main source
rocks oc cur in the Si lu rian suc ces sion, where they achieved
ma tu rity in the late phase of the “oil win dow”, sim i larly to
the sec ond ana lysed source rocks in the Car bon if er ous strata
(Kosakowski & Wróbel, 2011; Wróbel, et al., 2010; Wróbel
et al., in press). Hy dro car bon gen er a tion pro cess started in
the early Cre ta ceous, though the main phase of gen er a tion
took place dur ing the Neo gene (Kosakowski & Wróbel,
2011; Wróbel et al., in press). The max i mum amount of
gen er ated oil reached 350 mg/g TOC whereas that of gas
gen er a tion did not ex ceed 100 mg/g TOC (Figs 23B, 24B).
PE TRO LEUM SYS TEMS IN THE PALAEOZOIC–ME SO ZOIC BASE MENT 509
510 M. J. KOTARBA ET AL.
Fig. 23. Amount of gen er ated oil along the I – I’ (A), II – II’ (B), III – III’ (C), IV – IV’ (D), and V – V’ (E) cross-sec tions. Cr3 – Up per
Cre ta ceous, Cr1 – Lower Cre ta ceous, J3 – Up per Ju ras sic, J2 – Mid dle Ju ras sic, T – Tri as sic, C – Car bon if er ous, Ccl – clastic fa cies of the
Car bon if er ous, Ccb – car bon ate fa cies of the Car bon if er ous, D – De vo nian, S – Si lu rian, O – Or do vi cian, Cm – Cam brian. For lo ca tion of
cross-sec tions see Fig. 19. Some of the wells were pro jected on the cross-sec tions; for de tails see Wróbel et al. (in press)
PE TRO LEUM SYS TEMS IN THE PALAEOZOIC–ME SO ZOIC BASE MENT 511
Fig. 24. Amount of gen er ated gas along the I – I’ (A), II – II’ (B), III – III’ (C), IV – IV’ (D), and V – V’ (E) cross-sec tions. For ab bre vi a -
tions see Fig. 23
512 M. J. KOTARBA ET AL.
Fig. 25. The vol ume of oil ac cu mu la tion along the I – I’ (A), II – II’ (B), III – III’ (C), IV – IV’ (D), and V – V’ (E) cross-sec tions. For
ab bre vi a tions see Fig. 23
The ex pul sion oc curred only from the Si lu rian source rock
and its max i mum amounted up to 0.01 m3/m3 rock for oil
and 0.01 m3/m3 rock for gas. The mi gra tion of both the oil
and gas took place dur ing the Mio cene, and trans ferred hy -
dro car bons to the Up per Ju ras sic car bon ates and the Up per
Cre ta ceous sand stones. The ac cu mu la tion of hy dro car bons
in struc tural and strati graphic traps took place in the Neo -
gene dur ing the overthrusting of the Outer Carpathian units
(Wróbel et al., in press). The oil ac cu mu la tion amounted up
to 0.05 m3/m3 rock and the gas ac cu mu la tion vol ume
reached 0.04 m3/m3 rock (Fig. 25B).
The Pilzno-Bêdzienica zone (D1)
In the Pilzno-Bêdzienica zone, the main source rocks
were found within the Or do vi cian and Si lu rian suc ces sions.
The or ganic mat ter at tained ma tu rity in the late phase of the
“oil win dow” (Kosakowski & Wróbel, 2011). Hy dro car bon
gen er a tion took place mainly dur ing the late Ju ras sic and the
early Cre ta ceous (Kosakowski & Wróbel, 2011; Wróbel et
al., in press). Max i mum amount of gen er ated oil reached 350
mg/g TOC and gas gen er a tion did not ex ceed 200 mg/g TOC
(Figs 23C, 24C). The ex pul sion oc curred only from the Up -
per Palaeozoic source rocks and its max i mum amounted up
to 0.04 m3/m3 rock for oil and 0.01 m3/m3 rock for gas. The
mi gra tion of oil and gas took place dur ing the Mio cene, when
hy dro car bons have trav elled to the Up per Ju ras sic car bon ates
and sand stones. Ac cu mu la tion of hy dro car bons in struc tural
and strati graphic traps co in cided with the overthrusting of the
Outer Carpathian flysch units (Wróbel et al., in press). The
amount of oil ac cu mu la tion ranged from 0.05 to 0.25 m3/m3
rock, and the gas ac cu mu la tion vol ume did not ex ceed 0.05
m3/m3 rock (Fig. 25C).
The Bêdzienica-Rzeszów zone (D2)
Like in the Pilzno-Bêdzienica zone, in the Bêdzienica-
Rzeszów zone the main source rocks are lo cated within the
Or do vi cian and Si lu rian for ma tions (Kosakowski & Wró-
bel, 2011). The pe tro leum pro cesses had two sig nif i cant pe -
ri ods of de vel op ment: the Ju ras sic and the Neo gene. In the
north-east ern part of this zone, the ana lysed source rocks
have al ready at tained higher ma tu rity in the Ju ras sic, while
in the south-east ern part their ma tu rity in the main phase of
the “oil win dow” was reached at the end of the Neogene
(Kosakowski & Wróbel, 2011; Wróbel et al., in press). Hy -
dro car bon gen er a tion took place in both the Or do vi cian and
the Si lu rian source rocks, and reached av er age val ues of
350 mg/g TOC of oil and 70 mg/g TOC of gas (Figs 23D,
24D). Hy dro car bons were ex pelled al most ex clu sively from
the Or do vi cian and Si lu rian source ho ri zons. The oil ex pul -
sion did not ex ceed 0.012 m3/m3 rock and the gas ex pul sion
was about 0.004 m3/m3 rock. It is worth not ing that in the
Hermanowa area ex pul sion was ab sent. Hy dro car bons were
ac cu mu lated in the Car bon if er ous car bon ate fa cies to which
mi gra tion took place dur ing the overthrusting of the Outer
Carpathian units (Wróbel et al., in press). The vol ume of ac -
cu mu lated oil and gas did not ex ceed 0.2 m3/m3 rock (Fig.
25D).
The Lubaczów-Orkhovychi zone (E)
In the Lubaczów-Orkhovychi zone, the Cam brian, Or -
do vi cian, Si lu rian and Mid dle Ju ras sic source rocks were
tested in the pe tro leum mod el ling. The pe tro leum pro cesses
were no ticed in two pe ri ods. The first pe riod lasted from the
end of the De vo nian till the end of the early Car bon if er ous,
and the sec ond one took place in the late Ju ras sic (Kosa-
kowski et al., in press, b). The Lower Palaeozoic source
rocks reached the full range of the “oil win dow”, and lo -
cally, even the “gas win dow” in the early Car bon if er ous.
The trans for ma tion ra tio of Cam brian kerogen var ies from
30 to 100%. The high est trans for ma tion ra tio was at tained
in the £ysogóry-Radom Block (Kosakowski et al., in press,
b). For the Or do vi cian and Si lu rian source rock, trans for ma -
tion reached 80% only in the cen tral part of the study area,
whereas in the north ern and south ern parts it was be low
40% (Kosakowski et al., in press, b). The high est oil and
gas gen er a tion ra tios were also no ticed in the £ysogóry-
Radom Block, and the max i mum amount of gen er ated hy -
dro car bons var ied from 60 m/g TOC for Si lu rian source
rocks to about 400 mg/g TOC for Cambrian and Ordovician
source rocks (Figs 23E, 24E).
The ma tu rity of the Mid dle Ju ras sic source rocks did
not ex ceed 0.7% Ro (Kosakowski et al., 2011). The max i -
mum trans for ma tion ra tio reached 50% and the amount of
gen er ated oil and gas did not ex ceed 70 mg/g TOC. The in -
crease of ma tu rity and in ten sity of gen er a tion pro cess took
place dur ing the late Ju ras sic (Kosakowski et al., 2011).
In the Ukrai nian part of the study area, the re sults of
geo chem i cal anal y ses re vealed that the Up per Ju ras sic strata
have met the cri te ria for source rocks (Kosakowski et al.,
2011). The source rock ho ri zons were found in, e.g., the
Korolyn-6, Mosty-2 and Voloshcha-1 wells (Fig. 19). The
ma tu rity of or ganic mat ter in the Up per Ju ras sic strata was
sim i lar to that in the Mid dle Ju ras sic suc ces sion. The Up per
Ju ras sic source rocks lo cally ex ceeded 10% trans for ma tion
ra tio (Kosakowski et al., 2011). The Up per Ju ras sic source
rocks reached sim i lar gen er a tion lev els as the Mid dle Ju ras -
sic ones. The av er age amount of hy dro car bons gen er ated
from the Up per Ju ras sic source rocks was 100 mg HC/g
TOC, with max i mum ex pul sion of 30% (Kosakowski et al.,
2011).
The ex pul sion from all the mod elled source rocks was
low and ap peared only lo cally in the £ysogóry-Radom
Block (Kosakowski et al., 2011). In most of the mod elled
source rocks, the ex pul sion thresh old was not ex ceeded and
the hy dro car bons re mained within the source rocks. Thus,
ac cu mu la tion of hy dro car bons should be treated as sat u ra -
tion of the source ho ri zons with gen er ated but not ex pelled
hy dro car bons. The hy dro car bon sat u ra tion was ob served in
both the Up per Palaeozoic and Mid dle Ju ras sic source rocks
(Kosakowski et al., in press, b). The vol ume of to tal oil and
gas sat u ra tion did not ex ceed 0.01 m3/m3 rock in both the
Cam brian and Or do vi cian strata; in the Si lu rian it amounted
up to 0.0012 m3/m3 rock and in the Mid dle Ju ras sic it
ranged from 0.0008 to 0.0025 m3/m3 rock (Fig. 25E).
PE TRO LEUM SYS TEMS IN THE PALAEOZOIC–ME SO ZOIC BASE MENT 513
PE TRO LEUM SYS TEMS
The pe tro leum sys tem is in use world wide for oil and
gas ex plo ra tion (e.g., Magoon & Dow, 1994; Biteau & Per-
rodon, 2003). With re gard to dif fer en ti a tions of geo log i cal
set tings, el e ments (source, res er voir, seal and over bur den
rocks) and course of pro cesses (gen er a tion, ex pul sion, mi -
gra tion and ac cu mu la tion of hy dro car bons, and trap for ma -
tion), two sep a rate events charts for: (i) the Palaeozoic–Me -
so zoic pe tro leum sys tem of the west ern part of the Ma³o-
polska Block (Figs 1, 26), and (ii) the Palaeozoic–Me so zoic
pe tro leum sys tem of the east ern part of the Ma³opolska
Block and west ern part of the Kokhanivka Zone (SE Poland
– western Ukraine) (Figs 1, 27) were prepared.
The pe tro leum sys tem and hy dro car bon gen er a tion and
ex pul sion ar eas were es tab lished based on all re sults of geo -
chem i cal anal y ses of source rocks, oil and gas as well as
source rock – oil – gas cor re la tions, one- and two-di men -
sional mod el ling of pe tro leum pro cesses and anal y ses of
geo log i cal, res er voir and seal ing con di tions. Pe tro leum sys -
tem in the Pol ish Outer Carpathians was worked out by
Leœniak et al. (2010).
Palaeozoic–Me so zoic pe tro leum sys tem of the west ern
part of the Ma³opolska Block
In the Palaeozoic–Me so zoic pe tro leum sys tem of the
west ern part of the base ment of the Carpathian Foredeep
(re gion be tween Kraków and Rzeszów; Figs 1, 3, 19) five
ho ri zons of source rocks – the Or do vi cian, Si lu rian, car bon -
ate Up per De vo nian–Lower Car bon if er ous, clastic Lower
Car bon if er ous and Mid dle Ju ras sic, were de fined based on
geo chem i cal stud ies. Their geo chem i cal char ac ter is tics and
pe tro leum po ten tial were widely de scribed by Kosakowski
et al. (in press, c) and Wiêc³aw et al. (2011).
The Si lu rian and Mid dle Ju ras sic strata con tained the
best source rock ho ri zons (Fig. 26). The TOC con tent was
up to 6.6 wt% in the Si lu rian claystones and siltstones, and
ranged from few to 17 wt% in the Mid dle Ju ras sic clay-
stones and siltstones (Kosakowski et al., in press, c; Wiêc-
³aw et al., 2011). The TOC con tent of the Or do vi cian car -
bon ates and claystones reached max i mally 2.9 wt%, but the
me dian was be low 0.3 wt%. The De vo nian–Lower Car bon -
if er ous car bon ates and Lower Car bon if er ous clastic com -
plex had much lower quan ti ties of or ganic car bon, but also
in these strata lev els with el e vated TOC con tents were ob -
served (Wiêc³aw et al., 2011).
The lab o ra tory stud ies of res er voir pa ram e ters and in -
ter preted well logs in di cated that the best res er voir rocks in
the study area were the Up per Ju ras sic car bon ates and the
Up per Cre ta ceous sand stones. In the De vo nian–Lower Car -
bon if er ous car bon ates, only lo cally the raise of the res er voir
fea tures and hy dro car bon sat u ra tion of res er voir were found
(Kosakowski et al., in press, a).
The autochthonous Mio cene, cov er ing the Palaeozoic
and Me so zoic strata, played the role of the main seal rock
and si mul ta neously was a very im por tant res er voir rock for
ac cu mu la tions of mi cro bial gases (Kotarba, 2011; Kotarba
et al., 2011). Lo cally, the seal was rep re sented by Turonian
and Santonian strata (Fig. 26).
514 M. J. KOTARBA ET AL.
.62 .giFP ,ene coiM – .cM ,ene goeN – N ,enecogilO – lO ,enecoE – cE ,ene coealaP – lP .kcolB akslopo³aM eht fo trap nr etsew eht fo me tsys mue lor tep cio zo seM–ciozoealaP eht fo trahc tnevE
etaL – L ,el ddiM – M ,ylraE – E ,yra nre tauQ – Q ,ene coilP –
The over bur den rocks de pended on the re gion, be cause
the Me so zoic cover dif fered in its fa cies de vel op ment,
thick ness, pro file com plete ness, and also the struc tural plan
of the Me so zoic de pos its (Fig. 26). The pres ent Me so zoic
sec tion con sists of in com plete strata of the Lower Tri as sic,
Mid dle and Up per Ju ras sic, Lower and Up per Cre ta ceous
(Oszczypko et al., 2006; Krajewski et al., 2011a).
The time of trap for ma tion was prob a bly con nected with
two tec tonic events (Fig. 26). The Variscan tec tonic move -
ments in the study area af fected the De vo nian and Car bon if -
er ous strata, and re sulted in for ma tion of traps mainly in the
De vo nian–Lower Car bon if er ous car bon ates (Bu³a & Habryn,
2011). The Late Cre ta ceous–Early Palaeo cene phase formed
the Up per Ju ras sic, Lower and Up per Cre ta ceous struc tural-
strati graphic traps. The Mio cene ero sional troughs in the ba-
sement, fault zones and big organogenic build ups had the
main in flu ence on the for ma tion of the Me so zoic traps (My-
œliwiec et al., 2006). The overthrusting of the Outer Carpa-
thians also in flu enced the for ma tion of traps.
The gen er a tion pro cess for the Palaeozoic and Me so -
zoic source rocks took place mainly dur ing the Neo gene,
though in the cen tral part of study area the late Palaeozoic
source rocks started the gen er a tion of hy dro car bons in the
late Ju ras sic and lasted to the early Cre ta ceous. The gen er a -
tion pro cess was re newed in the Mio cene time dur ing thrus-
ting of the Outer Carpathian nappes over the autochtho-
nous Mio cene strata and the Palaeozoic–Me so zoic base -
ment. The gen er a tion of hy dro car bons oc curred from all
five source rocks, but the high est one was ob served from the
Or do vi cian and Si lu rian source ho ri zons (Kosakowski &
Wróbel, 2011; Kosakowski & Wróbel, in press; Wróbel et
al., in press).
The ex pul sion pro cesses oc curred al most ex clu sively
from the Or do vi cian and the Si lu rian source rocks (Fig. 26).
This pro cess be gan in the early Cre ta ceous, but the max i -
mum ex pul sion was achieved in the Neo gene (Kosakowski
& Wróbel, 2011; Wróbel et al., in press). The ex pul sion
from the De vo nian and Car bon if er ous source rocks was not
sig nif i cant. In the Ju ras sic source rocks, ex pul sion was ob -
served only in the Ukrai nian part of the east ern part of the
Ma³opolska Block and the west ern part of the Kokhanivka
Zone (Kosakowski et al., 2011).
The mi gra tion pro cess took place dur ing Mio cene and
Plio cene time and was strictly con nected with the fault sys -
tem and the Carpathian Overthrust (Wróbel et al., in press).
The hy dro car bons ex pelled from the Lower Palaeozoic
source rocks mi grated along the fault sur face to the top of
an ti cli nal struc tures and were ac cu mu lated in the De vo -
nian–Lower Car bon if er ous or Up per Ju ras sic–Upper Creta-
ceous strata.
It was found out that the pres er va tion time and crit i cal
mo ment oc curred af ter the for ma tion of the Carpathian
Overthrust.
The above men tioned oil-source rock and gas-source
rock cor re la tions in di cate that the Palaeozoic–Me so zoic pe -
tro leum sys tem of the west ern part of the Carpathian Fore-
deep rep re sents a known pe tro leum sys tem, af ter cri te ria in -
tro duced by Magoon and Dow (1994).
PE TRO LEUM SYS TEMS IN THE PALAEOZOIC–ME SO ZOIC BASE MENT 515
.72 .giF P ,ene coiM – .cM ,ene goeN – N ,enecogilO – lO ,enecoE – cE ,ene coealaP – lP .peederoF naihtapraC eht fo tne mesab eht fo me tsys mue lor tep cio zo seM–ciozoealaP eht fo trahc tnevE
etaL – L ,el ddiM – M ,ylraE – E ,yra nre tauQ – Q ,ene coilP –
Palaeozoic–Me so zoic pe tro leum sys tem of the east ern
part of the Ma³opolska Block and the west ern part of
the Kokhanivka Zone (south-east ern Po land – west ern
Ukraine)
The Palaeozoic–Me so zoic pe tro leum sys tem of the
base ment of the Carpathian Foredeep com prises the Kielce
Fold Belt (Po land) and Kokhanivka Zone (Ukraine), as well
as £ysogóry-Radom Block (Po land) and Rava Rus’ka Zone
(Ukraine) be tween the Krakoviec Fault and the Nowe
Miasto-Radom-Rus’ka Fault (Fig. 1). Four source rocks ho -
ri zons – the Cam brian, Or do vi cian, Si lu rian and Mid dle Ju -
ras sic ones, were de fined there based on the re sults of geo -
chem i cal stud ies (Fig. 27). Their pe tro leum char ac ter is tics
and po ten tial were widely de scribed by Kosakowski et al.
(in press, d) and Wiêc³aw et al. (in press, a).
The Cam brian and Or do vi cian source rocks have a low
TOC con tent be low 1 wt%, and only the TOC con tent for
Si lu rian source rocks reaches up to 2.6 wt% (Wiêc³aw et al.,
in press, a). The Mid dle Ju ras sic source rocks have good
quan ti ta tive sourceness, but it is re duced by low hy dro car -
bon po ten tial, usu ally be low 100 mg HC/g TOC (Kosakow-
ski et al., in press, d). In the Ukrai nian part of the study area,
also the Up per Ju ras sic strata con tained good source rock
ho ri zons (Kosakowski et al., in press, d).
In the study area, the Cam brian, Or do vi cian, Si lu rian,
Mid dle and Up per Ju ras sic strata have res er voir rock ho ri -
zons. Their res er voir prop er ties were pre sented by Karn-
kowski (1999) and Kurovets et al. (2011). The Lower Pala-
eozoic res er voir rocks had weak res er voir fea tures; the po -
ros ity did not ex ceed 10 %. In the Mid dle and Up per Ju ras -
sic strata good res er voir prop er ties were ob served and then
con firmed for the Me so zoic com plex by well logs (Kosa-
kowski et al., in press, a).
The main seal was cre ated by the autochthonous Mio -
cene strata, the thick ness of which could reach even 5,000 m
(Kurovets et al., 2004). Lo cally, the seal was cre ated by the
Up per Ju ras sic car bon ates. The over bur den rocks were also
Mio cene strata, but in the north-east ern side of the Holy
Cross Fault Zone the Up per Ju ras sic and the Cre ta ceous
strata (Krajewski et al., 2011b) were partly present.
The tec tonic move ments in flu enced the trap for ma tion.
Variscan move ments com prised the De vo nian and Lower
Car bon if er ous strata. The Variscan up lift and ero sion took
place dur ing late Car bon if er ous time (Bu³a & Habryn,
2011) and was re spon si ble for the for ma tion and/or de struc -
tion of the Palaeozoic traps . The following up lift and ero -
sion took place af ter Ju ras sic and af ter Cre ta ceous times
(Oszczypko et al., 2006) and caused formation and de struct -
ion of the Me so zoic traps.
The gen er a tion pro cess took place from the end of the
De vo nian to the end of the early Car bon if er ous for the
Lower Palaeozoic source rocks, and dur ing the late Ju ras sic
– early Cre ta ceous for the Mid dle and Up per Ju ras sic source
rocks. A slight, lo cal ex pul sion was ob served for all four
source rocks in the ana lysed area (Kosakowski et al., in
press, b). In sig nif i cant ex pul sion was ob served in the Ju ras -
sic source rocks (Kosakowski et al., 2011). The amount of
hy dro car bons ex pelled from the source rocks even reached
30% of gen er ated hy dro car bons. The ef fect of a small
amount of ex pelled hy dro car bons was the pres ence of only
small ac cu mu la tions, like the Lubaczów-Kokhanivka and
Orkchovychi deposits.
No mi gra tion pro cess was ob served, and the ac cu mu la -
tion was a re sult of sat u ra tion by hy dro car bons gen er ated
from source rocks. The time of sat u ra tion was con cur rent
with the gen er a tion pro cess (Kosakowski et al., in press, b).
The pres er va tion time had a long time in ter val from the
late Car bon if er ous till pres ent, with two crit i cal mo ments.
Crit i cal mo ments were as sumed at the end of the Variscan
in ver sion of the study area and at the end of the late Cre ta -
ceous–early Palaeo cene up lift and ero sion. These two mo -
ments took place at the end of the gen er a tion pro cess. The
lack of the re main ing pe tro leum pro cesses caused that the
pe tro leum sys tem in the study area was al most complete in
these two moments.
The am big u ous pe tro leum-source rocks cor re la tion,
caused by in suf fi cient in for ma tion about the Lower Palaeo-
zoic source rocks in the Ukrai nian part of study area, made
the rec og ni tion of the Palaeozoic–Me so zoic pe tro leum sys -
tem a lit tle more cred i ble. Due to this pe tro leum sys tem of
SE Po land – west ern Ukraine could be dis tin guished as a
hy po thet i cal pe tro leum sys tem af ter cri te ria introduced by
Magoon and Dow (1994).
DE TER MI NA TION OF HY DRO CAR BON
GEN ER A TION AND EX PUL SION AR EAS –
SUM MARY
The com par i son of Palaeozoic–Me so zoic pe tro leum
sys tems re veals that the west ern part of the Ma³opolska
Block has a con sid er ably greater pro spec tive for oil and gas
ex plo ra tion than the east ern part of the Ma³opolska Block
and the west ern part of the Kokhanivka Zone. Based on the
re sults of geo chem i cal anal y ses con ducted for Palaeozoic
(Wiêc³aw et al., 2011; Wiêc³aw et al., in press) and Me so -
zoic (Kosakowski et al., in press, c, d) source rocks, re sults
of 1-D (Kosakowski & Wróbel, 2011; Kosakowski & Wró-
bel, in press; Kosakowski et al., 2011; Kosakowski et al., in
press, b) and 2-D (Kosakowski et al., in press, b; Wróbel et
al., in press) mod el ling of pe tro leum pro cesses, and anal y sis
of pe tro leum sys tems, nine ar eas were es tab lished where
hy dro car bon gen er a tion and ex pul sion pro cesses at the larg -
est scale pro ceeded (Fig. 28). Seven gen er a tion and ex pul -
sion ar eas oc cur in the west ern part of the Ma³opolska Block
and only two ar eas ex ist within the base ment of the Carpa-
thian Foredeep in south-east ern Po land and west ern Ukra-
ine. These ar eas could be a start ing point for determining
prospective zones for petroleum exploration.
I area
This area lies be neath the Carpathian Overthrust at the
bor der of the Up per Silesian and Ma³opolska blocks (Figs 1,
28). The source rock ho ri zons are hosted in the De vo nian
and Car bon if er ous strata. The De vo nian car bon ates are usu -
ally poor in or ganic car bon con tent. Oil-prone kerogen is
mature for gen er a tion of thermogenic hy dro car bons (Ko-
tarba et al., 2001). The Lower Car bon if er ous clastic and
carbonate rocks have change able con tents of early- or mid-
ma ture gas-prone or ganic mat ter. In the Up per Car bon if er -
516 M. J. KOTARBA ET AL.
PE TRO LEUM SYS TEMS IN THE PALAEOZOIC–ME SO ZOIC BASE MENT 517
.82 .giF ni )3 .giF ees( st iso ped sag dna eta sne dnoc-sag ,lio eht dna sa era noi slu pxe dna noi t ar eneg fo noi ta col fo pam hctekS )A( dna hs iloP eht fo tne mesab cio zo seM–ciozoealaP eht )B( iarkU -
– III ,)?( su or ef ino braC rewoL dna nai no veD re ppU-el ddiM – II ,su or ef ino braC re ppU dna rewoL – I :sa era noi slu pxe dna noi t ar eneg ni skcor ecruos niaM .peederoF naihtapraC eht fo strap nain
ai n a uhtiL – .htiL .ci ssa ruJ el ddiM – XI ,ci ssa ruJ re ppU – IIIV ,ci ssa ruJ el ddiM – IIV ,su or ef ino braC rewoL – IV ,nai ru liS dna nai ci vo drO – V ,nai no veD – VI ,nai ru liS dna nai ci vo drO
ous strata, lenses of bi tu mi nous coals were re corded (Ko-
tarba et al., 2004b). Gen er a tion of hy dro car bons started in
the late Car bon if er ous, but the main stage of this pro cess
took place dur ing the overthrusting of the Outer Carpa-
thians on the Up per Silesian Block. The pe tro leum ex pul -
sion pro cess pro ceeded from the De vo nian and Car bon if er -
ous source rocks, but the ex pul sion from the Car bon if er ous
source ho ri zon was re peat edly smaller. The mi gra tion con -
nected with in ten sive fault sys tem moved the ex pelled oil to
the Up per Ju ras sic car bon ates and the Up per Cre ta ceous
sand stones. The ac cu mu la tion of hy dro car bons in the res er -
voir also took place dur ing overthrusting of the Carpathian
nappes in the Mio cene time. Con den sate and gas ac cu mu -
lated in the £¹kta deposit were most probably generated
from Type-III kerogen contained in Carboniferous strata.
II area
The source rock ho ri zons of the II area (Fig. 28) are
hosted in the Mid dle and Up per De vo nian and lo cally in the
Lower Car bon if er ous strata. They are usu ally poor in or -
ganic mat ter con tent, but ho ri zons of el e vated TOC con tents
are re corded. In De vo nian strata oil-prone or ganic mat ter
oc curs and in Car bon if er ous gas-prone one dom i nates. The
ma tu rity of the whole com plex cor re sponds with the mid dle
or fi nal phase of the “oil win dow”. Gen er a tion of hy dro car -
bons from the De vo nian and Lower Car bon if er ous source
rocks started in the late Car bon if er ous, but the main stage of
this pro cess took place in the late Neo gene dur ing the de po si -
tion of the autochthonous Mio cene strata in the Ma³opolska
Block. The pe tro leum ex pul sion pro cess oc curred only from
the De vo nian source rock. Ver ti cal mi gra tion con nected with
in ten sive fault sys tem moved the hy dro car bon mass to the
Up per Ju ras sic car bon ates and the Up per Cre ta ceous sand -
stones. The mi gra tion and ac cu mu la tion pro cesses oc curred
dur ing the overthrusting of the Outer Carpathians. Thermo-
genic liq uid and gas hy dro car bons gen er ated and ex pelled
from the Mid dle and Up per De vo nian source rocks in this
area filled the traps of the Grobla and P³awowice oil de pos its
and the Rajskie and Rylowa gas fields. The Cenomanian trap
of the Brzezowiec de posit was filled up with mi cro bial gas,
which migrated from the autochthonous Mio cene strata.
III area
The Or do vi cian and Si lu rian source rocks in the III area
(Fig. 28) are usu ally rich in TOC. The ma tu rity of the
oil-prone Type-II kerogen pres ent in these strata cor re -
sponds with the mid dle phase of the “oil win dow” and in -
creases in the NW di rec tion. Gen er a tion and ex pul sion of
hy dro car bons from the Si lu rian source rock took place in
the late Car bon if er ous. All pe tro leum pro cesses ended with
the be gin ning of the Variscan tec tonic re build ing. Thermo-
genic liq uid and gas hy dro car bons gen er ated and ex pelled
from the Or do vi cian and Si lu rian source rocks in this area
could have filled up at least partly the traps of the D¹browa
Tarnowska and Grobla oil deposits.
IV area
The De vo nian strata are prob a bly the per spec tive
source rocks in the IV area (Fig. 28). The geo chem i cal char -
ac ter is tic of this level was con ducted only in a re stricted
area in the vi cin ity of Rzeszów (Wiêc³aw et al., 2011;
Matyasik et al., 2004). The pres ent oil-prone Type-II kero-
gen is ma ture for gen er a tion of thermogenic hy dro car bons
(early and mid dle phase of the “oil win dow”). The range of
this per spec tive gen er a tion and ex pul sion area is hy po thet i -
cal and needs ad di tional geo chem i cal stud ies. Prob a bly, hy -
dro car bons gen er ated and ex pelled from the De vo nian
source rocks at least partly filled the traps of all oil deposits
in this area.
V area
The Or do vi cian and Si lu rian strata in the V area (Fig.
28) are rich in or ganic mat ter con tent. The best source rocks
oc cur in the south ern part of the area. Oil-prone kerogen has
high hy dro car bon po ten tial at ma tu rity level cor re spond ing
with the ini tial and mid dle phase of the low-tem per a ture
thermogenic pro cesses (“oil win dow”). The gen er a tion pro -
cess started at the turn of the late Ju ras sic and early Cre ta -
ceous, though the main phase of gen er a tion took place dur -
ing the Neo gene. The ex pul sion oc curred from both the Si -
lu rian and Or do vi cian source rocks. The ex pul sion started
in the Mio cene time. The mi gra tion of oil and gas took place
dur ing the Mio cene, and moved hy dro car bons to the Up per
Ju ras sic car bon ates and the Up per Cre ta ceous sand stones.
The ac cu mu la tion of hy dro car bons in struc tural, an ti cli nal
traps oc curred dur ing the overthrusting of the Outer Carpa-
thians in Mio cene time. Thermogenic liq uid and gas hy dro -
car bons gen er ated and ex pelled from the Or do vi cian and Si -
lu rian source rocks in this area prob a bly filled up the traps
of Nosówka and, at least partly, Jastrz¹bka Stara and Brze-
zówka oil deposits.
VI area
The Lower Car bon if er ous clastic source rocks in the VI
area (Fig. 28) have the TOC con tent of ca. 1 wt%. Low hy -
dro car bon po ten tial usu ally be low 100 mg HC/g TOC ev i -
dences dom i na tion of gas-prone Type-III kerogen. Ma tu rity
of the or ganic mat ter cor re sponds with the mid dle phase of
the “oil win dow”. The pe tro leum pro cesses had two sig nif i -
cant pe ri ods of de vel op ment: the Ju ras sic and the Neo gene.
In the north-east ern part of the VI area, the Lower Car bon if -
er ous source rocks started gen er a tion al ready in the Ju ras -
sic, while in the south-east ern part in the end of the Neo -
gene. The mag ni tude of gen er a tion dif fers over the VI area,
with the big gest in ten sity in Góra Ropczycka-Zagorzyce re -
gion. Ex pul sion was slight and also lo cal in char ac ter. Hy -
dro car bons were ac cu mu lated in the car bon ate strata of the
Car bon if er ous, and the migration took place during over-
thrust ing of the Outer Carpathians.
VII area
The VII area (Fig. 28) rep re sents an ex cep tional place
in the Pol ish part of the Carpathian Foredeep base ment,
where the Mid dle Ju ras sic strata have suf fi cient ma tu rity for
thermogenic hy dro car bons gen er a tion. Also, TOC con tent
is high there, i.e. up to 3.2 wt%, but low hy dro car bon po ten -
tial shows that only gas eous hy dro car bons may be gen er -
ated from these strata. The gen er a tion pro cess from the
Mid dle Ju ras sic source rock took place dur ing the Mio cene
time. The ex pul sion process has not been observed there.
518 M. J. KOTARBA ET AL.
VIII area
The Up per Ju ras sic strata in the VIII area (Fig. 28) have
high or ganic car bon con tents, up to 1.7 wt%. Also, the high -
est hy dro car bon po ten tial, up to 375 mg HC/g TOC, is ob -
served iden ti fy ing the high est share of the oil-prone Type-II
kerogen. The ma tu rity of these strata cor re sponds with tran si -
tion from mi cro bial to low-tem per a ture thermogenic pro -
cesses, though the pres ence of high-re ac tive Type-IIS kero-
gen sug gests that the Up per Ju ras sic source rocks are ca pa ble
of gen er at ing thermogenic oil and gas. The gen er a tion pro -
cess from the Up per Ju ras sic source rock took place from the
end of the late Ju ras sic to the end of the overthrusting of the
Outer Carpathians in the Mio cene. Ex pul sion from this
source rock oc curred at the end of the overthrusting. Thermo-
genic liq uid and gas hy dro car bons gen er ated and ex pelled
from the Up per Ju ras sic source rocks in this area filled up the
traps of the Lubaczów-Kokhanivka and Orkhovychi oil
fields. The Up per Ju ras sic trap of the block of the Lubaczów
de posit (L-22 well) was filled up with mi cro bial gas, which
mi grated from the autochthonous Miocene strata.
IX area
In the Mid dle Ju ras sic strata, the TOC con tent gen er ally
ex ceeds 1 wt% in the IX area (Fig. 28). Hy dro car bon po ten -
tial of dis persed or ganic mat ter is gen er ally low and usu ally
does not ex ceed 100 mg HC/g TOC (Fig. 14) point ing to the
pres ence of gas-prone Type-III kerogen there. Ma tu rity of
or ganic mat ter changes from 0.6 to 0.8% in the vitrinite
reflectance scale, ev i denc ing its ca pa bil ity for gen er a tion of
low-tem per a ture thermogenic hy dro car bons (“oil win -
dow”). The high est ma tu rity was re corded in the most bur -
ied ar eas be low the Carpathian Overthrust. Gen er a tion pro -
cess from the Mid dle Ju ras sic source rocks took place from
the end of the late Ju ras sic to the end of overthrusting of the
Outer Carpathians in Mio cene times. Most of the gen er a tion
pro cess oc curred dur ing the overthrusting. No expulsion
has been ob served since the Middle Jurassic in this area.
Ac knowl edge ments
The re search was un der taken as the pro ject No. UKRAINE/
193/2006 of the Min is try of Sci ence and Higher Ed u ca tion car ried
out at the AGH Uni ver sity of Sci ence and Tech nol ogy in Kraków
and the Pol ish Geo log i cal In sti tute – Na tional Re search In sti tute in
War saw. Sci en tific work was fi nanced from the funds in the years
2007–2010. Pawe³ Karnkowski, Frank Picha and Andrzej Œl¹czka
pro vided very con struc tive re views, which greatly im proved the
dis cus sion and work ing hy poth e ses pre sented in the manu script. We
also thank Mark Pawlewicz of the U. S. Geo log i cal Sur vey in
Denver for im prove ment of Eng lish manu script. Tech ni cal ed i to rial
work by Joanna Gawêda-Skrok, Marek Hajto, Tomasz Kowalski,
Hieronim Zych and Sebastian Ptak from the AGH Uni ver sity of Sci -
ence and Tech nol ogy in Kraków is grate fully ac knowl edged. The au -
thors would like to thank Mr. Andrzej Urbaniec and Ms. Agnieszka
Kowalska-Skulig from the Sanok Branch of Pol ish Oil & Gas Com -
pany for pro vid ing ar chi val in for ma tion about oil and gas de pos its.
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