Content uploaded by Sarfaraz Ul Haq
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Sarfaraz Ul Haq on Jul 15, 2014
Content may be subject to copyright.
Composite fish culture with larvivorous fishes and environmental
interventions for vector control
S. Haq1, R.S. Yadav1, FISCD, FRES, MNASc and A.P. Dash2, FNASc
1National Institute of Malaria Research (ICMR), Field Station, Civil Hospital, Nadiad,
Gujarat. email: sarfaraz_55@rediffmail.com; 2National Institute of Malaria Research, 22
Sham Nath Marg, Delhi.
Key words: Larvivorous fish, composite culture, environmental interventions,
mosquitoes, malaria
Short running title: Bioenvironmental interventions for vector control
Abstract
Following the resurgence of malaria in India in the 1970s, alternative methods of
vector control have been evaluated with a beginning in district Kheda, Gujarat in
1983. The Kheda project used environmental modifications and manipulation,
larvivorous fish through community participation, and promoted social forestry and
other initiatives such as the construction of smokeless chulhas and soakaway pits.
The larvivorous fishes were produced on a large scale in a composite culture with
food fish, which became a source of income for village sanitation. Larvivorous fish
are now being used throughout the country in urban, industrial and selected rural
habitats for control of malaria and dengue vectors. The bioenvironmental vector
control strategy has been found feasible, environmentally appropriate and cost
effective and has led to judicious use of residual insecticides in many settings. More
recently, in urban Ahmedabad the per capita annual operational cost of the
integrated strategy was comparable to routine chemical control making it a better
option.
1
Introduction
Due to development of insecticides resistance in vector species, non-cooperation of
communities in house spraying, certain technical and operational problems, and creation
of innumerable ecological opportunities for mosquitoes, control of mosquito borne
diseases has become difficult in recent years. In many areas, fulminating epidemics of
malaria have been reported. The problem has been further compounded by the emergence
of drug resistance of Plasmodium falciparum. Following a relatively successful malaria
eradication programme, there was resurgence of malaria in India by the mid-1970s.
Failure of the insecticide dependant strategy of control led to a renewed thinking about
indigenous, appropriate, community-based and socially acceptable interventions not
relying entirely on the use of insecticides1. Therefore, an integrated disease vector control
(IDVC) project relying on non-insecticidal methods was conducted in district Kheda,
Gujarat beginning 1983. The project was based on environmental modification and
manipulation coupled with biological control through community participation2,3.
Innovative methods such as use of expanded polystyrene beads were evaluated for vector
control4. Income-generating schemes such as food fish production5 and social forestry
and other supportive measures such as construction of smokeless chulhas, soakaway pits
were also implemented in the villages. The goal of the project was to develop a model of
environmental friendly and cost effective malaria control in rural plains.
After the successful malaria control in Kheda, a Science and Technology project on the
integrated control of malaria was launched in 1985 to demonstrate malaria control in
different eco-epidemiological settings in the country such as in forested areas, irrigation
plains, industrial complexes, urban areas and island. This paper in particular describes
experiences of composite fish culture with larvivorous fishes, and use of larvivorous fish
and environmental methods of vector control involving local communities.
2
Global experiences with larvivorous fish
Exotic larvivorous fishes such as Gambusia affinis, Poecilia reticulata and a few native
species namely Aphanius spp., Oreochromis spp., Funduls spp. and Killi fishes have been
utilized for mosquito control in various habitats throughout the world6. In India, as far
back in 1904, larvivorous fishes were used in Bombay city in the control of malaria
against urban malaria vector, Anopheles stephensi. P. reticulata (Guppy), a native of
South America, and G. affinis (Gambusia), a native of Texas, were imported in India for
control of malaria vectors in 1908 and 1928, respectively. The most widely known
larvivorous fishes are G. affinis and P. reticulata. In early 1980s, WHO listed 34
potential larvivorous fish species7. Of these, eight species have been used in malaria
control programmes, while 26 species are promising in mosquito control requiring further
further evaluations. Fish have been used in various countries- Tilapia zillii in Somalia,
Oreochromis mossambicus and P. reticulata in Pakistan, Carassius auratus in Iran,
Aphanius dispar in Oman and Somalia, Nothobranchius palmquisti and N. guentheri in
Somalia, G. affinis in Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan, Sudan. Gambusia,
was introduced in Hawaii, the Philippines, Japan, Spain, Italy, and Africa. In Somalia, the
idea of use of larvivorous fish against Aedes dates back to the colonial era.
In India, as part of the implementation of an integrated vector control programme since
the mid 1980s, fauna surveys, and laboratory and field evaluations have been done of the
larvivorous fish8,9,10,11.
Composite fish culture- two case studies
Experiments on composite culture of the larvivorous fishes along with food fishes5,12
were carried out, which showed that guppies and Gambusia can be cultured without
causing an adverse effect on the edible fish production, as well as generate income to
the rural communities. Culture of G. affinis with food fishes and P. reticulata was
carried out at Nadiad and Shahjahanpur field stations involving local fish farmers and
village Panchayats. The case studies are discussed below.
3
Nadiad, Gujarat: Poecilia reticulata (Guppy) along with the major carps was used in
mixed cultures in four experimental ponds (Plate 1a,b) in Kheda district 5. An average
annual yield of 847 kg/ha of carps in such ponds was comparable with 839 kg/ha of four
other experimental ponds without guppies and there was no adverse effect on the
population of food fishes due to rearing of guppies with carps.
Shahjhanpur, Uttar Pradesh: Culture of Gambusia affinis along with carps in fish
culture practices in villages ponds in Shahjhanpur district showed very little change in
the fish productivity i.e., 1539 kg/ha in ponds with Gambisia and 1572 kg/ha in ponds
without them12. The growth and survival of Gambusia were found normal in most of the
composite fish culture ponds. Using this technique large-scale production of larvivorous
fishes for vector control could be achieved which helped the community to generate
resources for the developmental activities in experimental villages. These studies
showed that composite fish culture can yield double benefits of food fish production as
well as the control of mosquito propagation in the villages. Culture of larvivorous fishes
G. affinis and P. reticulata at village level is very vital for the successful
implementation of bioenvironmental control of vector borne diseases. This may be done
with the active community participation under the technical guidance of malaria control
agencies.
Operational use of larvivorous fishes
It has been experienced that the use of larvivorous fish for vector control is a simple,
inexpensive, effective and local measure. Following the generation of wealth of
information on this, use of larvivorous fish has been accepted as a selective vector control
method in the Enhanced Malaria Control Projects launched with World Bank financing in
eight states of India since 1997. An independent assessment of the performance of the
larvivorous fish programme as an integrated control measure was carried out in
Ahemadabad city and in rural areas of Nagpur (Maharashtra) and Chhindwara (Madhya
Pradesh) districts during 2003-200413. The assessment included the status of development
of fish resources, introduction of larvivorous fish and maintenance of hatcheries,
4
methodologies adopted for producing fish stocks, transportation and distribution/release,
available infrastructure and manpower and training needs, social acceptance and
community perception. The impact of the larvivorous fishes on the mosquito borne
diseases and the sustainability of the larvivorous fish programme was also assessed. It
was observed that the use of larvivorous fishes in the malaria control programme has
been taken up on operational scale with variable performance levels.
Currently the use of larvivorous fishes is in full swing to cover the entire states of
Gujarat, Maharashtra and Karnataka. In Maharashtra, the bioenvironmental methods have
been spread to cover the entire state through the Primary Health Care system. In Gujarat,
hundreds of fish hatcheries have been established for use in the entire state (Plate 2a) and
training programmes are being organized (Plate 2b) in association with the National
Institute of Malaria Research. Large-scale operational use of larvivorous fish for vector
control remains under exploited at the national level. Larvivorous fishes are an important
components of urban malaria scheme, and there is an urgent need to set up a national
level research and training facility.
Environmental interventions
Environmental interventions for vector control includes environmental modifications and
manipulations which largely refer to application of drainage, filling and levelling,
margining of impoundments, cleaning of marginal and surface vegetations and use
of minor engineering works to bring about changes in the local environment to
prevent or minimizing vector proliferation and non conducive to vector borne
diseases. The first experiment improving drainage for mosquito control in
cantonment area in Lahore in 1905 was not so successful but led to use of such
methods such as shading of streams and installation of sluice valves on streams.
Vector control in rural areas
5
In 1983, seven villages of Nadiad taluka in Kheda, Gujarat were taken up for the
bioenvironmental control of malaria without using insecticides and to develop a
cost- reduction, biological control using larvivorous fishes, health education,
community participation, prompt case detection and treatment, environmental
improvement through social forestry in marsh lands and intersectoral coordination.
The study area was gradually expanded to cover the whole Nadiad and Kapadwanj
talukas covering 700,000 population by 1987. At many places, community came
forward to participate in the activities like source reduction, environmental
modification and manipulation and use of biological control agents. To motivate
the community, economic incentive schemes like edible fish culture in village
ponds and growing eucalyptus and neem saplings were demonstrated. At some
places these lands could be converted into recreation fields in Nadiad3 and
Mandla14. Efforts were made to integrate these activities with vector control into
one holistic approach under the bioenvironmental control strategies demonstrated at
different places in the country (Plate 3a&b).
In subsequent years, this strategy was further tested at other sites in the country namely
Haldwani in District Nainital, Dadraul PHC in District Shahjahanpur, Shankargarh in
District Allahabad and PHCs Kamasamudram in District Kolar and Banavara and
Kanakatte in District Hassan. In Shahjahanpur, G. affinis was extensively used in wells
and ponds which successfully controlled breeding of mosquitoes and proportion of wells
with larvae/pupae reduced from 60-80% to almost nil. In Haldwani, district Nainital, G.
affinis controlled mosquito breeding in ponds very effectively. Larvivorous fish were
used extensively in PHC Kamasamudram, District Kolar and Banavara and Kanakatte,
District Hassan in Karnataka. In these areas wells, tanks and streams are the main
breeding sites of Anopheles culicifacies, the major vector of malaria. A strong focus of
malaria contributing 25% of malaria of the state involving congruent talukas from four
districts of Tumkur, Hassan, Chikmagalur and Chitradurga was identified in 2000. As in
Kamasamudram of Kolar district and Banvara and Kanakette of Hassan district, wells
and tanks were the main breeding sites of An. culicifacies. After a detailed geographical
6
reconnaissance of mosquito breeding habitats, fishes were introduced and malaria
transmission could be curtailed successfully15. Most of the studies have shown that fishes
can play an important role in the control of mosquito breeding and transmission of the
vector borne diseases in planes, industrial and urban areas.
Vector control in urban areas
Bioenvironmental control strategy has been found very useful for urban malaria control.
Goa, Chennai, Delhi, Ahemadabad are some of the examples where the strategy was
tested successfully. In Ahmedabad City, the approach involving environmental
management, biological control, community participation and health services led to a
significant reduction in the densities of malaria and dengue vectors, as compared with the
chemical methods based primarily on insecticide use. Involving the personnel of
horticulture department and managers of some of the textile mills, larvivorous fish
hatcheries were set up in garden pools, ponds, tanks and open fire hydrants in mills. The
Urban Malaria Scheme developed a decentralised fish distribution network by
constructing small-cemented tanks at the ward offices for temporary stocking of fish.
Larvivorous fish (mostly G. affinis, and in polluted waters P. reticulata) were introduced
at the rate of 5-10 fish per m2 of water surface in various habitats such as in open
cemented tanks, cattle troughs, fountain basins, garden tanks, wells, industrial sumps,
open fire hydrants, storm drains, elevator pits with water and other water collections at
construction sites, and rainwater filled basements in mills. Rate of application of fishes is
very important in different habitats. Generally fishes are applied at the rate of 3-5 fishes
per m2 water surface area. In natural conditions, fishes are exposed to a number of
environmental factors and predators, therefore it is always advisable to apply a higher
number of fishes. It gives better survival of fishes and also reduces the chances of
reapplication. Larvivorous fishes were found very effective in controlling the breeding of
malaria and dengue vectors in a variety of habitats (Fig. 1). The per capita annual
operational cost of the integrated strategy comes to Rs. 8.1 (= 0.19 US $; 2000 prices)
compared with Rs. 9.3 (=US$ 0.21) with chemical control. Thus, the integrated strategy
has the scope of reducing the use of insecticides. The integrated control strategy
implemented in Ahmedabad City is evolving as a model in Gujarat.
7
Vector control in industrial areas
The bioenvironmental strategy was evaluated several industrial areas namely the Bharat
Heavy Electrical Limited, Hardwar16, Indian Drugs and Pharmaceuticals Limited,
Rishikesh17 and Indian Oil Corporation refinery in Mathura. The main activities included
filling of borrow pits with fly ash and burnt hard coke ash, construction of soakpits,
application of expanded polystyrene beads in underground tanks, sluice valve chambers
and man-holes, desilting and canalisation, introduction of guppy and Gambusia fishes in
storm drains and large tanks, periodic emptying of domestic containers and supported
with prompt case detection and treatment. The strategy was found feasible, appropriate,
cost effective and resulted in a major reduction in antimalarials and insecticide
consumption in industrial complexes.
Tribal and island areas
The strategy was also evaluated in tribal dominated forested areas of Sonapur (Assam),
Mandla (MP) and Rourkela (Orissa) and in Car Nicobar Island. However, in forested and
hilly areas where breeding places were innumerable and inaccessible in the deep jungles,
the bioenvironmental control strategy was not found feasible to implement. Later use of
untreated and insecticide treated nets was found very effective in reducing the burden of
malaria in such areas18,19,20.
Conclusions
The bioenvironmental vector control strategies tested by National Institute of Malaria
Research has been found feasible, appropriate and cost effective in rural, urban and
industrial complexes and resulted in a major reduction in the use of residual insecticide in
different paradigms. Larvivorous fishes have proved to be a good option in vector
control. However, in forested and hilly areas where breeding places were innumerable
and inaccessible in the deep jungles, the bioenvironmental control strategy was not found
8
feasible. Use of untreated and insecticide treated nets was found very effective in
reducing the burden of malaria in such areas.
The community based vector control needs operational research inputs, collaborations,
proper guidance and technical supervision in different geo-epidemiological situations.
Acknowledgements
Thanks are due to the Indian Council of Medical Research for funding the field
demonstration projects in different parts of the country.
References
1. Sharma VP. Community based malaria control in India. Parasitol. Today, 1987,
3(7): 222-226.
2. Sharma VP, Sharma RC, Gautam AS. Bioenvironmental control of malaria in
Nadiad, Kheda district, Gujarat. Indian J. Malariol., 1986, 23(2): 95-117.
3. Sharma VP, Sharma RC. Community based bioenvironmental control of malaria
in Kheda district, Gujarat. J. Amer. Mosq. Contr. Assoc., 1989; 5(4): 514-521.
4. Sharma RC, Yadav RS, Sharma, VP. Field trials on application of expanded
polystyrene (EPS) beads in mosquito control. Indian J. Malariol., 1985, 22 (2):
107-109.
5. Gupta DK, Sharma RC, Sharma VP. Bioenvironmental control of malaria linked
with edible fish production in Gujarat. Indian J. Malariol.1989, 26: 55-59.
9
6. Gerberich, JB, Laird M. A bibliography of papers relating to the control of
mosquitoes by the use of fish. An annotated bibliography for the years 1901-1966.
FAO Fisheries Tech. 1968, Paper No. 75: 70.
7. WHO. Informal consultation on the use of fish for mosquito control. 1981.
WHO/VBC/82.838 Geneva.
8. Yadav RS, Padhan K, Sharma VP. Fishes of district Sundargarh, Orissa, with
special reference to their potential in mosquito control. Indian J. Malariol., 1992,
29 (4): 225-233.
9. Haq, S. and R.S. Yadav. Fish fauna of district Raigad, Maharashtra with particular
reference to mosquito larvivorous species. Indian J. Malariol., 1997, 34 (4): 213-
216.
10. Haq S, Prasad H, Prasad RN, Sharma T. Availability and utility of local fishes of
Shahjanpur for mosquito control. Indian J. Malariol., 1993, 30: 1-8.
11. Sharma VP, Ghosh A. Larvivorous fishes of inland ecosystem. Malaria Research
Centre. Delhi, 1994.
12. Haq S, Prasad H, Prasad RN. Culture of Gambusia affinis with food fishes. Indian
J. Malariol., 1991, 28: 201-206.
13. Haq S, Yadav RS. Assessment of larvivorous fish programme in Ahemadabad
(Gujarat), Nagpur (Maharashtra) and Chindwada District (Madhay Pradesh).
2002-2003; (Unpublished report).
14. Singh N, Sharma VP, Mishra AK, Singh OP. Bioenvironmental control of
malaria in a tribal area of Mandla District. M.P. India. Indian J. Malariol., 1989;
26: 103-122.
10
15. Ghosh SK, Tiwari SN, Kulshreshtha AK, Sathyanarayan TS, Sampat TRR.
Control of malaria transmission using larvivorous fishes. In trends in Malaria and
Vaccine Research- The Current Indian Scenario. Eds. D. Raghunath and R. Nayak
(Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Ltd., New Delhi), 2002: 154-158.
16. Dua VK, Sharma VP, Sharma SK. Bioenvironmental control of malaria in an
industrial complex at Hardwar (UP), India. J. Amer. Mosq. Contr. Assoc. 1988; 4:
426-430.
17. Dua VK, Sharma SK, Sharma VP. Bioenvironmental control of malaria at the
Indian Drugs and Phamaceuticals Ltd., Rishikesh (UP). Indian J. Malariol. 1991;
28: 227-236.
18. Jana-Kara BR, Jihullah, Shahi B, Vas Dev, Curtis CF, Sharma VP. Deltamethrin
impregnated bed nets against Anopheles minimus transmitted malaria in Assam,
India. J. Trop. Med. Hyg., 1995, 98: 73-83.
19. Sampath TRR, Yadav RS, Sharma VP, Adak T. Evaluation of lambdacyhalothrin
impregnated bednets in a malaria endemic area of India. Part 2. Impact on malaria
vectors. J. Am. Mosq. Control Assoc., 1998, 14(4):437-443.
20. Yadav RS, Sampath TRR, Sharma VP. Deltamethrin treated bednets for control of
malaria transmitted by Anopheles culicifacies (Diptera: Culicidae) in India. J.
Med. Entomol., 2001, 38(5): 613-622.
.
11
12
Legends
Plate 1. Harvesting major carps and larvivorous fishes from a village pond in Nadiad.
Plate 2. (a) A typical hatchery constructed at a PHC in Kheda, Gujarat, (b) imparting field
training on application of larvivorous fish.
Plate 3. (a) Saplings raised for social forestry involving local communities; (b) villagers
participating in manual removal of water hyacinth from a village pond.
Fig. 1. Reduction in the density of mosquito larvae and pupae following application of
larvivorous fish in Ahmedabad City.
13
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Year 2000
Larval & pupal density/dip
UGT OST Fountains Lift pits Wells
Fig. 1.
14