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From childhood to senior professional football: A multi-level approach to elite youth football players’ engagement in football-specific activities
... Players' decision-making skills were assessed based on an objective video-based test -TacticUP® . We used a retrospective questionnaire (Ford, Low, et al., 2010;Haugaasen, Toering, & Jordet, 2014) to collect information about previous participation in different soccer activities. ...
... Reliability and validity of such retrospective methods in general, and the use of similar variables as in the current investigation, have been shown to be acceptable for different cultures (i.e. English, German, Norwegian, and Swiss participants) (Ford, Yates, & Williams, 2010;Gullich, 2014;Haugaasen et al., 2014;Memmert, Baker, & Bertsch, 2010;Sieghartsleitner et al., 2018) including the original version in English of this questionnaire (Ford et al., 2010) and its Norwegian version (Haugaasen et al., 2014). This questionnaire provided information about the engagement in different soccer developmental activities (e.g., participation in soccer practice or play). ...
... Reliability and validity of such retrospective methods in general, and the use of similar variables as in the current investigation, have been shown to be acceptable for different cultures (i.e. English, German, Norwegian, and Swiss participants) (Ford, Yates, & Williams, 2010;Gullich, 2014;Haugaasen et al., 2014;Memmert, Baker, & Bertsch, 2010;Sieghartsleitner et al., 2018) including the original version in English of this questionnaire (Ford et al., 2010) and its Norwegian version (Haugaasen et al., 2014). This questionnaire provided information about the engagement in different soccer developmental activities (e.g., participation in soccer practice or play). ...
Soccer players’ ability to make efficient and quick decisions has gained more importance due to the increase in game speed in the last few years. Therefore, this study aimed to examine the relationship between the engagement in previous developmental activities in soccer and futsal with the quality and speed of decision- making skills in different phases of sport development of elite female soccer players. The sample comprised 77 elite Brazilian professional female soccer players. Players’ decision-making skills were assessed based on an objective video-based test – TacticUP®. We used a retrospective questionnaire to collect information about previous participation in different developmental activities. The results showed that engagement in deliberate practice in soccer and futsal, especially during childhood and early adolescence, is related to a better quality of offensive decision-making skills, although showing small to medium effect sizes. We highlight that deliberate practice in futsal is associated only with offensive decision-making skills with the ball and near the ball. In turn, engaging in deliberate play in soccer, mainly in childhood and early adolescence, is related to quicker offensive and defensive decision-making skills, showing mostly medium effect sizes. To the best of our knowledge, it was the first study to measure the relationship of decision-making speed with developmental activities in soccer. It is concluded that deliberate practice in soccer and deliberate play in soccer are associated with different di- mensions of decision-making skills.
... Therefore, the understanding of "diversification" (or sampling) was no longer exclusive to the diversification of sports played (e.g., volleyball, handball, and basketball), as was initially proposed in the DMSP (Côté, 1999). Together with several studies, this new understanding has demonstrated the importance of both deliberate play and deliberate practice to achieve elite performance and a higher competitive level (Ford et al., 2009;Haugaasen et al., 2014;Roca et al., 2012) that supported the proposal of another sports trajectory in soccer. This new trajectory proposed by Sieghartsleitner et al. (2018) is the specialised diversification. ...
... Scores in the test were used to create groups with high and low decision-making skills based on a tertile split approach. In addition, we used a retrospective questionnaire (Ford et al., 2010;Haugaasen et al., 2014) to collect information about previous participation in different soccer activities. ...
... The Participant History Questionnaire (PHQ), used in several studies (Ford et al., 2010;Haugaasen et al., 2014;Roca et al., 2012), including studies with Brazilian youth samples , was used to measure the soccer activities undertaken by players. We used the Portuguese version of the questionnaire already used in previous studies with Brazilian youth samples . ...
Previous research showed that deliberate practice and play contribute to developing decision-making skills in male soccer players. However, there is no evidence for female players. Therefore, this is the first study to analyse the contribution of deliberate practice, play, and futsal to develop decision-making skills in female soccer players. The purpose of this study was twofold: (1) to analyse whether elite Brazilian professional female soccer players with different levels of decision-making skills can be differentiated based on their engagement in various types and amounts of soccer activities during their development; (2) to discuss what sport’s pathway in female soccer characterised the group with high decision-making skills. The sample comprised 77 Brazilian professional female soccer players. Decision-making skill was assessed based on a video-based test (TacticUP®). We used a retrospective questionnaire to collect information about previous participation in different soccer activities. We found differences among high skill (HS) and low skill (LS) decision-making groups regarding their participation in developmental activities in every period assessed (childhood, early, and late adolescence). In summary, we found that in every period set, the HS group accumulated more percentage time of their participation in soccer activities in practice compared to the LS group. Moreover, the HS group gathered more hours of practice in futsal and total practice (i.e., considering practice time in soccer and futsal) in early adolescence (13–15 years) compared to the LS group. We concluded that the specialised diversification pathway is the one that best characterises the sports involvement of better decision-makers during childhood.
... Different studies have shown that athletes who have become elite in adulthood were involved in more playful, versatile activity training and several supplementary sports during childhood, compared with non-elite athletes. They also increase the number of trainer-oriented sports (DPR) later in their career [24,[27][28][29][30]. Studies in football have shown that professional players were involved earlier and had accumulated more hours in both self-organized (DPL) and organized football training (DPR) than nonprofessionals [31][32][33]; moreover, specialization occurred later in their careers [33]. In addition, there is evidence that youth football players with professional contracts had spent more than double their time engaging in DPL activities in the sampling years compared with those without contracts [34,35]. ...
... It is not possible to make inferences, nor generalize on the part of the participants [37]. Moreover, studies that have analyzed DPL and DPR activities have focused on the number of hours involved, throughout adolescence and later in the career [6,7,[12][13][14][15][17][18][19]23,25,27,28,30,31,33,34,37,[41][42][43][44], rather than recording and analyzing well-defined activity types. ...
... Considerable research has shown that players who have reached elite level in football had substantial DPL involvement during childhood and youth, in football-specific play activities [37,44,63], together with DPR in varying amounts [31,33,34,57]. Although it has been argued that DPR training contains elements of play activity, Ford et al. [52] showed that only a small part of the training was emphasized for playing time form in DPR (about 30% of the training among 9-year-olds, and about 40% among 13-year-olds). ...
This study analyzes the activity level and nature of organized football training (deliberate practice, DPR), compared with when children play football on their own (deliberate play, DPL), in a sample of selected (YT) and non-selected (BT) talents. A total of 29 observations were analyzed over 2650 min, focusing on the kind of activity, variability, and intensity of the training. In DPL, there are more finishing on goal, involvement, and challenges in 1:1 situation, and more ball touches and carrying in games, compared with DPR. Additionally, DPL has more activity time (68% vs. 56%) and fewer breaks overall (32% vs. 44%). In DPL, children spend more time playing against each other (92% vs. 36%), and most of the time there are games or attempts on goal. In DPR, children spend more time playing together with someone (2% vs. 44%) and in passing and receiving the ball. DPR training contains more standardized exercises and protected situations. DPR-YT training differs from DPR-BT training with less activity time, ball touches, attempts on goal, and 1:1 situations. In conclusion, the results support DPL providing more football-specific activity. More DPR training at the expense of DPL might reduce practice time for skill development.
... O desenvolvimento destes estudos levou a que Ericsson e colaboradores (1993) concluíssem que as diferenças entre os músicos estudados se encontravam, em grande parte, na quantidade de tempo que os especialistas dedicaram a praticar deliberadamente "atividades que foram especialmente projetadas para melhorar/potenciar o nível de desempenho" (Ericsson et al., 1993, p. 368). Surge, então, através desta noção o conceito de prática deliberada, definido pelos autores como "uma atividade altamente estruturada, cujo objetivo explícito passa por melhorar o desempenho, requer esforço físico e cognitivo e pode não ser inerentemente agradável ou divertida" (Ericsson et al.,1993, p. 368 Nas últimas décadas, diversos autores procuraram testar os pressupostos da teoria da prática deliberada no contexto desportivo (Baker et al., 2003a;Coutinho et al., 2014;Güllich, 2018b;Haugaasen et al., 2014a;Roca et al., 2012). Alguns estudos têm comprovado a relação existente entre o envolvimento precoce numa só atividade desportiva e numa prática altamente especializada, e o alcance da excelência (Ford et al., 2009;Hodges & Starkes, 1996;Law et al., 2007;Ward et al., 2007) Ericsson et al. (1993). ...
... A liberdade e flexibilidade inerentes à estrutura deste tipo de prática levam à conceção de ambientes de aprendizagem implícitos, ajustados às necessidades das próprias crianças, o que promove o desen-pico de performance ocorre precocemente na carreira do atleta, como é o caso da natação e ginástica (Coutinho et al., 2016b). Para além disso, a evidência empírica tem, também, demonstrado a relação entre elevadas quantidades de horas de prática específica e estruturada (i.e., prática deliberada) e o alcance da perícia no contexto desportivo (Baker & Young, 2014;Coutinho et al., 2014;Haugaasen et al., 2014a;Ward et al., 2007). Porém, os estudos desenvolvidos no âmbito desportivo têm demonstrado que os atletas que alcançam a perícia acumulam entre as 4000 e as 6000 horas de prática específica, o que fica bastante aquém das 10000 horas sugeridas por Ericsson e colaboradores (1993) como requisito para o alcance da excelência no domínio da música (Baker et al., 2003b;Berry et al., 2008;Soberlack & Côté, 2003). ...
... Estes jogadores estão, portanto, a seguir uma especialização precoce na modalidade. Este resultado encontra-se em linha com a evidência científica existente, a qual demonstra que, ao contrário do que acontece nas outras modalidades coletivas, no futebol os jogadores tendem a se especializar cedo (Ford et al., 2009;Haugaasen & Jordet, 2012;Haugaasen et al., 2014a;Sieghartsleitner et al., 2018). Pese embora a literatura aponte para a existência de uma relação monotónica entre a quantidade de prática espe- lere ao nível do rendimento desportivo. ...
... Research in different sports have shown that these types of activities (deliberate practice and play) are important to the attainment of superior performance (Campitelli & Gobet, 2011;Ericsson, 2003;Macnamara et al., 2014). More specific to soccer, several studies in different countries indicated that the amount of previous deliberate practice discriminates players of different skill levels when coupled with significant amounts of deliberate play (Ford et al., 2009;Haugaasen et al., 2014;Hendry & Hodges, 2018;Sieghartsleitner et al., 2018;Ward et al., 2007). In other words, these studies suggest that deliberate practice is necessary, but not sufficient to achieve superior performance in the absence of deliberate play. ...
... Scores in the test were used to create groups with high and low decision-making skills in both the offensive and defensive phases. We used a retrospective questionnaire Haugaasen et al., 2014) to collect information about previous participation in different soccer activities. ...
... The Participant History Questionnaire (PHQ), used in several studies Haugaasen et al., 2014;Roca et al., 2012), including studies with Brazilian youth samples was used to measure the soccer activities undertaken by players. The test-retest reliability and the concurrent validity of the PHQ were shown in . ...
Decision-making in soccer is considered an important factor for soccer players achieve high-performance level. Studies in several sports indicated that tactical decision-making skills are necessary for skilful performance. We aimed to analyse whether soccer players with different levels of decision-making skills can be differentiated based on their engagement in various types and amounts of soccer activities during their development. The sample comprised 149 Brazilian youth male soccer players (M = 14.9, SD = 1.6 years). We examined the type and amount of soccer activities that contributed to distinguish players with different levels of offensive and defensive decision-making skills. Players’ tactical decision-making skills were assessed with an objective video-based test (TacticUP® video test for soccer). We used a retrospective questionnaire to collect information about previous participation in different soccer developmental activ- ities. The main activities that differentiated high/low skill groups in the macrostructure activities were: i) team practice; and in the micro- structure: ii) collective tactics; and iii) “high decision-making oppor- tunities”. We concluded that previous soccer developmental activities discriminate youth soccer players with different levels of decision-making skills. The main activities that differentiated high/ low groups were: 1) team practice; 2) collective tactics in team practice, and; 3) “high decision-making opportunities” in team practice.
... Hill-Haas et al., 2009;McMillan et al., 2005;Pocock et al., 2017). The main developmental activities that occur within youth academies are repeated, frequent coaching sessions and also matches against other teams (Ford et al., 2009(Ford et al., , 2010(Ford et al., , 2012Haugaasen et al., 2014;Hendry et al., 2014;Hornig et al., 2016;Partington & Cushion, 2013;Ward et al., 2007). The nature of coaching sessions is usually a mixture of drill-and games-based soccer activities supplemented by instructions from coaches (Ford et al., 2010;O'Connor et al., 2018;Partington & Cushion, 2013). ...
... The majority of clubs' teams were subject to a January 1 st cut-off date for those matches. Frequent training sessions and matches across a season/s supports findings from researchers assessing the developmental activities engaged in by skilled soccer players (Ford et al., 2009(Ford et al., , 2010(Ford et al., , 2012Haugaasen et al., 2014;Hendry et al., 2014;Hornig et al., 2016;Ward et al., 2007). These intervention activities are likely engaged in with the primary intention of improving the performances of selected players. ...
... During adolescence, players in Mexico engaged in significantly more hours of soccerspecific coach-led practice compared to the combined data, whereas athletes from England engaged in significantly less 32 . These between country differences in amounts of practice and play observed by Ford et al. 32 were suggested to be reflected by the differences in the youth development systems of the respective countries 5,[33][34][35][36] . ...
... The reliability and validity of retrospective primary/main sport hours-per-week in the PHQ were shown in Ford et al. 47 , with a large interclass correlation coefficient (ICC) of 0.9 for a three-month test re-test and 0.8 for parent/player validity. Questionnaires that have used similar and/or identical questions as the PHQ have shown a large ICC of 0.9 for a three-month test re-test and 0.7 for parent/player validity of the yearly total practice hours 34 , as well as a high-test re-test recall correlations for hours of practice (r = 0.9-1.0 48 ). ...
Small/er soccer nations rely strongly on developing youth athletes into experts in adulthood due to financial, logistical, and coach education constraints. One factor that contributes to this expertise is activities engaged in during childhood. Researchers have described these activities by focusing on larger, well-developed countries that often have larger participation rates and higher competition levels than their smaller counterparts. Therefore, to provide more specific information to support talent development in smaller soccer nations, a survey of the youth development system of a small soccer nation was conducted, alongside recording the developmental activities of skilled and less-skilled soccer players within this system. Key stakeholders (e.g., technical director) completed a youth development system survey. Skilled soccer players ( n = 12) who were representing their country at U17 level and less-skilled players ( n = 13) that had never played for their country completed a Participation History Questionnaire. Skilled players engaged in significantly higher amounts of individual practice in both childhood and early adolescence compared to less-skilled players. Survey data indicated that the greater amounts of individual practice for the skilled players stemmed from a lack of finances, playing facilities, and a formal coach education program. Results from this study may inform future practices and processes in the youth development systems of small/er soccer nations and their national associations.
... Although junior success does not necessarily lead to senior success in football Taylor and Collins, 2019), there is evidence that early and prolonged engagement in sportspecific activities is related to senior performance. For example, hours spent in football-specific team practise at an early age is associated with expert levels of achievement in English (Ford et al., 2009;Ford and Williams, 2012;Roca et al., 2012), Swiss (Zibung and Conzelmann, 2013;Sieghartsleitner et al., 2018), and Norwegian (Haugaasen et al., 2014) footballers. Although early diversification can be a pathway to elite performance (Coutinho et al., 2016), a diversified early experience has not been shown to be a significant influence on the attainment of expertise in football (Ward et al., 2007;Ford et al., 2009;Ford and Williams, 2012). ...
... In football, for example, this may be the provision of structures and experiences that allow high potential players to experience sufficient quantities of both football practise, and developmentally appropriate activities and unstructured free play within their developmental pathway. Simply, in sports like football where there is less evidence of the discriminatory power of broader activity (Haugaasen et al., 2014), early selection into an academy setting may not have negative consequences as long as high potential players are provided with an enrichment programme of other activities; a focus on early engagement rather than early specialisation. ...
There is a growing debate, both in the academic and sporting worlds, about the most appropriate pathway for high potential young players in sport. In this regard, there has been a considerable focus on the age of selection into structured talent development pathways and the nature of the experience once players have been recruited. Given the economic and reputational currency associated with developing professional footballers in particular, it is unsurprising that professional football clubs continue to invest significant financial resources into their academy structures. Understandably, this recruitment policy has attracted substantial attention within the media and research community, with ethical concerns arising surrounding the impact early selection may have on the welfare and the experiences of the young players within the pathway. The aim of this perspective article was to critically consider the research underpinning the early engagement practises of football clubs and the extent to which, and how, the pathway can provide players with the most appropriate starting point for their development. This evidence points to the need to look beyond the prevalent ‘early specialisation vs. diversification’ debate in youth sport towards a consideration of an early engagement perspective that reflects the biopsychosocial influences on talent development and the socio-political environment that influences decisions. We provide practical recommendations focused on the quality of the early engagement experience.
... Forskning på talentutvikling i fotball har vist at de fleste spillerne som ender opp som profesjonelle spillere startet tidlig å spille organisert fotball, gjerne i 5-6 års-alderen (Ford et al., 2009;Haugaasen et al., 2014). Mens det er mulig å oppnå en profesjonell seniorkontrakt allerede i junioralder (Haugaasen et al., 2014), når fotballspillere gjerne toppnivå først rundt midten av 20-årene (Haugaasen & Jordet, 2012). ...
... Forskning på talentutvikling i fotball har vist at de fleste spillerne som ender opp som profesjonelle spillere startet tidlig å spille organisert fotball, gjerne i 5-6 års-alderen (Ford et al., 2009;Haugaasen et al., 2014). Mens det er mulig å oppnå en profesjonell seniorkontrakt allerede i junioralder (Haugaasen et al., 2014), når fotballspillere gjerne toppnivå først rundt midten av 20-årene (Haugaasen & Jordet, 2012). Spillere som ønsker å satse på en potensiell karriere som fotballspiller må dermed påregne lange perioder med store treningsmengder. ...
Talent development at upper secondary school: A retrospective study of youth football players experience of combining school and football The purpose of this study was to gain insight into how young football players experience combining sports-related upper secondary education with being a player at a high national level. More specifically, this study will look at players' experience of the opportunity to complete a "dual career" (Stambulova & Wylleman, 2015) in the form of time and facilitation of investment in both football and school, and regulation of organized training in the form of deliberate practice (Ericsson et al., 1993) to optimize players' opportunities for development as football players. The participants consist of eight in-formants who have all attended a sports study program in upper secondary school and were included in the senior squad of a club in Norwegian top football. The informants were interviewed about their experience of how it affected their development as football players. The results showed that the players' motives for choosing a sports discipline were mainly based on sporting motives and to a lesser extent school-related, where in many ways they consider the sports program study program only as a tool to prioritize football and increase their commitment to a football career. The players also described a large degree of facilitation for sporting development with a holistic approach, although they sometimes describe large amounts of training, which they perceived as positive for their development, but also as a tough physical strain. The results showed a clear difference in favor of the best players who had a better organized everyday life compared to players with a lower skill level. Even though the school tried to facilitate the school subjects, this arrangement worked, according to the players, somewhat worse than the sporting one. An important function in this context was that the players had a contact person between the club and the school, who arranged between the two parties, to some frustration among the teachers according to the players, who perceived that the facilitation went too far. It may seem that the sports-related fields of study fulfill their purpose of facilitation, but mainly on the basis of the sporting and to a lesser extent in relation to the school subjects, with the exception of the study-specific subjects.
... Sports commitment is an element which causes an athlete to quit a sports branch or encourages him/her to continue it and affects his/her sportive Afr Educ Res J 368 performance. Therefore, the relationship between sports commitment and other concepts such as basic psychological needs, motivation, commitment, inner stimuli and burnout has so far been analyzed in several studies (Curran et al., 2015;DeFreese and Smith, 2013;Hodge et al., 2009;Kristensen, 2013;Lonsdale et al., 2009;Busseri et al., 2011;Haugaasen et al., 2014). ...
... Kelecek and Göktürk (2017) too analyzed young female footballers' levels of sports commitment and found a higher level of sports commitment in them, and reported that the highest sub-dimensions scores were obtained in vigor and dedication sub-dimensions. In a similar vein, in a study on young elite footballers, Haugaasen et al. (2014) found statistically significant differences in favor of female footballers. However, Çini (2018) analyzed football supporters' mean Commitment Index subdimension scores and reported that male football supporters had a statistically higher mean score compared to female football supporters in team subdimension. ...
The aim of this study is to examine sports commitment levels of the students studying in the school of
physical education and sports. The universe of the research consists of students studying in different
programs at the School of Physical Education and Sports at Yozgat Bozok University in the 2019-2020
academic year. The sample of the research consists of 360 students determined by using the sampling
technique among the students studying in different programs at the School of Physical Education and
Sports at Yozgat Bozok University. As a data collection tool in the research, information on the
demographic characteristics of the participants was obtained through the "Personal Information Form". The
data for determining the level of loyalty of the participants were obtained through the "Sports Commitment
Scale", which was adapted to Turkish by Sırgancı, Ilgar and Cihan (2019) developed by Schaufeli and
Bakker (2004). Normality analyzes were carried out before starting the analysis of the data. In statistical
analysis, frequency, percentage, arithmetic mean, t-test, ANOVA analysis and multiple comparison tests
were used. As a result of the analyzes carried out; There were statistically significant differences between
levels of the sports commitment according to the variables of the class, the year of sports and doing active
sports under license (p < .05). 1st and 2nd Those who study in the classroom have a higher level of
commitment to sports than those in grade 3, those who have 7 years or more to do sports for 1 year or
less, and those who still do not do sports under license. According to gender, department and sports
branch variables, no statistically significant differences were found between sports commitment levels (p >
.05).
... Hill-Haas et al., 2009;McMillan et al., 2005;Pocock et al., 2017). The main developmental activities that occur within youth academies are repeated, frequent coaching sessions and also matches against other teams (Ford et al., 2009(Ford et al., , 2010(Ford et al., , 2012Haugaasen et al., 2014;Hendry et al., 2014;Hornig et al., 2016;Partington & Cushion, 2013;Ward et al., 2007). The nature of coaching sessions is usually a mixture of drill-and games-based soccer activities supplemented by instructions from coaches (Ford et al., 2010;O'Connor et al., 2018;Partington & Cushion, 2013). ...
... The majority of clubs' teams were subject to a January 1 st cut-off date for those matches. Frequent training sessions and matches across a season/s supports findings from researchers assessing the developmental activities engaged in by skilled soccer players (Ford et al., 2009(Ford et al., , 2010(Ford et al., , 2012Haugaasen et al., 2014;Hendry et al., 2014;Hornig et al., 2016;Ward et al., 2007). These intervention activities are likely engaged in with the primary intention of improving the performances of selected players. ...
Talent identification (TID) and development (TDE) are large fields in professional soccer and in science. However, TID and TDE processes in youth academies have not been assessed in detail. As such, our aim was to survey professional clubs from around the world about their youth academy TID and TDE processes, with 29 clubs responding to the survey. TID and TDE processes changed as a function of player age. TID processes involved finding the best players locally and regionally, but for older players the search widened to nationally and internationally for the needs of the first team. Clubs used a multidisciplinary approach to TID, but more so with older players. Median number of academy players was 80, 100, and 66 players at 8–11 years, 12–16 years, and 17–21 years, respectively. Annual player turnover in the most recent season (selections/de-selections) was 29% across all age groups, with competition from other clubs cited as a limitation to TID. TDE processes involved weekly matches and 3–5 training sessions per week led by experienced, well-qualified coaches, with most clubs providing players with academic education, residency and transportation services. Our findings extend previous research assessing professional soccer youth academy TID and TDE processes by quantifying worldwide practices.
... Instead, the criterion used in most studies is the selection decision itself, which is usually a categorical variable indicating performance or skill level. Examples of performance-level indicators that have been used in studies are elite, sub-elite, and non-elite level [40][41][42]; professional, semi-professional, or non-professional level [43][44][45]; first team or reserves [46]; elite, club level, or dropouts [47,48]; national or regional level [49][50][51]; selected and non-selected players [52][53][54][55]; and nationally drafted or non-drafted players [56] (see Table 1). ...
... The predictors that have been studied in soccer talent identification research are strongly influenced by the classification scheme proposed by Williams and Reilly [1,3], who classified predictors of individual soccer performance into four sport science disciplines: physical, physiological, psychological, and sociological. Examples of predictors include height, weight, and body composition (physical) [47, 53, [43,52,56,74]; self-regulation, motivation, task and ego orientation, and cognitive functions (psychological) [3,21,50,52,[75][76][77][78][79][80]; and hours of practice and perceived social support (sociological) [44,76]. Other predictors that are derived from this classification scheme are technical skills, such as dribbling and passing technique, and self-assessed tactical skills [3,45,48,[81][82][83][84] (see Table 1). ...
Talent identification research in soccer comprises the prediction of elite soccer performance. While many studies in this field have aimed to empirically relate performance characteristics to subsequent soccer success, a critical evaluation of the methodology of these studies has mostly been absent in the literature. In this position paper, we discuss advantages and limitations of the design, validity, and utility of current soccer talent identification research. Specifically, we draw on principles from selection psychology that can contribute to best practices in the context of making selection decisions across domains. Based on an extensive search of the soccer literature, we identify four methodological issues from this framework that are relevant for talent identification research, i.e. (1) the operationalization of criterion variables (the performance to be predicted) as performance levels; (2) the focus on isolated performance indicators as predictors of soccer performance; (3) the effects of range restriction on the predictive validity of predictors used in talent identification; and (4) the effect of the base rate on the utility of talent identification procedures. Based on these four issues, we highlight opportunities and challenges for future soccer talent identification studies that may contribute to developing evidence-based selection procedures. We suggest for future research to consider the use of individual soccer criterion measures, to adopt representative, high-fidelity predictors of soccer performance, and to take restriction of range and the base rate into account.
... Agency: To remain competitive and constantly develop and advance in this system, there is evidence to suggest that one must deliver large quantities of practice hours (Ford et al. 2009;Ford and Williams 2012;Ward et al. 2007;Haugaasen, Toering and Jordet 2014). However, other evidence suggests that the quality of practice, effective learning, and actively engaging in cognitive processes responsible for learning, may be equally if not more important (van Yperen and Duda 1999; Toering et al., 2009;Toering et al., 2011). ...
... Context: In soccer, where such a small proportion of the player population actually reaches the professional level (Haugaasen and Jordet 2014), one could argue that every ambitious player needs to stand out with a unique signature and one's own way to play, to simply get noticed, scouted and selected for the highest level. ...
In this chapter we start with an assumption, that sport psychology researchers have removed their focus from the questions asked by people operating in actual real-world sport contexts. Where traditional models of sport psychology practice start with a primary focus on isolated psychological mechanisms to understand the behaviors that might lead to performance outcomes under specific circumstances, here we propose to flip this line of reasoning. Instead, research should start by reflecting on and addressing the environmental circumstances, contexts and desired outcomes (e.g., embodied cognition and performance in a given sport context), then identify the types of behaviors that logically lead to that outcome in that specific context, so as to finally address the psychological mechanisms that are hypothesized to bring about those behaviors (e.g., embodied cognitions, perceptions, and emotions). We will briefly outline the historical origins of the current traditional model of sport psychology theory and practice, to present both the conceptual underpinnings for the flipped approach, as well as the practical implications of it. Conceptually, the proposed approach finds its roots in ecological psychology foundations (e.g., Gibson 1979; Bronfenbrenner 1979), where the environment is held as intrinsically meaningful, with sufficient information and meaning waiting to be discovered in the environment. We will use soccer as a case, to show a specific way to structure and communicate psychology with an emphasis on agency, and performance development behaviors in this specific context. Finally, we will discuss the implications of such an approach for both research and practice in the field of sport psychology.
... While elite performance through early diversification has been observed in sports where peak performance is achieved in adulthood (e.g., in many team sports [1]), football seems to be an exception. Previous studies have shown that youth football players tend to start around 5-6 years of age in structured and intensive training in this sport [32,33]. ...
This study characterised the sport participation patterns of 546 male youth team sport players. A retrospective questionnaire was used to identify the sport starting age (general sports and main sport) and the quantity and type of sports undertaken during the early years of development. A mixed-ANOVA and Chi-square tests were implemented. All participants started involvement in sports at the same age (~5 years) and participated in the same number of sports during their early years (1 to 2 sports). However, football players started participating mainly in team games (football, futsal) and water polo players in CGS sports (swimming). Participants reported different ages for initial participation in: (i) main sport (football players started participating earlier, around 5–6 years), (ii) onset of specialisation (football players specialised earlier, around 7 or 8 years), (iii) types of sports engaged in (football players were involved in more team games and water polo in more CGS sports), and (iv) variations in weekly training hours (water polo reported more hours of training). This study provided empirical evidence for understanding the effects of different sporting pathways on long-term athlete development. Some key incongruities between contemporary knowledge and practice are acknowledged. Further investigations should be developed by examining the trajectories in different sports, countries, genders, and cultural contexts.
... The number of children taking part in organized competitive sport increases linearly from age 6, with a maximum between 11 and 13 years of age (Maffulli, 2000). Some studies show that differences in performance of adult football players may be due to variations in the amount and types of football practice at the earliest years of participation (Haugaasen et al., 2014). There are also some dangers of intensive training in young athletes because they may suffer musculoskeletal injuries (Maffulli, 2000). ...
There are a few schools of thought about when kids should start playing sports. This study set out to find out when the football players performing at EURO 2020 began trainings in an organized way – on average they were just over 8 years old. The second research issue addressed in this article is the financial value of the players. Football experts, with the support of scientists, do their best to determine the appropriate value of players, and it's still not easy. The proper valuation of players is an important issue because it influences the management process of football clubs. The study also set out to see if there is a relation between the age of starting to practice in organized way and the subsequent value of the athlete? A univariate regression analysis was performed, in which the dependent variable was player value, and the independent variable was the age of the athlete when he started to play football in organized way. Based on the regression coefficients, it can be concluded that players who started at younger ages now show a higher level of value. In conclusion, the results show how demanding professional sport is and at what age a person needs to make the right decisions to be able to think about being a professional footballer.
... Various sport scientists have quantified Deliberate Play with talented athletes and in doing so highlighted Deliberate Play's positive contributions to expertise development. Retrospective surveys established that professional athletes had spent more time per week playing specific sports during their childhoods than non-professional athletes Haugaasen et al., 2014). Additionally, it was shown that soccer players who signed professional contracts later in adolescence took part in soccer-specific Deliberate Play more often than players without a contract offer (Ford et al., 2009). ...
The sustainable success of associations and clubs in sport is based on effective talent promotion. Based on definitions for fundamental concepts (talent, expertise, talent), approaches to and framework models for talent and expertise research are presented in this chapter. In the main part, sport psychological characteristics such as cognitive performance factors (e.g., decision-making skills) and personality-related factors (e.g., achievement motivation) are considered regarding the selection and development of talents. This justifies a greater involvement of psychological test procedures and intervention approaches in promoting talent. However, due to the limited effect sizes in the prognosis of future performance, sport psychological characteristics should not be used (solely) for talent selection. The value of sport psychology diagnostics lies in the monitoring of relevant characteristics to be able to identify funding potential and to substantiate measures for talent development.KeywordsAbilityAchievement motivationAthlete developmentDecision-making competenceDeliberate playDeliberate practiceDevelopment pathwaysDevelopmental tasksEnvironmental factorsExecutive functionsExpertiseIntrapersonal catalystsPerceptual-cognitive skillsPersonality developmentPrognostic relevanceSelectionSensitivityTalentTalent promotion
... Vertical jump assesses the soccer functional performance and at the same time is used for fitness and talent selection [57][58][59]. Vertical jump parameters, such as jump height assessed by the countermovement jump (CMJ), have been able to discriminate soccer performance levels between professional and non-professional players in a wide age range [4,19,20,[60][61][62]. Essential VJ parameters are also the power output, since it is suggested to be the parameter defining VJ performance [63], as well as the reactive strength index (RSI), which is related to strength and conditioning measures and spot performance [64]. ...
Soccer clubs invest time and money in multidimensional identification practices, but the field implementation is still problematic. The repeated vertical jump test (RVJ), as an alternative to the monodimensional vertical jump, may offer similar prognostic value. Therefore, the prognostic validity of 15 RVJ within professional (PRO, n = 24) and under 19 years old (U19, n = 20) Greek male soccer players was examined. T-test, binomial logistic regression, and receiver operating characteristic for prognostic validity of anthropometric and performance values in predicting PRO status were applied using Jamovi version 2.3.3.0. Significant group differences presented in body height and mass, body mass index (BMI), maximum and average jump height, and relative jump power. The predicting model was significant (x^2(2) = 17.12, p < 0.001). Height and BMI were positive predictors of the PRO status (b = 21.66, p = 0.008 and b = 0.94, p = 0.014, respectively). The model was 73% accurate, 75% specific, and 71% sensitive, with excellent area under the curve. The RVJ test demonstrated outstanding discriminating prognostic validity. Until the applicability of the multidimensional models in predicting future player status is further established, field practitioners may use the simplistic RVJ testing to predict future status among male soccer players.
... Alguns estudos têm comprovado a relação existente entre o envolvimento precoce numa só atividade desportiva e numa prática altamente especializada, e o alcance da excelência, particularmente em desportos onde o pico de performance ocorre precocemente na carreira do atleta, como, por exemplo, é o caso da ginástica Law et al., 2007). Para além disso, muitas são já as evidências que demonstram a existência de uma relação entre o envolvimento e o investimento em elevadas quantidades de horas de prática específica e estruturada (i.e., prática deliberada) e o alcance da perícia no contexto desportivo (e.g., Baker et al., 2003bBaker et al., , 2005Coutinho et al., 2015;Haugaasen et al., 2014). Porém, os estudos desenvolvidos no âmbito desportivo têm demonstrado que os atletas que alcançam a perícia acumulam entre as 4.000 e as 6.000 horas de prática específica, o que fica bastante aquém das 10.000 horas sugeridas por Ericsson e colaboradores (1993) como requisito para o alcance da excelência no domínio da música (Baker et al., 2003b;Berry et al., 2008;. ...
... Alguns estudos têm comprovado a relação existente entre o envolvimento precoce numa só atividade desportiva e numa prática altamente especializada, e o alcance da excelência, particularmente em desportos onde o pico de performance ocorre precocemente na carreira do atleta, como, por exemplo, é o caso da ginástica Law et al., 2007). Para além disso, muitas são já as evidências que demonstram a existência de uma relação entre o envolvimento e o investimento em elevadas quantidades de horas de prática específica e estruturada (i.e., prática deliberada) e o alcance da perícia no contexto desportivo (e.g., Baker et al., 2003bBaker et al., , 2005Coutinho et al., 2015;Haugaasen et al., 2014). Porém, os estudos desenvolvidos no âmbito desportivo têm demonstrado que os atletas que alcançam a perícia acumulam entre as 4.000 e as 6.000 horas de prática específica, o que fica bastante aquém das 10.000 horas sugeridas por Ericsson e colaboradores (1993) como requisito para o alcance da excelência no domínio da música (Baker et al., 2003b;Berry et al., 2008;. ...
... So our result is not surprising, as the objectives of this program are not to foster soccer-specific skills but more general PF and MC independent from the children's decision on the talent development pathway. As coach-led, soccer-specific practice necessary for later success (Haugaasen et al., 2014;Hornig et al., 2014) does not happen in this course, it might exert only little effect on future soccer expertise at adolescent age. ...
... Compared with the first two factors, sociological factors are less discussed, but there are still some research on this. For instance, self-regulation and adaptive volitional behaviors appear to be key intra-individual factors associated with talent development (Haugaasen et al., 2014), and a number of talent development environmental factors (e.g., media coverage, sports participation rate, birthplace, long-term development, and quality preparation) also exist in sports (Li et al., 2014). On the whole, according to the current research, there are many factors affecting the sport TID, mainly physiological, psychological, and sociological factors, which play a vital role in both the identify of sports talents and the development of sports talents. ...
Talent is one of the most significant factors to promote the development of sports undertakings. The present study aimed to explore the factors affecting the identification of sports talents in China's physical education curriculum. Based on the literature review, this study puts forward a model to examine the influencing factors of sports talent identification in China's physical education curriculum using structural equation modeling and uses the structural equation modeling and factor analysis method to verify the hypothesis combined with the results of 310 effective questionnaires. The article summarizes influencing factors from four aspects, namely, physical, psychological, coach, and environmental factors. On the basis of relevant literature, the hypothesis model was established by structural equation modeling. The results show that the main factors affecting the identification of sports talents in the physical education curriculum are personal physical quality performance, psychological quality, coach's knowledge, and the identification policies of schools to sports talents. The conclusion of this study can provide guidance for the reform of the physical education curriculum, the growth of sports talents, and the development of sports talents in China.
... As most elite football players will commence training at a high level at an early age [19], recognising potential risk factors for hip and groin pain is important for developing training programs to reduce symptoms and sustain careers [20]. Therefore, the aims of this research were to identify whether pre-season hip adductor and abductor strength and HAGOS subscale scores of male and female elite youth football players are either (a) predictive of in-season historical hip and groin pain or (b) associated with historical hip and groin pain, irrespective of whether pain resulted in time-loss. ...
Background
Despite hip and groin pain being commonly reported in elite youth football players, little evidence on risk factors exists. Risk factors in adult football players include reduced hip adductor strength and hip adductor/abductor strength ratios, and lower Copenhagen Hip and Groin Outcome Score (HAGOS) subscale scores. It is unknown if these factors are also predictive of pain development in youth football players.
Objective
To identify whether preseason hip adductor and abductor strength and HAGOS subscale scores of male and female elite youth football players are associated with in-season or historical (lifetime) hip and groin pain.
Methods
Preseason hip adductor and abductor strength testing and the HAGOS were undertaken by 105 elite male ( n = 58) and female ( n = 47) football players aged 11–15 years. Medical staff documented both players’ self-reported historical and in-season hip and groin pain. Univariate and multivariate logistic regression models were undertaken with main outcome measures in-season hip and groin pain and historical hip and groin pain and independent variables of hip muscle strength, hip muscle torque and HAGOS subscale scores.
Results
Twenty-three players (21.9%) self-reported in-season hip and groin pain, while 19 players (18.1%) self-reported historical hip and groin pain. Pre-season hip adductor and abductor variables and HAGOS subscale scores failed to predict in-season hip and groin pain. However, a higher body mass index (odds ratio [OR] = 1.32; 95% CI 1.01, 1.73, p = .043) and being male (OR 5.71; 95% CI 1.65, 19.7) were associated with having in-season hip and groin pain ( R ² = 0.211). There was also an association between historical hip and groin pain ( R ² = 0.579) and both HAGOS subscale Quality of Life (odds ratio [OR] = 0.84; 95% CI 0.77, 0.91, p < .001) and mean abductor torque (OR = 11.85; 95% CI 1.52, 91.97; p = .018).
Conclusion
Pre-season hip adductor and abductor strength and HAGOS subscale scores did not predict subsequent in-season hip and groin pain in elite youth football players. However, pre-season higher hip abductor strength and lower HAGOS scores were retrospectively associated with historical hip and groin pain.
... The reliability and validity of retrospective primary/main sport hours-per-week in the PHQ were shown in , with a large interclass correlation coefficient (ICC) of 0.87 for a three-month test re-test and 0.76 for parent/player validity. Questionnaires that have used similar and/or identical questions as the PHQ have shown a large ICC of 0.86 for a three-month test re-test and 0.71 for parent/player validity of the yearly total practice hours (Haugaasen et al. 2014), as well as a high test re-test recall correlations for hours of practice (r = 0.91-0.95; Ward et al. 2007). ...
Purpose:
Many rugby league clubs rely on developing youth athletes into experts in adulthood. One factor that contributes to the attainment of expertise is the activities that athletes engage in across their development. Therefore, the developmental activities of professional male British rugby league players were compared to lesser-skilled players.
Methods:
Players who had progressed from youth academies to professional status, those who were released from youth academies, and those who had only played recreationally completed the Participation History Questionnaire.
Results:
During childhood, professional players accumulated significantly greater amounts of play compared to ex-academy and recreational players, as well as greater coach-led practice compared to ex-academy . During early adolescence, this pattern continued, whereas in late adolescence the professional and ex-academy players accumulated significantly greater amounts of coach-led practice compared to their recreational counterparts. Professional players accumulated more hours in rugby league up to 18 years of age compared to ex-academy players, with both groups accumulating more hours than recreational . The number of other sports engaged in was relatively low across development and did not discriminate between performance levels.
Conclusion:
Findings from this study may inform future practice of talent development systems within rugby league in Britain.
... So our result is not surprising, as the objectives of this program are not to foster soccer-specific skills but more general PF and MC independent from the children's decision on the talent development pathway. As coach-led, soccer-specific practice necessary for later success (Haugaasen et al., 2014;Hornig et al., 2014) does not happen in this course, it might exert only little effect on future soccer expertise at adolescent age. ...
Several talent identification programs in elementary school have implemented motor diagnostics to introduce children to groups of sports, like game sports, or even to particular sports like soccer. However, as in most other sports, in youth soccer, the predictive value of such early testing is still unclear. This prospective study evaluated the midterm prognostic validity of generic motor performance tests. The sample consisted of male second-grade children, which had received a recommendation to participate in soccer. The talent screening campaign was a basic check comprising two anthropometric parameters, five physical fitness, and three motor competence diagnostics of the German Motor Test 6–18. The test data were collected from the participating elementary school classes of the years 2010 to 2014. The soccer competition performance of those children having completed the age of at least 15 years ( n = 502) up to the end of the season 2019/2020 (2020, September 30) was recorded. This group of U17 players was then assigned individually to five different competition levels. The prognostic validity of the physical and physiological tests was determined using ANOVAs, odds ratios, and a regression path analysis. All diagnostic methods exhibited medium-to-high prognostic validity over the 8 year time span from the talent screening to the later soccer competitions in the adolescent age groups. For later success in soccer on the province level, the 6-min run (OR = 4.28), dynamic balance (OR = 4.04), and 20-m sprint (OR = 2.46), as well as the participation in the training center of the German Soccer Federation (OR = 5.67) and the diversity of club sport activities (OR = 3.56), were of particular importance.
... Soccer as an intensive alternate team sport requires physical, tactical, and technical skills (1), along with psychological talents (2,3) for the best possible performance. In other words, performance is defined by a physical, tactical, and technical practice, required to achieve the elite level in soccer (4). ...
Background. Soccer is a popular sport with a large number of players all over the world. Besides, it has considerable economic and social effects. Thus, it is necessary to find out the factors which influence soccer players’ performance. Objectives. The purpose of this investigation was to determine whether there is a significant correlation between intellectual intelligence (I.Q) (Raven’s progressive matrices) and emotional intelligence (EI) (Bar-On emotional intelligence scale) with the performance (Charbonneau sports performance questionnaire), and assess the psychological characteristics of young male soccer players in different playing positions and the descriptive method with a correlation technique was used. Methods. Pearson correlation coefficient was used for questions analysis and One-way ANOVA was used for testing the hypothesizes. 120 young Iranian male soccer players aged 17-19 from different soccer schools participated in the study. The players were divided into four playing positions: forwards, midfielders, defenders, and goalkeepers. Results. The obtained data revealed a positive linear correlation between soccer players’ IQ, EQ, and sports performance. Also, significant differences were observed between Bar-On subscale scores of the players in different playing positions. Conclusion. The obtained outcomes reinforce the hypothesis that positional differences in terms of psychological characteristics exist. In addition, it might be concluded that young soccer players might be differentiated by their psychological skills and their playing positions.
... Further, although the amount of organized practice was relatively low (one to two sessions each week from ages 6 to 10), the respondents highlighted the importance of having properly organized practice sessions with quality coaching also during the early years. The quality and microstructure of early practice engagement is rarely emphasized in research involving practice histories of successful athletes (Erikstad et al., 2018;Haugaasen et al., 2014). The coaches of Bryne generally structured practice sessions with much playing form activities and less traditional instruction, which previously has been argued to be beneficial for developing an understanding of the game and sportspecific decision-making skills (see Cushion et al., 2012). ...
The personal assets framework suggests that dynamic elements of (a) personal engagement in activities, (b) quality social dynamics, and (c) appropriate settings will influence an athlete’s long-term outcomes of performance, personal development, and continued participation in sport. The aim of the present study was to conduct a case study of a Norwegian age-restricted team that was successful in promoting participation, performance, and positive development for individual participants and to investigate how the dynamic elements of activities, social dynamics, and settings have led to these long-term outcomes. The results indicated that the case is a best-practice example of successful attainment of personal development and long-term participation and performance through appropriate structure and application of the dynamic elements within the personal assets framework, including enjoyable peer-led play activities and quality practice, quality relationships with teammates and coaches, and access to facilities.
... Our findings evidence no age-related trends in persistence/progression or attrition in playing level following the academy closure. The accumulation of appropriate practice hours is deemed crucial to successful transition to professional soccer Haugaasen et al., 2014). However, high turnover of youth players is reported within professional soccer academies, with only ∼10% of players successful in obtaining professional contracts (Grossmann and Lames, 2015). ...
Considering the perceived benefit of early recruitment and the time and resources spent developing youth players, individuals released from talent development programmes are often re-recruited by rival academies. However, due to the contractual nature of many talent development programmes, limited empirical data exists on players deselected from (or reselected to) youth soccer academies. Adopting a novel case study approach, differences in skill, psychological, and physical attributes associated with reselection following closure of a junior-elite soccer academy were explored. Overall subjective coach ratings for skill, psychological, and physical abilities, subjective coach ratings for skill and psychological attributes, and physical fitness test performance of 79 junior-elite soccer players (U11-U17) were assessed as part of regular scheduled testing and monitoring practices prior to the academy closure. Reselection status was monitored and recorded for all players in the 6 months following the academy closure, and was classified as a persistence/progression (‘Reselected’) or attrition (‘Deselected’) in playing level. Of the 79 released players, a total of 60 players (76%) were re-signed to a junior-elite academy within 6 months. Differences were observed for overall ratings of skill, psychological, and physical abilities in favour of the ‘Reselected’ player group. ‘Reselected’ players were also rated higher by coaches for all attributes categorised as skill and psychological, as well as performing better at all physical fitness tests. However, ‘Reselected’ players were lesser in stature and body mass, and less mature than ‘Deselected’ players. Our findings suggest that reselection is not a product of anthropometric criteria and, therefore, a pathway for selection remains open for later maturing players. We also inform upon desirable qualities associated with player reselection and provide a case study approach of a unique, yet highly relevant scenario for talent identification and development in youth soccer.
... The study showed that only 14% of their total childhood soccer activities involved deliberate practice activities (drill-like training of technical skills or physical conditioning) and as much as 86% was a combination of coach-led play (17%; including small-sided games), and peer-led play (69%; "kicking around with friends"). This finding is in line with a growing body of evidence demonstrating the importance of play (as opposed to practice) activities in acquiring a range of skills and even in achieving higher levels of sports expertise (Côté, 1999;Côté et al., 2007;Haugaasen et al., 2014;Memmert et al., 2010). Further studies suggest that playing multiple sports before specializing in a single sport is positively associated with positive development and future sport performance (Baker, 2003;Berry et al., 2008;Fransen et al., 2012;Güllich, 2014;Soberlak & Côté, 2003; but see Ford et al., 2009;Ford & Williams, 2012). ...
Play behavior continues to fascinate researchers from various fields. This has led to several domain-specific bodies of literature with limited cross-disciplinary integration. The goal of the present review was to integrate evolutionary literature on physical activity play with literature from sport science and pedagogy as these fields can mutually benefit from one another. The resulting literature synthesis showed that the evolutionary theorizing on the functions of physical activity play (physical and social skill training, training-for-the-unexpected, and fostering domain-specific creativity and innovation) proved helpful in explaining how diversified play experiences at an early age contribute to positive development and success in sports. Further, the review of sports data provided unique support for the developmental scaffolding theory that the innate motivation of seeking pleasure in physical activity play coincidentally leads to the acquisition of physical skills and enhanced domain-specific creativity. The cross-disciplinary literature review resulted in a novel biocultural model of skill acquisition and teaching with practical applications in sports and physical education. Potential avenues for further cross-disciplinary basic and applied research are discussed.
... Athletics An extensive body of research has investigated the developmental histories of successful athletes (Güllich, 2018;Haugaasen, Toering, & Jordet, 2014). Such research has emphasized a breadth of factors which influence athlete development, including the balance between different types of sporting experiences (i.e., informal play, structured practice; Berry, Abernethy, & Côté, 2008;Hendry & Hodges, 2018), and the range of sports that a young athlete participates in (Bridge & Toms, 2013;Coakley, 2011). ...
Purpose: The aim of this study was to provide an in-depth analysis of the prevalence and consequences of within-sport specialization in track and field in the United Kingdom. Method: The competition histories of top 100 ranked athletes from four representative events (100 m, 800 m, long jump, and shot put) were recorded from a publically-accessible database. Athletes were drawn from Under 20 (U20), U15, and U13 populations from the 2014/15 season, U15 populations from the 2009/10 season, and U13 populations from the 2007/08 season. Athletes’ specialization status was defined based upon the number of event groups (sprint, endurance, jump, throw) in which they had recorded at least one performance. Chi-squared tests were used to examine the association between level of specialization at U13 and U15 and both performance and retention at subsequent age grades. Results: Within-sport specialization was rare among U13 and U15 track and field athletes, with approximately 10% of top 100 ranked U13s and 25% of top 100 ranked U15s competing in a single event group only. However, less than 35% of participants competed in sprinting, endurance running, jumping, and throwing events (i.e., diversification). There were no sex differences in the extent of specialization. Top ranked U20 female athletes were more likely to have diversified at U13 than their peers. There was no association between specialization at U13/U15 and subsequent retention. Conclusion: Administrators and coach educators should provide more sophisticated guidance for coaches and parents in relation to within-sport specialization.
... For example, Duffy, Baluch, and Ericsson (2004) classified as DP the hours athletes spent in solitary practice plus those spent practicing with a partner. Haugaasen, Toering, and Jordet (2014) considered activities with a deliberate intention to improve skills (e.g., attacking, defending, physical, and mental). Roca, Williams, and Ford (2012) Macnamara et al. 's (2016) meta-analysis examining the relation between DP and performance in sports is the consideration of DP as not only any type of sport-specific practice activity, but also competitive and playful activities. ...
This chapter reviews the origins of the deliberate practice (DP) concept and explains how these ideas have stimulated applications to research in sport. It appraises both conceptual and methodological aspects of the deliberate practice framework (DPF) and discusses the reasons the DPF has remained a framework for examining expert performance rather than a theory for explaining it. A major consequence of the emergence of the DPF has been the re‐emphasis on the importance of the coach in athlete success. In terms of methodological improvements, designs such as qualitative approaches and time‐based analyses of the microstructure of practice show promise. One option is to examine practice more closely in situ . Another option is to take a prospective/longitudinal approach. A fundamental assumption within much of the discourse on DP is that innate talent is diametrically opposed to any type of practice.
... No futebol, existe uma evidência sólida acerca da importância de participar numa ampla quantidade de prática específica na modalidade para atingir a elite a nível jovem e sénior (Ward et al. 2007, Ford et al. 2009, Ford & Williams, 2012, Haugaasen et al. 2014). Por exemplo a força muscular, potência e velocidade são importantes determinantes dos jogadores de futebol ao nível da realização de sprint, salto, desarme de bola e remate (Reilly et al., 2000). ...
... For example, Duffy, Baluch, and Ericsson (2004) classified as DP the hours athletes spent in solitary practice plus those spent practicing with a partner. Haugaasen, Toering, and Jordet (2014) considered activities with a deliberate intention to improve skills (e.g., attacking, defending, physical, and mental). Roca, Williams, and Ford (2012) Macnamara et al. 's (2016) meta-analysis examining the relation between DP and performance in sports is the consideration of DP as not only any type of sport-specific practice activity, but also competitive and playful activities. ...
... Epigenetic effects can therefore play a significant role in the expression and determination of athletic potential (Rees et al., 2016). At the genetic and epigenetic level, there is evidence that gene variants explain a significant amount of variance in a variety of expressions such as endurance and muscle strength, which in turn are influenced by physiolo gical processes, such as physical exercise (Haugaasen, Toering, & Jordet, 2014;Rees et al., 2016). Fraga & colleagues (2005) provided evidence that the gene expression of monozygotic twins differ with increasing age and the more their lifestyles vary. ...
In this target article, Joseph Baker and Nick Wattie revisited the review article on the evidence for innate talent published by Howe, Davidson and Sloboda 20 years ago, and focused mainly on whether this concept was reasonable and scientifically sound, and whether the concept of innate talent was valid also in the world of sport. The main article (CISS_3:006) is then discussed by five peer commentaries (CISS_4:102 – CISS_4:106), written by research experts in this field. Finally, Joseph Baker and Nick Wattie provided a closing response (CISS_4:108) acknowledging critiques, suggestions, and extensions brought forward by the commentators.
... Epigenetic effects can therefore play a significant role in the expression and determination of athletic potential (Rees et al., 2016). At the genetic and epigenetic level, there is evidence that gene variants explain a significant amount of variance in a variety of expressions such as endurance and muscle strength, which in turn are influenced by physiolo gical processes, such as physical exercise (Haugaasen, Toering, & Jordet, 2014;Rees et al., 2016). Fraga & colleagues (2005) provided evidence that the gene expression of monozygotic twins differ with increasing age and the more their lifestyles vary. ...
A recent article by Baker and Wattie (2018) provided an update on the widely citeded review of “Innate Talent” by Howe, Davidson and Sloboda (1998). The article summarizes that the defined criteria for “Innate Talent” are still valid, standing the test of time. However, new findings in epigenetics should be considered. The epigenome interacts with environmental factors, such as physical exercise, contributing to phenotypical and performance differences of the same gene. In this context, researchers in sport science face the task of defining ethical standards that are accepted by society. From an epigenetic perspective, one should refrain from thinking that genetics have a fixed performance outcome, since the epigenome is adaptable. Instead, research and practice should consider how created environments support athlete development.
... Sportwissenschaftlerinnen und Sportwissenschaftler haben den Zeitaufwand für Deliberate Play bei mehr oder weniger leistungsstarken Athletinnen und Athleten bestimmt und dabei den positiven Beitrag von Deliberate Play zur Expertiseentwicklung während der Kindheit herausgestellt. So wurde über retrospektive Befragungen festgestellt, dass professionelle Sportlerinnen und Sportler während ihrer Kindheit und Jugend mehr Zeit pro Woche mit sportartspezifischem Spielen verbracht haben als nichtprofessionelle Sportlerinnen und Sportler(Ford und Williams 2012;Haugaasen et al. 2014). Zudem zeigte sich, dass Fußballspielende, die später in der Adoleszenz einen Profivertrag erhielten, im Alter zwischen 6 und 12 Jahren häufiger an fußballspezifischem Deliberate Play teilgenommen hatten als Spielende ohne Vertragsangebot(Ford et al. 2009).Die Auswahl von Talenten ist eine notwendige Aufgabe der Sportpraxis, um begrenzt verfügbare Ressourcen (z. ...
Nachhaltiger Erfolg von Sportverbänden und -vereinen basiert auf einer adäquaten Talentförderung. Aufbauend auf grundlegenden Definitionen (Begabung, Expertise, Talent) werden Herangehensweisen der Talentforschung und Rahmenmodelle der Begabungs- und Expertiseforschung vorgestellt. Im Hauptteil werden sportpsychologische Merkmale wie kognitive Leistungsfaktoren (z. B. Entscheidungskompetenz) und persönlichkeitsbezogene Faktoren (z. B. Leistungsmotivation) im Hinblick auf die Auswahl und Entwicklung von Talenten betrachtet. Dies begründet eine stärkere Einbeziehung psychologischer Testverfahren und Interventionsansätze bei der Talentförderung. Allerdings sollten aufgrund begrenzter Effektgrößen bei der Prognose zukünftiger Leistungsfähigkeit sportpsychologische Merkmale nicht (alleinig) zur Talentselektion genutzt werden. Der Wert sportpsychologischer Diagnostik besteht im Monitoring relevanter Merkmale, um Förderpotenziale identifizieren und die Talententwicklung fundieren zu können.
... In summary, sport performance is determined by a physical, technical and tactical systematic practice, necessary to achieve an elite level in soccer (Haugaasen et al., 2014). The same practice should be applied to the psychological training, strengthening the psychological resources for the sport competition; in this sense, the review published by Gledhill et al. (2017) stated 48 social and psychological factors linked to the talent development in soccer (e.g., adaptive lifestyle choices, practice and play behaviors). ...
The athletes’ psychological disposition is a factor that is increasingly considered by researchers as a key to sports performance, even as a mediator between the physical, technical and tactical abilities of the athlete and their competitive performance, thus acquiring great relevance in training and in sports performance. The purpose of this study is to analyze the psychological characteristics of young soccer players and their relation to their performance perception, made both by the player herself and by their coaches. The sample is composed of 108 women (M age = 15.53, SD age = 1.05), with ages between 13 and 17 years (13 years, n = 1, 14 years, n = 18, 15 years, n = 36, 16 years, n = 29, 17 years, n = 24), and with a sport practice experience of 7.27 years on average (SD = 2.64). For to address this aim, we used the Psychological Characteristics related to the Sport Performance Questionnaire (CPRD) and the Psychological Skills Inventory for Sports (PSIS). In addition, regarding the evaluation of performance perception, an ad hoc short questionnaire was created, composed by one question addressed to the player and one directed to the coach. The results indicate that the group of players of the under-16 category obtained higher scores in all the psychological dimensions than the U-18 players, showing significant differences in Team Cohesion (p < 0.048). Regarding the degree of congruence between the player’s psychological features, and the player’s and coach’s performance perceptions, the results show statistically significant and negative correlations between the Team Cohesion factor and the athlete’s own outcome perception for the match #1 (rxy = -0.479; p < 0.001), and match #2 (rxy = -0.402; p < 0.01). The results of this study may contribute to establish the differences between different constellations of psychological characteristics according to the categories of competition and their relationship with the perception of performance. This knowledge can be used by sports professionals: coaches, psychologists, physical educators, etc., in order to help athletes to reach their maximum performance.
... Epigenetic effects can therefore play a significant role in the expression and determination of athletic potential (Rees et al., 2016). At the genetic and epigenetic level, there is evidence that gene variants explain a significant amount of variance in a variety of expressions such as endurance and muscle strength, which in turn are influenced by physiolo gical processes, such as physical exercise (Haugaasen, Toering, & Jordet, 2014;Rees et al., 2016). Fraga & colleagues (2005) provided evidence that the gene expression of monozygotic twins differ with increasing age and the more their lifestyles vary. ...
An the recent article by Baker and Wattie (2018), they provided an update on the widely cited review of “Innate Talent” by Howe, Davidson and Sloboda (1998). The article summarizes that the defined criteria for “Innate Talent” are still valid, standing the test of time. However, new findings in epigenetics should be considered. The epigenome interacts with environmental factors, such as physical exercise, contributing to phenotypical and performance differences of the same gene. In this context, researchers in sport science face the task of defining ethical standards that are accepted by society. From an epigenetic perspective, one should refrain from thinking that genetics have a fixed performance outcome, since the epigenome is adaptable. Instead, research and practice should consider how created environments support athlete development.
... Relative to the DMSP postulate that "early diversification" facilitates later performance development, Côté et al. (2007;Côté & Erickson, 2015) referenced several studies that apparently corresponded to the postulate at a descriptive, in parts qualitative, level, while dissenting findings of some available comparative studies (see below) were not considered. Although positive correlations of childhood self-led sport play with later performance were noted in several studies of youth cricket and youth and senior football (Ford et al., 2009;Ford & Williams, 2012;Güllich, 2018a;Hornig et al., 2016;Weissensteiner et al., 2008), results of many other studies of youth and senior athletes from a variety of sports, including cricket and football, showed that the volume of childhood self-led sport activity, and specifically of self-led play, was not correlated or was negatively correlated with later performance (Duffy, Baluch, & Ericsson, 2004;Güllich, 2014Güllich, , 2017Güllich, , 2018bGüllich & Emrich, 2014;Hardy et al., 2013;Haugaasen, Toering, & Jordet, 2014;Ward et al., 2004;Weissensteiner et al., 2008). ...
The study empirically tested the postulate of the Developmental Model of Sport Participation (DMSP; Côté, J., Baker, J., & Abernethy, B. (2007). Practice and play in the development of sport expertise. In R. Eklund & G. Tenenbaum (Eds.), Handbook of sport psychology (pp. 184–202). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley) that diversified childhood self-led sport play will beneficially affect future, adolescent intrinsic motivation. Participants were 178 elite youth athletes (age 15.3 ± 1.5 years) from several game and non-game sports; 117 were members of the federal state or national junior squad in their respective sport. A questionnaire measured current (adolescent) intrinsic and extrinsic motivation of the youth athletes using the Sport Motivation Scale (Pelletier, L. G., Fortier, M. S., Vallerand, R. J., Tuson, K. M., Brière, N. M., & Blais, M. R. (1995). Towards a new measure of intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and amotivation in sports: The sport motivation scale (SMS). Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 17, 35–53) and their earlier volume of childhood engagement (through 12 years) in coach-led practice and self-led play in their respective main sport and other sports. Analyses revealed that adolescent intrinsic motivation was not significantly correlated with earlier childhood self-led sport activities, self-led play in particular, or childhood sports diversification. Furthermore, considering all different types of childhood sport activities together in multiple regression analyses, they did not provide meaningful explanatory power regarding adolescent intrinsic or extrinsic motivation. In summary, the results did not provide support for the postulate of the DMSP among elite youth athletes. The findings suggest that future research may seek to enable more robust empirical substantiation of the DMSP postulate.
... U12 to U16 years: Premier League, 2011) talent identification and development environments (Tears et al. 2018;Premier League, 2011). Such investiture in the academy infrastructure has seen an increase in the number of state-of-the-art, purpose-built facilities, all designed to support talented players' development and progression (Haugaasen et al. 2014). Despite this investment, however, the evidence demonstrates that maintaining a place in an academy is challenging, with~90% of youth players in England and Wales failing to achieve full professional status (Anderson and Miller 2011). ...
Purpose: To construct a valid and reliable methodology for the development of position-specific predictors deemed appropriate for talent identification purposes within elite youth soccer in England.
Method: N = 10 panel experts participated in a three-step modified e-Delphi poll to generate consensus on a series of generic youth player attributes. A follow-up electronic survey completed by coaches, scouts and recruitment staff (n = 99) ranked these attributes to specific player-positions.
Results: A final list of 44 player attributes found consensus using the three-step modified e-Delphi poll. Findings indicated that player-positional attributes considered most important in the youth phase are more psychological and technical than physiological or anthropometric. Despite ‘hidden’ attributes (e.g., coachability, flair, versatility, and vision) finding consensus on the e-Delphi poll, there was no evidence to support these traits when associated with a specific playing position.
Conclusion: For those practitioners responsible for talent recruitment, our findings may provide greater understanding of the multiple attributes required for some playing positions. However, further ecological research is required to assess the veracity of our claims.
... Players reported a linear "high participation and representative level" ascent from early age-groups onward, typified by accelerated "deliberate practice" engagement in the specializing years (i.e., 13-16; akin to DMSP's 13-15 years) and concomitant reductions in deliberate play. Conceptually, this intensified early sport specific practice, subsequent rapid performance improvements and more accomplished youth performance aligns with the deliberate practice framework and corresponds with several team sport findings (Ford, Ward, Hodges, & Williams, 2009;Haugaasen, Toering, & Jordet, 2014;Ward, Hodges, Williams, & Starkes, 2004). Efficacy for earlier investment and "deliberate practice" at 13-16 years was also supported with higher average volumes of competitive games per season (representative level involvement added approximately 10 games/season on average), and with training emphasis. ...
Contemporary models of athlete development (e.g., Development Model of Sport Participation) suggest attainment benefits from early age multi-sport "sampling" behaviour before progressive transition into "invested" single-sport involvement in teenage years compared to intensive early-age specialisation. However, specific examinations of these development patterns across a number of team sports and cultural contexts remains limited. This study involved a large sample of professional Australian Rugby League (RL) players (N = 224) who progressed along the RL system pathways. It defined two contrasting athlete development trajectories based upon initial entry into formal age group representative teams ("Early": U16, U18; "Later": U20+) to compare their developmental participation patterns using the National Rugby League Athlete Development Questionnaire (NRLADQ). Between-Within Analyses of Variance (BW-ANOVA)'s identified interaction effects as the 'Later' group reported lower volumes of deliberate practice from 10-20 years, RL-game involvement from 10-20 years, deliberate play from 5-12 years, and a later reduction in other sporting involvement. Group differences in RL-related deliberate practice and play were supported by qualitative descriptions of training at age-categories.
Conclusion:
RL professional senior elite success level can be attained via early intensified specialised investment and accelerated youth success as well as by a rather decelerated, much less cost-intensive participation pattern.
The demand for creativity in team sports, and specifically in a highly unpredictable activity such as soccer, has generated great interest from academics and practitioners. Creative players can bring the unforeseeable into the game that can allow teams to keep an edge over their opponents and is considered a key element of performance. Current theoretical approaches highlight that nur- turing creativity in soccer should be encouraged throughout youth developmental stages; thus, practitioners must create an enriching and supportive environment for creativity to thrive. The development of creativity comprises long-term work on the part of the young player, coupled with the corresponding planning, implementation, and patience from practitioners. As such, the first part of this chapter frames the concept and presents comprehensive frameworks (e.g., the Tactical Creativity Approach, Memmert, 2013; Creativity Developmental Framework, Santos et al., 2016) to aid creative play to flourish. The second part of this chapter provides a detailed description of small-sided games and movement variability features to encourage exploratory be- haviour and complement soccer training tasks. Moreover, in this section, an overview of current evidence-based interventions is centrally discussed. The third part of this chapter offers a review across creativity training programmes, such as Skills4Genius (Santos et al., 2017) and The Crea- tive Soccer Platform (Rasmussen & Østergaard, 2016), to provide further guidance and strategies for soccer practitioners to design for creativity developmental outcomes. Lastly, in order to ad- vance this field of practice, considerations for researchers and practitioners are outlined.
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Bu çalışmanın amacı, Lonsdale ve ark. (2007) tarafından geliştirilen ve Kelecek ve ark. (2018) tarafından yetişkin yaş gurubu için Türkçe’ye uyarlanan “Sporcu Bağlılık Ölçeği” (Athlete Engagement Questionnaire)’nin 14-18 yaş gurubu için geçerlik güvenirliğinin test edilmesidir. “Sporcu Bağlılık Ölçeği” 148 kadın ve 241 erkek olmak üzere toplam 389 (Xyaş: 15,94 ± 1,31) sporcuya uygulanmıştır. Elde edilen veriler frekans, aritmetik ortalama, standart sapma, t testi, korelasyon analizi, path analizi, açımlayıcı ve doğrulayıcı faktör analiziyle çözümlenmiştir. Ölçeğin iç tutarlılığı Cronbach Alpha iç tutarlılık katsayısı ile hesaplanmış ve 0,86 (güven) ile 0,82 (coşku) arasında bulunmuştur. Madde analizi için yapılan t testinde maddelerin ölçek için işler olduğu sonucuna varılmıştır. Maddelerin ölçeğin orjinaliyle uyum gösterdiği ve dört alt boyut altında toplandığı görülmüştür. Maddeler ölçeğin %69’unu açıklamaktadır. Path analizinde her bir maddenin alt ölçeğe olan yük değeri ve hata değerleri 0,90’nın altında bulunmuştur. Standardize edilmiş değerler açısından ölçme aracının madde ve alt boyutları açısından ölçme yapısının uygun olduğu belirlenmiştir. Çalışma sonucu elde edilen bulgularla; Yeni Zelanda, İspanya, Portekiz, Hırvatistan ve Türkiye örneklemlerinde benzer şekilde, “Sporcu Bağlılık Ölçeği”nin spora olan bağlılıklarının belirlenmesi amacıyla, 14-18 yaş grubunda da geçerli ve güvenilir biçimde kullanılabilmesinin mümkün olduğu görülmüştür.
What explains the acquisition of exceptional human performance? Does a focus on intensive specialized practice facilitate excellence, or is a multidisciplinary practice background better? We investigated this question in sports. Our meta-analysis involved 51 international study reports with 477 effect sizes from 6,096 athletes, including 772 of the world’s top performers. Predictor variables included starting age, age of reaching defined performance milestones, and amounts of coach-led practice and youth-led play (e.g., pickup games) in the athlete’s respective main sport and in other sports. Analyses revealed that (a) adult world-class athletes engaged in more childhood/adolescent multisport practice, started their main sport later, accumulated less main-sport practice, and initially progressed more slowly than did national-class athletes; (b) higher performing youth athletes started playing their main sport earlier, engaged in more main-sport practice but less other-sports practice, and had faster initial progress than did lower performing youth athletes; and (c) youth-led play in any sport had negligible effects on both youth and adult performance. We illustrate parallels from science: Nobel laureates had multidisciplinary study/working experience and slower early progress than did national-level award winners. The findings suggest that variable, multidisciplinary practice experiences are associated with gradual initial discipline-specific progress but greater sustainability of long-term development of excellence.
The concepts of deliberate practice (Ericsson, Krampe, & Tesch-Römer, 1993) and deliberate play (i.e., informal youth-led sport play with peers, but without a coach, such as backyard soccer, basketball in the driveway; Côté, Baker, & Abernethy, 2007) have been influential on research into the acquisition of athletic expertise. Deliberate practice was defined to be undertaken for the extrinsic motive to achieve an improved performance, with the further criteria that it be physically and mentally highly effortful and not inherently enjoyable. Deliberate play was defined to be highly enjoyable and to be undertaken for the intrinsic motive to maximize enjoyment. However, the authors ascribed these attributes a priori to athletes' involvement in the activities but did not empirically measure the ascribed attributes. In this study, we examined whether these a priori presupposed attributes are underpinned by empirical correspondence in youth athletes. A total of 208 athletes (13.6 years; SD = 2.6) from several sports reported their motives and inherent enjoyment of coach-led practice and youth-led sport play in a questionnaire. The empirical findings did not provide support for some of the premises of the definitions of deliberate practice and deliberate play. Inherent enjoyment was high in both activities and did not differ. Youth athletes' motives to engage in both sport activities comprised a broad multi-dimensional spectrum including health, general fitness, aesthetic experiences, social interaction, and recreation from daily hassle, not just performance or inherent enjoyment. Within the performance motive for coach-led practice, the intrinsic component was very pronounced while the extrinsic component was not. Furthermore, more successful youth athletes showed less empirical correspondence with premises of the deliberate practice concept than less successful athletes. The findings suggest that the definitions of deliberate practice and deliberate play should be empirically substantiated, rather than defining them by untested a priori premises.
The hypothesis that sport-specific skill learning is correlated with earlier childhood multi-sport practice experiences was empirically studied among youth soccer players. Fourteen youth soccer coaches (38.1 ± 12.0 years) evaluated 100 youth players (11.8 ± 0.7 years) regarding their progress in soccer-specific skill learning through the course of a one-year season. The players completed a questionnaire recording their earlier and current participation in coach-led practice and youth-led play in soccer and in other sports. Reliability of the coach rating and of players’ reported sport activities ranged 0.83 ≤ rtt ≤ 1.00. Analyses revealed that the progress of the youth players in soccer-specific skill learning was not significantly correlated with their earlier or current amounts of coach-led soccer practice (–0.07 ≤ rs ≤ 0.07), youth-led soccer play (0.01 ≤ rs ≤ 0.08), or youth-led play in other sports (0.13 ≤ rs ≤ 0.22). Progress in soccer-specific skill learning was significantly correlated with the accumulated years and hours of earlier (but not current) coach-led practice in other sports (0.54 ≤ rs ≤ 0.57). A binary logistic regression accurately classified 83% of players with better and poorer learning progress based on earlier years and hours of practice in other sports. The observations suggest that earlier practice experiences in other sports had a lagged effect in interaction with later soccer practice and facilitated skill learning in soccer-specific practice.
The study examined the “micro-structure” of football practice and the “macro-structure” of participation history of female professional football players. Participants were 29 German 1st league (Bundesliga) players, 14 of whom played on the senior national team (Olympic Champion in 2016). A questionnaire recorded the players’ positions, proportions of physical conditioning, drill-type skill exercises and playing forms within coach-led football practice, and the volume of coach-led practice and peer-led play, in both football and other sports, from childhood to adulthood. Analyses revealed that most athletes played various attacker and defender positions during development. National team players differed from their Bundesliga peers by less physical conditioning and greater proportions of playing forms within football practice. National team players also accumulated less total football practice until age 18 years, but more peer-led football and coach-led practice in other sports compared to their Bundesliga counterparts. Based on these variables, a binary logistic regression classified 93% of the national team and Bundesliga players correctly. Conclusion: A combination of long-term coach-led football practice involving a relatively large proportion of playing forms with considerable childhood/adolescent peer-led football play and coach-led practice in other sports may have facilitated adult performance among German female world-class football players.
Football specialisation is a relatively recent subject for debate in Norway. As specialisation has only now become a possibility with new technology and better facilities, offering protection from the long winter. Despite being a topic for extensive research, there is much controversy associated with early specialisation amongst researchers and practitioners alike. The study aimed to investigate and compare an early specialisation approach with that of a late specialiser. This was done by investigating the effects of early and late specialisation, and place this into the context of Norwegian sporting culture, the characteristics of football, and finally reviewed the pathways of elite and sub-elite players. Furthermore, the knowledge was applied to investigate the pathways of current players at level 1-4 of Norwegian football (n=37). The participants answered a questionnaire investigating their playing pathways. The study reached the following conclusions; on average, elite performers had engaged in more football training, in more unorganised play, and in more other sports but at a lower volume than sub-elite performers. Ultimately the study suggests better players had engaged in higher volumes of football trainings and unorganised play, but fewer practise hours in other sports. While a majority of the participants participated in other sports, the trend is that better player specialise in football between the ages of 13 and 15. Future studies should review early specialisation in the context of age appropriate stimuli during a player’s pathway; which other sports are more beneficial for young players; and through the lens of positional requirements. Future researchers should also consider a longitudinal study, as it will contribute valuable data.
The present study sought to extend existing literature by examining the longitudinal directional relationships between perfectionistic strivings, autonomous motivation, and engagement in sport-specific activities among youth athletes in three team sports. Participants were 172 team sports athletes (mean age = 15.2 years, SD = 0.5; males = 94, females = 78) who completed measures of perfectionistic strivings and autonomous motivation at the start and end of a competitive season. Players also completed a training diary during the season. cross-lagged path analysis, found a reciprocal and positive relationship between autonomous motivation and engagement in sport-specific activities. In addition, higher perfectionistic strivings at the start of a competitive season were positively associated with engagement in sport-specific activities at the end of season and not the reverse. Autonomous motivation mediated this relationship between perfectionistic strivings and sport-specific activities engagement. Thus, this study supports the reciprocal association between motivation and engagement in sport-specific activities and unidirectional relations between perfectionistic strivings and sport-specific activities engagement among youth team sports athletes.
The theoretical framework presented in this article explains expert performance as the end result of individuals' prolonged efforts to improve performance while negotiating motivational and external constraints. In most domains of expertise, individuals begin in their childhood a regimen of effortful activities (deliberate practice) designed to optimize improvement. Individual differences, even among elite performers, are closely related to assessed amounts of deliberate practice. Many characteristics once believed to reflect innate talent are actually the result of intense practice extended for a minimum of 10 years. Analysis of expert performance provides unique evidence on the potential and limits of extreme environmental adaptation and learning.
The development of expertise in sport is the result of successful interaction of biological, psychological, and sociological constraints. This review examines the training and environmental factors that influence the acquisition of sport expertise. Research examining the quality and quantity of training indicate that these two elements are crucial predictors of attainment. In addition, the possession of resources such as parental support and adequate coaching are essential. Social factors such as cultural influences and the relative age effect are also considered as determinants of sport expertise. Although it is evident that environmental factors are essential to the acquisition of high levels of sport development, further research is clearly required.
This study examined the relationship between self-regulated learning and performance level of 256 elite youth soccer players aged 12 to 17 years (M-age = 14.2; SD = 1.2). As relative age may affect this relationship through its association with maturation, experience, and performance level, we controlled for relative age. Practice and match experience was equal across groups [international (n = 76) vs. national level (n = 178)]. A logistic regression analysis revealed that players scoring high on reflection and players born in the first half of a selection year were more likely to belong to the international group (OR = 1.69 and 2.18, respectively). Relative age did not affect the relationship between reflection and performance level. We suggest that international players benefit more from practice than national players through reflective thinking. Additionally, given international players' higher reflection scores irrespective of relative age, reflection may be a cognitive-behavioral marker of talent.
This study aimed to measure behavioral correlates of self-regulation in elite youth soccer players. Behaviors regarded as indicative of self-regulated learning were identified by interviewing six expert youth soccer coaches. These behaviors were observed during practice of eight elite youth soccer players aged 15–17 years, and linked with self-reported self-regulated learning scores to describe behavioral correlates of self-regulation. Results indicated that self-regulated learning is reflected in taking responsibility for learning and that players’ practice environment plays a significant role. This study highlights the importance of measuring overt behavior to gain a complete impression of youth soccer players’ self-regulated learning skills.
In November 2005, the International Olympic Committee's Medical Commission issued a statement on Training the elite child athlete recommending that “more scientific research be done to better identify the parameters of training the elite child athlete”. This paper focuses on a specific issue related to training the child athlete: early specialization. While associations between early specialization and expertise development are highlighted, much research also suggests early specialization is associated with a range of negative consequences affecting physical, psychological, and social development. Alternately, some researchers have proposed that an early diversification approach does not disadvantage athletes in acquiring expertise, and is important for the development of intrinsic motivation and skill transferability. However, this review suggests that inadequate evidence exists to resolve the issue in favor of either approach.
Experts acquire domain‐specific skills as a result of the activities in which they participate throughout their development. We examine the domain‐specific activities in which two groups of elite youth soccer players participated between six and 12 years of age. Our goal was to examine early participation differences between those who progressed to professional status at 16 years of age and those who did not. Data were contrasted to a control group of recreational‐level players and examined in the context of the Developmental Model of Sport Participation, which supports the importance of late specialization and early diversity between six and 12 years of age. The elite players who went on to attain professional status accumulated more hours per year in soccer play activities, but not in soccer practice, competition or other sports, between six and 12 years of age, compared with those who did not progress. The two elite groups averaged more hours per year in soccer practice compared with recreational‐level players, but not soccer play, competition or other sports. We propose the “early engagement hypothesis” to explain our results. Accordingly, practice and play in the primary sport between six and 12 years of age contributes to the development of expert performance in English soccer.
The relative contribution of domain‐specific and non‐domain‐specific activities to the development of soccer expertise was examined using a retrospective cross‐sectional design. Elite and sub‐elite players aged between 9 and 18 years of age completed a participation history questionnaire under supervision. Weekly and accumulated hours spent in soccer team practice most consistently discriminated between skill levels across age cohorts. Elite players spent more time in decision‐making activities during team practice, possessed higher levels of motivation and had greater parental support. Maturational indices, time spent in playful activities, sporting diversity and time at which specialization occurred did not differentiate between groups. Engaging in activities deliberately designed to improve performance rather than mere experience within the domain or experience of related activities is likely to lead to elite status.
A Review on the Effects of Soccer Small-Sided Games
Over the last years there has been a substantial growth in research related to specific training methods in soccer with a strong emphasis on the effects of small-sided games. The increase of research in this topic is coincident with the increase of popularity obtained by specific soccer conditioning, which involves training players to deal with soccer match situations. Given the limited time available for fitness training in soccer, the effectiveness of small-sided games as a conditioning stimulus needs to be optimized to allow players to compete at the highest level. Available studies indicate that physiological responses (e.g. heart rate, blood lactate concentration and rating of perceived exertion), tactical and technical skill requirements can be modified during small-sided games by altering factors such as the number of players, the size of the pitch, the rules of the game, and coach encouragement. However, because of the lack of consistency in small-sided games design, player fitness, age, ability, level of coach encouragement, and playing rules in each of these studies, it is difficult to make accurate conclusions on the influence of each of these factors separately.
Sampling may promote prolonged engagement in sport by limiting physical injuries (Fraser-Thomas et al., 2005). Overtraining injuries are a concern for young athletes who specialize in one sport and engage in high volumes of deliberate practice (Hollander, Meyers, & Leunes, 1995; Law, Côté, & Ericsson, 2007). For instance, young gymnasts who practice for over 16 hours a week have been shown to have higher incidences of back injuries (Goldstein, Berger, Windier, & Jackson, 1991). A sampling approach in child-controlled play (e.g. deliberate play) rather than highly adult-controlled practice (e.g. deliberate practice) has been proposed as a strategy to limit overuse and other sport-related injuries (Micheli, Glassman, & Klein, 2000). In summary, sampling may protect against sport attrition by limiting sport related injuries and allowing children to have early experiences in sport that are enjoyable. Psychosocial Benefits of Sampling Only a small percentage of children who participate in school sports ever become elite athletes. Therefore, the psychosocial outcomes of sport participation are particularly important to consider. Recent studies with youth between the ages of 11 to 17 have found that those who are involved in a variety of extracurricular activities (e.g. sports, volunteer, arts) score more favourably on outcome measures such as Grade Point Average (GPA; Fredricks & Eccles, 2006a) and positive peer relationships (Fredricks & Eccles, 2006b) than youth who participate in fewer activities. These patterns are thought to exist due to each extracurricular activity bringing its own distinct pattern of socialization experiences that reinforce certain behaviours and/or teach various skills (Fredricks & Eccles, 2006b; Rose-Krasnor, Bussen, Willoughby, & Chambers, 2006). This contention is corroborated by studies of children and youths' experiences in extracurricular activities indicating that youth have unique experiences in each activity that contribute to their development (Hansen, Larson, & Dworkin, 2003; Larson, Hansen, & Moneta, 2006). This has led Wilkes and Côté (2007) to propose that children who sample different activities (through their own choice or by virtue of parental direction), have a greater chance of developing the following five developmental outcomes compared to children who specialize in one activity: 1) life skills, 2) prosocial behaviour, 3) healthy identity, 4) diverse peer groups and 5) social capital. Il arrive souvent que Ia première exposition des enfants à un contexte sportif structuré passe par les cours d'éducation physique ou les activités parascolaires organisés à l'école. En ce sens, les enseignants et entraîneurs jouent un rôle de premier plan dans le développement des habileté sportives des élèves. Des recherche ont fait ressortir deux méthodes utiles pour aider les jeunes athlètes à se développer, soit la spécialisation précoce (Ericsson, Krampe et Tesch-Römer, 1993) et l'échantillonnage (Côté, [Baker] et [Abernethy] 2007). Même si L· modèle développemental de participation sportive (Côté et coll., 2007) décrit en quoi les deux approches favorisent l'expertise sportive, celle par échantillonnage offre plus d'avantages sur le plan sportif et plus de bienfaits psychosociaux. Cet article explique en quoi l'echantiUonniigr de dijjrrriits sports piir les jeunes les aide à perfectionner des habiletés physiques liées à cinq caractéristiques psychosociales : l'autonomie fonctionnelles, la sociabilité, la saine identité, la diversification des groupes de pairs et le capital social Les auteurs discutent égaiement de stratégies qui encouragent ce genre d'environnement.
This paper identifies key properties of expertise in sport predicated on the performer-environment relationship. Weaknesses of traditional approaches to expert performance, which uniquely focus on the performer and the environment separately, are highlighted by an ecological dynamics perspective. Key properties of expert movement systems include ‘multi- and meta-stability’, ‘adaptive variability’, ‘redundancy’, ‘degeneracy’ and the ‘attunement to affordances’. Empirical research on these expert system properties indicates that skill acquisition does not emerge from the internal representation of declarative and procedural knowledge, or the imitation of expert behaviours to linearly reduce a perceived ‘gap’ separating movements of beginners and a putative expert model. Rather, expert performance corresponds with the ongoing co-adaptation of an individual’s behaviours to dynamically changing, interacting constraints, individually perceived and encountered. The functional role of adaptive movement variability is essential to expert performance in many different sports (involving individuals and teams; ball games and outdoor activities; land and aquatic environments). These key properties signify that, in sport performance, although basic movement patterns need to be acquired by developing athletes, there exists no ideal movement template towards which all learners should aspire, since relatively unique functional movement solutions emerge from the interaction of key constraints.
This paper identifies key properties of expertise in sport predicated on the performer-environment relationship. Weaknesses of traditional approaches to expert performance, which uniquely focus on the performer and the environment separately, are highlighted by an ecological dynamics perspective. Key properties of expert movement systems include 'multi- and meta-stability', 'adaptive variability', 'redundancy', 'degeneracy' and the 'attunement to affordances'. Empirical research on these expert system properties indicates that skill acquisition does not emerge from the internal representation of declarative and procedural knowledge, or the imitation of expert behaviours to linearly reduce a perceived 'gap' separating movements of beginners and a putative expert model. Rather, expert performance corresponds with the ongoing co-adaptation of an individual's behaviours to dynamically changing, interacting constraints, individually perceived and encountered. The functional role of adaptive movement variability is essential to expert performance in many different sports (involving individuals and teams; ball games and outdoor activities; land and aquatic environments). These key properties signify that, in sport performance, although basic movement patterns need to be acquired by developing athletes, there exists no ideal movement template towards which all learners should aspire, since relatively unique functional movement solutions emerge from the interaction of key constraints.
Training during a sensitive period in development may have greater effects on brain structure and behavior than training later in life. Musicians are an excellent model for investigating sensitive periods because training starts early and can be quantified. Previous studies suggested that early training might be related to greater amounts of white matter in the corpus callosum, but did not control for length of training or identify behavioral correlates of structural change. The current study compared white-matter organization using diffusion tensor imaging in early-and late-trained musicians matched for years of training and experience. We found that early-trained musicians had greater connectivity in the posterior midbody/isthmus of the corpus callosum and that fractional anisotropy in this region was related to age of onset of training and sensorimotor synchronization performance. We propose that training before the age of 7 years results in changes in white-matter connectivity that may serve as a scaffold upon which ongoing experience can build.
Examined patterns in the dynamics of families of talented athletes throughout their development in sport. Four families, including 3 families of elite rowers and 1 family of an elite tennis player, were examined. The framework provided by K. A. Ericsson et al (1993) to explain expert performance served as the theoretical basis for the study. Ericsson et al suggested that the acquisition of expert performance involves operating within 3 types of constraints: motivational, effort, and resource. In-depth interviews were conducted with each athlete, parent, and sibling to explore how they have dealt with these 3 constraints. A total of 15 individual interviews were conducted. Results permitted the identification of 3 phases of participation from early childhood to late adolescence: the sampling years, the specializing years, and the investment years. The dynamics of the family in each of these phases of development is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Two studies tested the theory of deliberate practice (K. A. Ericsson et al, 1993) and contrasted results with the sport commitment model (T. K. Scanlan et al, 1993a, 1993b). In Part I, international (mean age 25.6 yrs), national (mean age 24.0 yrs), and provincial (mean age 25.4 yrs) soccer and field hockey players recalled the amount of time they spent in individual and team practice, sport-related activities, and everyday activities at the start of their career and every 3 years since. In Part II, these activities were rated in terms of their relevance for improving performance, effort and concentration required, and enjoyment. A monotonic relationship between accumulated individual plus team practice and skill level was found. In contrast with Ericsson et al's findings for musicians, relevant activities were also enjoyable, while concentration became a separate dimension from effort. The viability of a generalized theory of expertise is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Abstract Talent development programmes for professional soccer clubs aim to guide players towards professional level performance. We identify whether the intermittent endurance capacity of these players may have changed over time. Since the 2000/2001 competition season, the intermittent endurance capacity of players in the talent development programmes of two professional soccer clubs was measured annually. A total of 492 players participated, divided across seven age categories (under 13 (U13), U14, U15, U16, U17, U18, U19) and resulting in 953 measurements. Analyses of variance showed an improvement in intermittent endurance capacity from the 2000/2001 season to 2009/2010 of around 50% in all age groups (P < 0.05). A possible explanation is the increased quantity and quality of training over the years. When identifying, developing and selecting young players, scouts, trainers and coaches have to be aware that the current level of soccer and its underlying performance characteristics - such as intermittent endurance capacity - are improving over time. This factor may have consequences for current young players aiming to make it to the top 10 years from now.
Abstract Coaches are central to talent development in youth soccer and what they say and do impacts on players' achievements and well-being. Researchers have systematically observed coach behaviour and practice activities within this setting (i.e. 'what coaches do'). We review this research in light of contemporary discussion that highlights a potential 'theory-practice' divide. Our main example focuses on the discrepancy between coaching behaviour and research from the sports science sub-discipline areas of motor learning and skill acquisition that relate to how best to design practice sessions and provide instruction (i.e., 'what coaches should probably do'). The underlying reasons for this discrepancy are discussed and recommendations made to address this disparity in research, education and coach behaviours.
Abstract Based on the developmental theory presented by Gagné (2009), we examined the factors perceived to influence the development of elite youth football players at a critical stage in their progression to the professional level. Transcribed interviews with ten expert development coaches were inductively and deductively content analysed. Conceptualisation of the data revealed six interrelated higher-order categories that represented the factors perceived to either positively or negatively influence player development. These were: awareness (e.g. self-awareness, awareness of others); resilience (e.g. coping with setbacks, optimistic attitude); goal-directed attributes (e.g. passion, professional attitude); intelligence (e.g. sport intelligence, emotional competence); sport-specific attributes (e.g. coachability, competitiveness); and environmental factors (e.g. significant others, culture of game). In this investigation, awareness emerged as a fundamental and mediating element for understanding how young players are able to transition to the professional level. Collectively, the findings underline the multidimensional nature of talent development and suggest that an intricate combination of stage-specific factors must manifest for gifted young players to translate their potential into excellence. Mechanisms by which academies could be helped to shape the characteristics and conditions associated with effective development are discussed.
Abstract The developmental activities of 328 elite soccer players aged under-16 years from Brazil, England, France, Ghana, Mexico, Portugal and Sweden were examined using retrospective recall in a cross-sectional research design. The activities were compared to the early diversification, early specialisation, and early engagement pathways. Players started their involvement in soccer at approximately 5 years of age. During childhood, they engaged in soccer practice for a mean value of 185.7, s = 124.0 h · year(-1), in soccer play for 186.0, s = 125.3 h · year(-1), and in soccer competition for 37.1, s = 28.9 h · year(-1). A mean value of 2.3, s = 1.6 sports additional to soccer were engaged in by 229 players during childhood. Players started their participation in an elite training academy at 11 to 12 years of age. During adolescence, they engaged in soccer practice for a mean value of 411.9, s = 184.3 h · year(-1), in soccer play for 159.7, s = 195.0 h · year(-1), and in soccer competition for 66.9, s = 48.8 h · year(-1). A mean value of 2.5, s = 1.8 sports other than soccer were engaged in by 132 players during this period. There were some relatively minor differences between countries, but generally the developmental activities of the players followed a mixture of the early engagement and specialisation pathways, rather than early diversification.
The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between athletes' perceptions of role ambiguity and two theoretically derived dimensions of coaching competency (i.e., game strategy and technique competencies). A total of 243 players from 26 teams representing various interdependent sports completed French versions of the Role Ambiguity Scale and the Coaching Competency Scale. Multilevel analyses supported the existence of relationships between the four dimensions of role ambiguity and the two dimensions of coaching competency at both individual and team levels. When the levels were considered jointly, athletes perceiving greater ambiguity in their role in both offensive and defensive contexts were more critical of their coach's capacities to lead their team during competitions and to diagnose or formulate instructions during training sessions. The results also indicated that the dimension of scope of responsibilities was the main contributor to the relationship with coaching competency at an individual level, whereas role evaluation was the main contributor to this relationship at a group level. Findings are discussed in relation to the role episode model, the role ambiguity dimensions involved in the relationships according to the level of analysis considered, and the salience of ambiguity perceptions in the offensive context.
Elite sporting performance results from the combination of innumerable factors, which interact with one another in a poorly understood but complex manner to mould a talented athlete into a champion. Within the field of sports science, elite performance is understood to be the result of both training and genetic factors. However, the extent to which champions are born or made is a question that remains one of considerable interest, since it has implications for talent identification and management, as well as for how sporting federations allocate scarce resources towards the optimisation of high-performance programmes. The present review describes the contributions made by deliberate practice and genetic factors to the attainment of a high level of sporting performance. The authors conclude that although deliberate training and other environmental factors are critical for elite performance, they cannot by themselves produce an elite athlete. Rather, individual performance thresholds are determined by our genetic make-up, and training can be defined as the process by which genetic potential is realised. Although the specific details are currently unknown, the current scientific literature clearly indicates that both nurture and nature are involved in determining elite athletic performance. In conclusion, elite sporting performance is the result of the interaction between genetic and training factors, with the result that both talent identification and management systems to facilitate optimal training are crucial to sporting success.
The theoretical framework presented in this article explains expert performance as the end result of individuals' prolonged efforts to improve performance while negotiating motivational and external constraints. In most domains of expertise, individuals begin in their childhood a regimen of effortful activities (deliberate practice) designed to optimize improvement. Individual differences, even among elite performers, are closely related to assessed amounts of deliberate practice. Many characteristics once believed to reflect innate talent are actually the result of intense practice extended for a minimum of 10 yrs. Analysis of expert performance provides unique evidence on the potential and limits of extreme environmental adaptation and learning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Within the UK, the "Long Term Athlete Development" (LTAD) model has been proposed by a variety of national governing bodies to offer a first step to considering the approach to talent development. The model, which is primarily a physiological perspective, presents an advancement of understanding of developing athletic potential alongside biological growth. It focuses on training to optimize performance longitudinally, and considers sensitive developmental periods known as "windows of opportunity". However, it appears that there are a number of problems with this theoretical model that are not necessarily transparent to coaches. Principally, the model is only one-dimensional, there is a lack of empirical evidence upon which the model is based, and interpretations of the model are restricted because the data on which it is based rely on questionable assumptions and erroneous methodologies. Fundamentally, this is a generic model rather than an individualized plan for athletes. It is crucial that the LTAD model is seen as a "work in progress" and the challenge, particularly for paediatric exercise scientists, is to question, test, and revise the model. It is unlikely that this can be accomplished using classical experimental research methodology but this should not deter practitioners from acquiring valid and reliable evidence.
We examined the developmental activities that contribute to the development of superior anticipation skill among elite cricket batters. The batters viewed 36 video clips involving deliveries from bowlers that were occluded at ball release and were required to predict delivery type. Accuracy scores were used to create two subgroups: high-performing and low-performing anticipators. Questionnaires were used to record the participation history profiles of the groups. In the early stages of development, hours accumulated in cricket and other sports, as well as milestones achieved, did not differentiate groups. Significant between-group differences in activity profiles were found between 13 and 15 years of age, with high-performing anticipators accumulating more hours in structured cricket activity, and specifically in batting, compared with their low-performing counterparts.
The role of sport-specific practice in the development of decision-making expertise in the sports of field hockey, netball, and basketball was examined. Fifteen expert decision-makers and 13 experienced non-expert athletes provided detailed information about the quantity and type of sport-specific and other related practice activities they had undertaken throughout their careers. Experts accumulated more hours of sport-specific practice from age 12 years onwards than did non-experts, spending on average some 13 years and 4,000 hours on concentrated sport-specific practice before reaching international standard. A significant negative correlation existed between the number of additional activities undertaken and the hours of sportspecific training required before attaining expertise, suggesting a functional role for activities other than sport-specific training in the development of expert decision-making.
In learning and development, self-regulation can be described as the extent to which individuals are metacognitively, motivationally, and behaviourally proactive participants in their learning process (Zimmerman, 198946.
Zimmerman , B. J. 1989. A social cognitive view of self-regulated academic learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 81: 329–339. [CrossRef], [Web of Science ®]View all references, 200648.
Zimmerman , B. J. 2006. “Development and adaptation of expertise: The role of self-regulatory processes and beliefs”. In The Cambridge handbook of expertise and expert performance, Edited by:
Ericsson , K. A. ,
Charness , N. ,
Feltovich , P. J. and
Hoffman , R. R. 705–722. New York: Cambridge University Press. [CrossRef]View all references). We examined the relationship between self-regulation and performance level in elite (n = 159) and non-elite (n = 285) youth soccer players aged 11–17 years (mean 14.5 years, s = 1.4). The players completed a questionnaire that assessed planning, self-monitoring, evaluation, reflection, effort, and self-efficacy. A logistic regression analysis was performed (controlling for age) to determine which self-regulatory aspects were associated with players' performance level (elite vs. non-elite). High scores on reflection and effort were associated with a higher level of performance. Findings suggest that elite players may be more aware of their strong and weak points as well as better able to translate this awareness into action. In addition, elite players appear to be more willing to invest effort into practice and competition. It is suggested that these better developed self-regulatory skills may translate into a more effective learning environment and ultimately result in an increased capacity for performance in elite players relative to their non-elite peers.
The developmental model of sport participation (DMSP) was proposed by Côté (1999). First, we examined whether the participation profiles of two groups of professional soccer players in Ireland who either had or had not played Gaelic football to an elite level in adolescence provided support for this model. Both groups commenced participation in soccer around 6 years of age and on average participated in two other sports between 6 and 18 years of age, excluding soccer and Gaelic football. A reduction in the number of other sports and an increase in hours devoted to the primary sport were observed between 6 and 18 years of age, as per the predictions of the DMSP. Second, we examined whether players who demonstrated early diversification required fewer soccer-specific hours to achieve expert performance in that sport compared with players who demonstrated less diversification or did not participate in Gaelic football. No significant relationships or differences were reported, which did not provide support for the DMSP, possibly due to the low sample size employed in this study.
The developmental histories of 32 players in the Australian Football League (AFL), independently classified as either expert or less skilled in their perceptual and decision-making skills, were collected through a structured interview process and their year-on-year involvement in structured and deliberate play activities retrospectively determined. Despite being drawn from the same elite level of competition, the expert decision-makers differed from the less skilled in having accrued, during their developing years, more hours of experience in structured activities of all types, in structured activities in invasion-type sports, in invasion-type deliberate play, and in invasion activities from sports other than Australian football. Accumulated hours invested in invasion-type activities differentiated between the groups, suggesting that it is the amount of invasion-type activity that is experienced and not necessarily intent (skill development or fun) or specificity that facilitates the development of perceptual and decision-making expertise in this team sport.
