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THE JOURNAL OF
Egyptian
Archaeology
VOLUME 96
2010
PUBLISHED BY
THE EGYPT EXPLORATION SOCIETY
3 DOUGHTY MEWS, LONDON WC1N 2PG
ISSN 0307–5133
The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology
All rights reserved
ISSN -
website: http://www.ees.ac.uk/publications/journal-egyptian-archaeology.html
Published annually by
The Egypt Exploration Society
Doughty Mews
London WC1N 2PG
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A limited Company registered in England, No.
Printed in Great Britain by
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Editorial Team
Mark Collier, Editor-in-Chief
Violaine Chauvet, Editor
Roland Enmarch, Editor
Chris Eyre, Editor
Cary Martin, Editor
Ian Shaw, Editor
Glenn Godenho, Editorial Assistant
editorial email address: jea@ees.ac.uk
The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology (), –
ISSN -
THE PTOLEMAIC-ROMAN CEMETERY AT
THE QUESNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL AREA *
By JOANNE ROWLAND, SARAH INSKIP, and SONIA ZAKRZEWSKI
In the cemetery at Quesna, the spring season concentrated on the completion of Trench in the
southwest of the site and the opening of Trench at the eastern limit of the concentration of sub-
surface deposits highlighted through geophysical survey. In addition, Trench was opened in order
to explore the north-western extent of the sacred falcon necropolis. The spring season focused
on test trenches at Quesna and the continued reconstruction of ceramic cons excavated in previous
seasons. The trenches on the northern edge of the gezira yielded further information relating to the
Ptolemaic to Roman cemetery, with a pit burial and further ceramic con burials, and for the first
time at the site Old Kingdom contexts were located. The trench in the falcon necropolis focused on
the north-western corner of the structure at the western end of the falcon necropolis and revealed a
sequence of robbing episodes that had occurred in the past.
D April , the team worked at the Quesna archaeological area, where Trench
(first opened in ) was reopened for the excavation of one further pit burial located
during the season. A further test trench, Trench , was opened adjacent to the area
of Roman burials excavated by the SCA, and on the very eastern edge of the cemetery,
as defined by the magnetometry survey in . During the spring season, in
addition to the trenches relating to parts of the cemetery, the team investigated the
enclosure walls of the western structure of the falcon gallery and continued investigation
of the structures that link this building with the corridors of the gallery. This western
structure very possibly relates to that mentioned on statue bases of Djedherpashed
(the priest of Horus Khenty-khety) found at Athribis, in modern Benha. The northern
edge of the gezira was chosen for investigation due to the results of the final stage of
the magnetometry survey (spring ) and surface observations in previous years,
pinpointing the location of the trenches in the southwestern corner of the site due to
the dense distribution of broken pieces of limestone and ceramic sherds.
During March and April , five test pits were opened at the Quesna archaeological
area. The northern section of Trench was reopened (having been back-filled at the
* The investigations at Quesna comprise part of the Minufiyeh Archaeological Survey which runs under
the auspices of the Delta Survey (Egypt Exploration Society). The season was funded by The John Fell
(OUP) Fund, The Amelia Edwards Projects of the Egypt Exploration Society and The Seven Pillars of Wisdom
Trust. The support of the Research Laboratory for Archaeology and the History of Art, University of Oxford
is gratefully acknowledged. The spring season was funded by The John Fell (OUP) Fund and the Society
for the Promotion of Roman Studies, and the summer season by the Freie Universität Berlin. Photographs
reproduced here are taken by various members of the team. Osteological analysis was carried out by Scott
Haddow, Sarah Inskip, and Sonia Zakrzewski, ceramic analysis by Ashraf el-Senussi, conservation (in )
by Stavroula Golfomitsou, (in spring ) by Pieta Greaves and Karen Jensen, and (in summer ) by Alaa
Mohamed Shawki Mansour Thabet (SCA). We gratefully acknowledge the assistance of our inspectors: Abdullah
Ahmed Abd-al Helim Zahra (), Narmine el-Morsy el-Said (spring ), and Mostafa Othman Mostafa
Abu Elnasr (summer ), as well as trainee inspectors: Narmine el Morsy el-Said, Medhat Amin Hassein and
Mr Mohammed Abd-al Kader Bedir (), and Laila Mohamed El Fatamawy, Sara el-Said Mohamed, Nasra
Mostafa el-Weshy (spring ), and Ayman El Sayed Abd Ellattif and Rasha Saad Khalil (summer ).
J. ROWLAND, S. INSKIP, AND S. ZAKRZEWSKI JEA
end of the season) for further investigation of the north-western corner of the
westernmost structure associated with the sacred falcon necropolis; Trenches and
were opened on the northern edge of the gezira (the area having been identified through
surface survey and the results of the magnetometry survey in ); and Trenches
and were positioned in the southwest corner of the site, to the west of the SCA
buildings, due to a high concentration of limestone chips in the area and the area having
not previously been investigated.
The Ptolemaic and Roman cemetery
The results of excavations in three trenches are under discussion here, firstly Trench ,
placed directly west of the mausoleum with the arbitrary site coordinates for the
southwest corner peg at . E and . N, Trench at . E and
. N, north of the mausoleum, and Trench placed on the northern edge of the
gezira at . E and . N. Trench yielded one further burial (burial ,
grave ), Trench yielded burials from graves, and Trench yielded nine
burials within nine separate graves. One pottery vessel from a double-vesselled con
burial was excavated in Trench (grave ) with the western half remaining under
the western baulk, and three double-vesselled cons were found in Trench . The
restoration of these ceramic cons has been ongoing in the and seasons.
Trenches 1 and 4
Both T and T were positioned due to the results of the geophysical survey carried out
in . The density of burials within T (Trench ) was high, and all of the burials
were located in very close proximity to the modern surface, which unfortunately aected
the preservation of the skeletal material. Many of the bones, particularly the skulls, had
been crushed, and surface erosion and sun bleaching also had a significant influence
on their state of preservation. This problem was further compounded by the extreme
local weather conditions (intense heat and light). After exposure, what little moisture
remained in the sand and bone quickly dried out. This led to rapid degeneration of the
bone, causing splitting, fragmentation, and disintegration. Accordingly, to maximise
data recovery, demographic information and measurements were recorded in situ. AC
(a polymer emulsion, mixed in various concentrations of between –% in deionised
water) was used to consolidate the bones that had the potential to yield important
pathological or demographic information.
For the articulated individuals in T there was little variation in burial position (see
Table ). All were buried supine with the face orientated upwards. All individuals had
the arms flexed at the elbow, with the right arm crossed over the left on the thorax.
Some variation did occur in the directions of the burials. The remaining burials were
disarticulated, and it is therefore not possible to comment on the original orientation
of the burials.
See J. M. Rowland, ‘The Ptolemaic–Roman Cemetery at the Quesna Archaeological Area’, JEA (),
fig .
Only one burial from T is discussed, T burials having been the subject of the report in JEA .
Rowland, JEA (), –; J. M. Rowland and S. Zakrzewski, ‘Quesna: The Ptolemaic and Roman
Cemetery’, EA (Spring ), –; and J. M. Rowland and K. Strutt, ‘Minufiyeh: The Geophysical Survey
at Quesna’, EA (Spring ), –.
THE PTOLEMAIC-ROMAN CEMETERY
T Burial orientation and position of the arms in the burials excavated in 2009
Burial number Burial orientation Arm position
West–East Flexed right over left
East–West Flexed right over left
West–East Flexed right over left
West–East Flexed right over left
East–West Flexed right over left
East–West Flexed right over left
Head West Flexed right over left
Disarticulated ?
Head West Flexed right over left
Face to South-west ?
West–East Flexed right over left
West–East Flexed right over left
East–West Flexed right over left
East–West Flexed right over left
Disarticulated skull only ?
Disarticulated skull only ?
Eleven of the skeletons had evidence for some form of mummification (see Table ).
This was in the form of a black ‘goo’ found in one or more of the following places: the
mouth, the face, the thorax, the abdomen, the pelvis, and between the legs. Further
to this, burials and had possible remnants of lung tissue (which was sampled).
Much of the packing still had textile weave visible. The remaining individuals were
without evidence of mummification, and were very poorly preserved or disarticulated;
it is not unfeasible that mummification did take place, but all evidence has been lost.
Other possible evidence for mummification was the use of mud packing on the thorax
and the feet. This may have been used to give the body a better shape for burial.
T Position of packing found on the burials from Quesna 2009
Burial number Mouth Face Thorax Pelvis/Abdomen Legs
absent absent present absent absent
absent present absent present absent
absent absent absent present present
present absent absent present present
absent absent absent present absent
present (throat) absent absent present absent
present absent present present absent
present absent present present present
J. ROWLAND, S. INSKIP, AND S. ZAKRZEWSKI JEA
Burial number Mouth Face Thorax Pelvis/Abdomen Legs
unobservable absent present present absent
absent absent absent absent absent
absent absent absent absent absent
absent present absent present absent
absent absent absent absent feet
absent absent absent absent absent
absent absent absent absent absent
absent absent absent absent absent
Demography
Fifteen adults and one juvenile were recovered from T and T during the season;
eleven of these were articulated individuals (ten adults and one child). An individual
was considered a juvenile if any of the long bone epiphyses remained. Eight of the adult
individuals could be aged and sexed with a reasonable level of certainty. Two individuals
had information for either sex or age. See Table for age and sex distribution.
T Age and sex distribution of the individuals excavated from Quesna in 2009
Juvenile Young Middle Old Unknown Total
Male – – –
Female – –
Unknown – – –
Total
Considering the preservation of the skeletal material, and the harsh nature of the site’s
taphonomy, it is unsurprising that only one (%) out of eleven articulated burials is
juvenile. There is no statistically significant dierence between the number of males
and females, and an approximate : split is expected in any normal, non-selected
population.
Trench 6
The density of burials in T was low, with graves appearing individually or in clusters
of two or three. Seven of the burials were articulated. B.– (burials –) were
semi-articulated. There appeared to be only a single layer of individuals, with no
remains situated beneath any of the graves. No remains were left in the trench at the
close of the season.
As in T and T, all of the burials were in close proximity to the modern surface. As
such, the preservation of the material was generally fair to poor. Bones had frequently
been crushed prior to excavation, which was particularly problematic in the case of
skulls. Sun exposure bleached bones making them appear white. Drying and bleaching
caused bones to fragment and split longitudinally. In order to try to prevent further sun
and drying damage, once exposed, skeletal remains were quickly drawn and excavated
on the same day. Data recovery was maximised through the application of consolidant
THE PTOLEMAIC-ROMAN CEMETERY
to the bones as soon as they were exposed, particularly areas of osteological importance
(areas used for ageing and sexing or those with any pathological information).
Body position varied between the nine individuals excavated. Although all were
buried supine, legs extended, with the face looking upwards, variation was found in the
position of the arms. Three positions were identified: ) arms flexed at the elbow with
the forearms crossed over the thorax, ) arms extended with the hands over the pelvis,
and ) arms extended with the hands lateral to the pelvis over the thighs (see Table ).
The position of the hands in B.– is not known, due to partial disarticulation.
Three individuals were buried on a north–south orientation (B.–), a further four
were positioned west–east (B.– and B.). B. was buried north-east–south-west
and B. was buried south-west–north-east.
T Burial orientation and position of the arms in the burials excavated in 2010
Burial number Burial orientation Arm position
North–South Extended over pelvis
North–South Flexed right over left
North–South Extended on thighs
North-east–South-west Extended on thighs
West–East Flexed right over left
West–East Flexed right over left
West–East Extended
South-west–North-east ?
West–East Extended on thights
Evidence of packing and black ‘goo’ in all burials suggests that an attempt to mummify
all individuals was made. See Table for a breakdown of the regions of black resinous
material for each skeleton. A sample of the black ‘goo’ was taken from each skeleton for
future analysis.
T Position of packing found on the nine burials from Quesna 2010
Burial number Mouth Thorax Pelvis/Abdomen Legs
present present present present
present present present absent
present present present absent
unobservable present present absent
present present present present
present present present absent
present present present unobservable
present present present present
unobservable present present absent
J. ROWLAND, S. INSKIP, AND S. ZAKRZEWSKI JEA
Demography
Nine adult individuals were excavated. Seven of the burials were articulated, with two
individuals suering from some disturbance. Six individuals could be aged and sexed,
two could be sexed but not aged, and one could be aged but not sexed; see Table for
the age and sex distribution.
T Age and sex of the individuals excavated during the spring 2010 season
Young Middle Old Unknown Total
Male
Female
Unknown
Total
No juvenile remains were found at Quesna in . This is unsurprising considering,
as noted above, the harsh taphonomic processes at the site. Low depth of burial, severe
sun bleaching, and erosion can take their toll on child remains, particularly as they
are smaller and more susceptible to digenesis and post-mortem decay. Even at well-
preserved sites, children appear to be under-represented. There are slightly more
males than females, but, it is not possible to comment on the discrepancy, due to the
small number of individuals excavated.
Methods
The aim of the osteological analysis was to describe the age and sex of the individuals
and to record and describe any unusual features of pathological and non-pathological
origin.
Age: Individuals were aged using the pubic symphysis
and the auricular surface (the
latter particularly important as it survives better in harsh conditions). The teeth were
aged following Brothwell. This method was derived from an Anglo-Saxon population.
However, once further juveniles have been analysed at Quesna, we hope to establish
more accurate ages based on a variety of methods. Juvenile skeletons can be aged from
their long-bone development, and their dental wear can subsequently be graded. Once
age estimates were taken, the individuals were placed into age categories of young
(– years), middle (– years) or old (+ years).
Sex: Skeletal dierences between males and females are the result of child bearing and
hormonal dierences. Individuals were sexed on the basis of the skull and the pelvis.
S. A. Mays, C. Harding, and C. Heighway, Wharram: A Study of Settlement on the Yorkshire Wolds, XI: The
Churchyard (York, ).
D. Katz and J. M. Suchey, ‘Age Determination of the Male Os Pubis’, American Journal of Physical
Anthropology (), –.
C. O. Lovejoy, R. S. Meindl, T. R. Pryzbeck, and R. P. Mensforth, ‘Chronological Metamorphosis of the
Auricular Surface of the Ilium: A New Method for the Determination of Age at Death’, American Journal of
Physical Anthropology (), –.
D. Brothwell, Digging up Bones: The Excavation, Treatment, and Study of Human Skeletal Remains (Oxford,
).
M. Cox and S. Mays, Human Osteology in Archaeology and Forensic Science (Cambridge, ).
THE PTOLEMAIC-ROMAN CEMETERY
Sex was scored following the standards used by Buikstra and Ubelaker. The pelvis
was scored on a scale of – ( being female, unknown and male); this included the
ventral arch, sub pubic concavity and the ischiopubic ridge. Other features — including
the examination of the sciatic notch and the preauricular salcus — were scored on a –
scale ( being female, possibly female, unknown, probably male and definitely
male). The skull was also scored on a – scale, including examination of the supra
orbital margins, the glabella, the mental eminence, mastoids, and the nuchal crest.
Osteoarthritis: Osteoarthritis was scored following the recommendations of Rogers and
Waldron. Two or more of the following attributes were required in order to diagnose
osteoarthritis: pitting (over at least % of the joint surface area), sclerosis, and new
bone growth around the joint margin. If eburnation (i.e. hardening of the bone, which
is pathognomic for osteoarthritis) was present, the body was automatically recorded
as osteoarthritic, without the need for the presence of other indicators. Osteoarthritis
was only diagnosed when the severity exceeded grade (intermittent osteophytes), and
osteophytosis was scored following Säger.
J. Buikstra and D. Ubelaker, Standards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains (Fayetteville,
Arkansas, ).
J. Rogers and T. Waldron, A Field Guide to Joint Disease in Archaeology (Chichester, ).
P. Säger, Spondylosis Cervicalis: A Pathological and Osteoarchaeological Study of Osteochondrosis Invertebralis
Cervicalis, Arthrosis Uncovertebralis and Spondylarthrosis Cervicalis (Copenhagen, ).
F. . Gr., B..
J. ROWLAND, S. INSKIP, AND S. ZAKRZEWSKI JEA
Grave and burial descriptions (Trench 1)
Grave 1025
Burial 25 (length: cm; width: . cm; depth below surface: cm): Gr. is a simple
pit dug directly into the sand, and it contained the remains of one fairly well-preserved adult
(B.), aged as – years (young) using dental wear, and sexed as female on the pelvic
morphology. The body had been laid in a west–east orientation, with the head at the west.
The body was extended supine, with the face orientated upwards, and the feet extended. The
arms were flexed at the elbow with the right forearm crossed over the left arm, on the thorax.
As the burial had not been placed on an even surface, the spine has ‘slumped’ down into the
grave, giving the individual a shorter appearance. Black ‘goo’ was found around the throat,
thorax, abdomen, and between the legs, providing evidence for mummification. Further to
this, what appeared to be lung tissue was removed from the thorax and sampled for further
analyses. The individual had bilateral squatting facets on the tibia and talus, and both scapula
were os acromiale. Consolidant was applied to the bones of the pelvis and the long bones.
Grave and burial descriptions (Trench 4)
Grave 1028 (multiple inhumation of at least eight individuals)
Grave 1028 was a simple pit, dug directly into sand, containing the remains of at least
eight tightly packed individuals, five of which were excavated in : B.–. The grave
was west–east orientated, but the individual burials varied in their positions. Three were
orientated with the head in the east and feet in the west, and two the opposite way round.
The bodies make up three layers in the grave, the top two of which were excavated. A thin
coating of sand separated B.– from the layer below, which contained B.–. However,
the feet of B. were almost placed in the mouth of B.. The deepest layer, comprising the
remains of at least three more adult individuals, has been marked for future excavation. The
insertion of Gr. had truncated B. and B., suggesting that Gr. is probably more
recent than Gr. and Gr. (see below).
Burial 39 (length: cm; width: cm; depth below surface: ≈ cm): the remains were
that of an adult, orientated east–west, with the head to the east. The individual was aged as a
middle adult using the auricular surface (phase : – years), and male based on the pelvic
morphology. The body was supine with the feet extended and the face orientated upwards.
The arms were flexed at the elbow with the right forearm crossed over the left on the thorax.
There was ample evidence for mummification, with black goo found in the thorax, pelvis, and
between the legs, as well as a thick layer around the face. Mud packing was found over the
thorax and around the feet. A septal aperture is present on the left humerus. Bilateral squatting
facets were present on the tibiae and a squatting facet on the left talus. Spinal border shifting
in the caudal direction was evident in this individual, with lumbarisation of sacral vertebra
number . Osteoarthritis was observed in the lower thoracic region (grade osteophytes
following Säger). Degenerative joint disease was evident between sacral vertebra , lumbar
vertebra , and lumbar vertebra . None of the major joints (temporomandibular, shoulder,
elbow, wrist, hip, knee, and ankle) had any signs of osteoarthritis. The right th metatarsal
has active periostitis (woven new bone) on the shaft of the bone. On the planter surface of the
left calcaneous is a bony spur. The right hand phalanges were palmar side up; this suggests
that the hand had been bent backwards possibly during mummification.
Burial 40 (length: cm; width: cm; depth below surface: ≈ cm): the remains were
that of a young adult (dentally aged – years, auricular surface (phase ) – years).
The pelvic morphology indicated that this was a male individual, placed supine in the grave,
with the feet extended and the face orientated upwards. He had been positioned on an east–
west orientation, with the head at the west. The arms were flexed at the elbow, with the
Os acromiale is a separate bone which forms at the end of the scapula when the two separate portions of the
scapula fail to fuse. This is usually as a result of heavy activity in adolescence.
Säger, Spondylosis Cervicalis.
THE PTOLEMAIC-ROMAN CEMETERY
right forearm crossed over the left on the thorax. Black ‘goo’ with clear textile impressions
was found in the pelvic area, and also between the tibiae, as well as packing material in the
abdomen, and mud packing on the thorax and around the feet. Bilateral squatting facets were
present on tibiae and tali. Extensions to the distal articular surface of the first metatarsals
were present, having been caused by hyperdorsiflexion of the metatarsophalangeal joint.
Grade osteophytes were recorded on the superior articular facets of lumbar , and
eburnation is present on the apophyseal facets of one lower thoracic vertebra. No major
joints (temporomandibular, shoulder, elbow, wrist, hip, knee, and ankle) had any signs of
osteoarthritis. The body of lumbar is thinner than lumbars and , perhaps because of a
compression fracture, although there are no clear fracture lines. Remodelled periostitis was
observed on the dorsal surfaces of left metatarsals , , and . The left navicular cuneiform
facets have been extended dorsally with some new bone growth. The rhomboid fossae on
both of the clavicles are very pronounced (grade on the Hawkey and Merbs stress-marker
scale). This is the insertion site for the costoclavicular ligament. Consolidant was applied to
the lumbar vertebrae, ulna, radius, femoral heads, and the bones of the pelvis.
Burial 41 (length: cm; width: cm; depth below surface: ≈ cm): the remains were
those of a child aged between and years, based on dental development, the progression
of epiphyseal fusion, and long bone lengths (all data taken from Scheuer and Black). The
individual was placed in the grave supine, on an east–west orientation (head to west), with
the feet extended and the face orientated upwards. The arms were flexed at the elbow with
the right forearm crossed over the left on the thorax. Evidence for mummification was found,
with black staining and black goo recorded in the mouth, thorax, and abdomen, and between
the tibiae. Mud packing was present on the thorax and around the feet. It is problematic to
sex an individual of this age. The feet were placed directly on top of, and nearly in the mouth
of, B..
D. E. Hawkey and C. F. Merbs, ‘Activity-induced Musculoskeletal Stress Markers (MSM) and Subsistence
Strategy Changes among Ancient Hudson Bay Eskimos’, International Journal of Osteoarchaeology (),
–.
L. Scheuer and S. Black, Developmental Juvenile Osteology (London, ).
F. . Gr., B.–.
J. ROWLAND, S. INSKIP, AND S. ZAKRZEWSKI JEA
Burial 42 (length: cm; width: cm; depth below surface: cm): the remains were that
of a young adult female, aged dentally as – years. The pubis was in phase indicating
an age of – years, while the auricular surface (at phase ) places the individual around
– years. The individual was placed supine in the grave, with the feet extended and the
face orientated upwards. The head was placed at the east and the feet at the west of the
grave. The arms were flexed at the elbow with the right forearm crossed over the left on
the thorax. The individual lay below and in between B.–. A great deal of packing was
found around the thorax, and a sample of black goo was taken from the pelvis. Squatting
facets were identified on the left tibia and tali. A vastus notch is present on the left patella,
while osteoarthritis is present in the lumbar and lower thoracic vertebrae. No osteoarthritis
was present on any of the major joints of the skeleton (temporomandibular, shoulder, elbow,
wrist, hip, knee and ankle). Both fifth foot-digits have coalition of phalanges and . A small
amount of active periostitis was identified on the right tibia. The lower rd molars appear
to be congenitally absent. The auricular surface has an unusual morphology. It is enlarged
posteriorly, just below the superior demiface on to the retroauricular surface. Consolidant
was applied to the skull and mandible.
Burial 43 (length: cm; width: cm; depth below surface: cm): the pelvic morphology
indicated that this was a young female (aged as phase pubic symphyses (– years) and
phase auricular surface (– years)). An unfused iliac crest places this individual around
the age of – years. The individual was placed supine in the grave, oriented east–west
(head to east), with the feet extended and the face orientated upwards. The arms were flexed
at the elbow, with the right forearm crossed over the left on the thorax. The individual lay
directly below B., whose feet were directly over its mouth. Evidence of mummification
comes from black goo found in the pelvis. Mud packing was also present, around the thorax
and feet. Squatting facets were noted on the tali. No osteoarthritis was noted on any of the
major joint surfaces (temporomandibular, shoulder, elbow, wrist, hip, knee, and ankle) of this
individual. A small amount of ossified tissue was present on the costovertebral attachments
of the ribs. Partial sacralisation of lumbar is observable from the presence of a fibrous
attachment on the ala of the sacrum. Consolidant was applied to the skull and mandible.
Scheuer and Black, Developmental Juvenile Osteology, .
F. . Gr. , B.–.
THE PTOLEMAIC-ROMAN CEMETERY
Grave 1030 (double-vesselled con)
Burial 53 (length: east half cm; total unknown as half remains under the western baulk
of T; width: cm; depth below surface: cm): this burial consisted of a double-vesselled
con. It was only possible to undertake partial excavation, with the western half of the
burial running under the baulk, and there were only a few disarticulated fragments of foot
and tibia, located in connection with this burial. It is probable that the body was orientated
west–east, but due to the disarticulation, it is not possible to be certain of this. Without a
skull or pelvis, it is not possible to age or sex the individual.
Grave 1031
Burial 44 (length: cm; width: cm; depth below surface: cm (surface erosion is
evident): the grave, a simple pit dug directly into the sand, contained the poorly preserved
bones of a middle-aged adult (auricular surface phase , – years); the curved sacral body,
gonial flaring and absence of preauricular sulcus are indicators of a male individual. The
body was placed on an east–west orientation in the grave (head to the west), extended supine
and the face orientated upwards. The arms were flexed at the elbow with the right forearm
crossed over the left on the thorax. The lower legs (tibia, fibula, and feet) are absent due to
the insertion of Gr., indicating that this burial is earlier than those in Gr.. The left
humerus is not articulated to the rest of the body. There was no evidence for mummification
in this burial, but poor preservation and proximity to the surface may be the reason for this.
No osteoarthritis was evident on the elbows, hips, or shoulder joints. Two ribs have a small
amount of ossification on the costal facets. Apophyseal facet remodelling is present on all
vertebrae and osteophytosis (grade ) on T(horacic).
Grave 1032
Burial 45 (length: n/a; width: n/a; depth below surface: n/a): the individual consisted of a
disarticulated skull south of B.. The face of the skull was orientated to the south-west with
the skull lying on its right hand side. The individual was very close to the surface and was
fragile and friable. No evidence for mummification remained, and no information on sex,
age, or pathology was observed.
Grave 1029
Burial 46 (length: cm; width: cm; depth below surface: n/a): the grave was a simple pit
dug directly into the sand, containing the poorly preserved bones of a young adult (aged to
– years on the basis of dental wear) placed on an east–west orientation (head to west),
extended supine and face orientated upwards. The arms were flexed at the elbow with the
right forearm crossed over the left on the thorax. The legs and feet have been truncated by
Gr.. Packing around the pelvis and in the mouth provides evidence for mummification,
and an upper central incisor was found deep inside the skull (with the black padding and
goo), possibly having been forced into the mouth during the mummification process. Due to
the poor preservation of the individual, no pathological changes or non-metric traits were
observed. A ceramic disc was found in the eye socket of the skull (fig. ), and a large piece
of pottery was found inferior to the pelvis. A skull (B.) was also found below the pelvis of
this individual.
Grave 1033
Burial 47 (length: n/a; width: n/a; depth below surface: n/a): this grave, dug directly into the
sand, contained a south-facing disarticulated adult skull and some loose material that may or
may not be associated with the skull. There was no evidence for mummification, pathology
or non-metric traits, and it was not possible to assign age or sex to the skull.
Grave 1034
Burial 48 (length: ≈ cm; width: cm; depth below surface: cm): this grave was dug
directly into the sand. The remains, oriented east–west (head to west), were that of a young
adult with pubic symphysis indicating phase (– years), the auricular surface showing
J. ROWLAND, S. INSKIP, AND S. ZAKRZEWSKI JEA
phase (– years), and the teeth indicating – years). The sciatic notch and skull traits
were male. The individual was placed in the grave extended supine, with the feet extended,
and the face orientated upwards. The arms were flexed at the elbow with the right forearm
crossed over the left on the thorax, and the left leg was below B., Gr.. There was
plenty of evidence for mummification, such as black goo and packing in the thorax, as well as
black tissue (possibly lung material) recovered from inside the rib cage. This was sampled for
clarification of its origin. Black goo was also found in the pelvis and mouth. The individual
has suered trauma to the left posterior portion of the vertebral column; as a result the ribs,
clavicle, and vertebrae have all been aected. There was no evidence for infection. There is
expansion of the left costovertebral attachments and one rib with osteoarthritis at this joint.
Some minor scoliosis maybe present, judging from distorted thoracic body shapes, but it is
problematic to diagnose due to the fragmentary nature of the spine. An isolated, free floating
costovertebral attachment was present. This trauma needs further investigation. There was
no osteoarthritis in any of the major joints of the skeleton (temporomandibular, shoulder,
elbow, wrist, hip, knee, and ankle). The individual has a congenital absence of the styloid
process on left metacarpal .
F. . Gr., B. — ceramic ‘coin’ in the eye socket.
Grave 1035
Burial 49 (length: cm; width: cm; depth below surface: ≈ cm): the grave was a simple
pit, dug directly into the sand, containing the highly fragmented remains of a male (sexed
using the sciatic notch) whose age could not be determined. The individual was placed in
the grave extended supine, with the feet extended and the face orientated upwards. The head
was placed at the east and the feet at the west of the grave. The arms were flexed at the elbow
with the right forearm crossed over the left on the thorax. The only cultural modification
visible was the presence of mud packing around the feet and thorax of the individual. There
was no osteoarthritis in the left hip, the proximal tibia, right distal femur, right proximal
femur, distal tibia, and the proximal right ulna. New bone growth was present around the
left glenohumeral joint.
Grave 1036
Burial 50 (length: cm; width: cm; depth below surface: ≈ cm): the grave was a
simple pit, dug directly into the sand, which contained the badly preserved and surface-
eroded remains of an old female adult. The individual was aged using the auricular surface,
suggesting an age above years. Furthermore, worn teeth and post-cranial osteoarthritis
THE PTOLEMAIC-ROMAN CEMETERY
are testament to the older age of this individual. The body, oriented east–west (head to east),
was placed in the grave extended supine, with the feet extended and the face orientated
superiorly. The arms were flexed at the elbow with the right forearm crossed over the left
on the thorax. The only cultural modification observable was mud packing around the feet.
Squatting facets were present on the right talus only. No osteoarthritis was noted on any
of the following major joints: shoulder, elbow, wrists, knee, and ankle. Osteoarthritis was
present on the right st metatarsal medial and intermediate phalangeal joints. Grade and
osteoarthritis was recorded in the lumbar vertebrae, and osteoarthritis was also present
in the left and right hips. The femoral head surface has been expanded distally. Grade
osteoarthritis was present in the thoracic spine. Grade apophyseal facet remodelling was
observed in the cervical spine. There is a well-healed fracture on the midshaft of a metatarsal
( or ) with a remodelled lamellar callus. There was no evidence for active infection. There
is some new bone growth on the medial pedal phalanges at the proximal ends.
Grave 1037
Burial 51 (length: n/a; width: n/a; depth below surface: n/a): this burial is the highly
fragmented, disarticulated remains of a skull found below the pelvis of B.. The face of the
skull is orientated southwest, with the top of skull to the west and the mandible to the east.
No age or sex has been ascribed to the skull, and there was no evidence of mummification.
Grave 1028
Burial 52 (length: n/a; width: n/a; depth below surface: cm): this burial is the highly
fragmented, disarticulated remains of a skull found cm below the surface, north of B..
The bones have suered from bleaching and, as a result, are white in colour. No age or sex
has been ascribed to the skull, and there was no evidence of mummification.
General trends
Out of the eight individuals with observable spines, five (%) of them had some form of
osteoarthritic change in the column. Although speculating on osteoarthritis frequencies has
always been problematic in osteoarchaeology, the fact that three young individuals are aected
may indicate an occupational cause, rather than age factors alone.
Six out of the seven (%) individuals with observable talus and tibia have squatting facets.
Although there is some debate of the aetiology of squatting facets, research by Singh
and
Trinkaus has indicated that adoption of postures that require hyperdorsiflexion of the
ankle are strong factors in the development of this trait. Although the sample size here is
small, it may indicate the use of a squatting posture in either a daily activity or as a resting
position. Satino
in an examination of ancient Egyptian tibia, observed that % of
specimens had some form of squatting facet. Thus, this high frequency is not unknown to
Egypt. Further research on a larger sample of individuals would be of interest, in particular
exploring whether there are male/female dierences and the variation in the expression of
the trait.
Grave and burial descriptions (Trench 6)
Grave 1039
Burial 53 (length: cm; width: cm; depth below surface: cm): Gr., located directly
east of Gr.–, contained Con , within which the fairly well-preserved remains of
an adult had been placed in a north–south orientation. The individual was aged as +, based
on the dental wear, but both advanced ante mortem tooth loss (all upper maxillary teeth were
absent prior to death) and evidence of osteoarthritis suggest an age substantially older than
. The individual was sexed as male based on the pelvic morphology and robusticity of the
I. Singh, ‘Squatting Facets of the Talus and Tibia in Indians’, Journal of Anatomy (), –.
E. Trinkaus, ‘Squatting among Neandertals: A Problem in the Behavioral Interpretation of Skeletal
Morphology’, Journal of Archaeological Science (), –.
M. I. Satino, ‘Study of the Squatting Facets of the Talus and Tibia in Ancient Egyptians’, Journal of
Human Evolution / (), –.
J. ROWLAND, S. INSKIP, AND S. ZAKRZEWSKI JEA
skull. The body was placed in the con with the head at the north and the feet at the south.
The body was supine with the arms and legs extended. The hands lay over the front of the
pelvis, and the face was orientated upwards. See Table for the distribution of packing in
this individual.
Burial incorporated many signs of his advancing age, including osteophytosis in the
lumbar and thoracic spine. Eburnation was observed in the cervical region of the spine,
indicating osteoarthritis of the neck. Many of the joints had new bone growth around their
margins, but the only appendicular joints to have osteoarthritis were the left acetabulum
(hip) and the left knee, where pitting and new bone growth were observable. Ossification
of the costal cartilage on the sternal ends of ribs was apparent and thus indicates an older
individual. The individual has suered from multiple episodes of trauma, including fracture
of ribs – on the right side. One of the fractures has failed to unite and is now held together
by a fibrous attachment. Interestingly, a newer fracture is observable on a middle rib on the
left side. This is evident by the quantity of woven bone still remaining. The fracture is found
just after the angle. Finally, thoracic vertebrae and have compression fractures on the
superior vertebral body. Evidence of healing suggests that the fractures occurred prior to
death. It is not possible to say whether they occurred at the same time as the rib fractures.
Compressive force from L and T will have led to the crushing of T and T, causing
wedging. This is a common type of fracture in older individuals, as bone density tends to
decrease in old age. The fifth lumbar vertebra is sacralised.
F. . Detail of the textile nose on the
skull of B..
The occipital bone had a large Inca bone, with two small lamboidal ossicles. B. was
particularly interesting as it had a textile nose still adhering to the nasal cavity and maxillae.
Grave 1040
Burial 54 (length: cm; width: ≈ cm; depth below surface: cm): Gr., located
west of Gr. and east of Gr., was a simple pit dug directly into the sand. The skeletal
remains, oriented north–south with head to north, were poorly preserved, due to the proximity
of the burial to the surface. The individual interred was aged as a middle adult according
to dental wear, the auricular surface, and the pubic symphysis. The pelvic morphology and
THE PTOLEMAIC-ROMAN CEMETERY
robustness suggested that the individual was male. The body was supine, with arms flexed at
the elbow and crossed left over right across the thorax, and the face was orientated upwards.
See Table for the locations of packing in this individual.
A particularly large, pronounced squatting facet was observed on the right talus. A
squatting facet was also observable on the left talus. B. had a tripartite Inca bone with two
small ossicles in the left lamboidal suture, while talus is lumbarised. Osteoarthritis was
not present in any section of the spine. There was no osteoarthritis observable on any of the
synovial joints of the skeleton.
F. . Gr.–.
Grave 1041
Burial 55 (length: cm; width: cm; depth below surface: cm): Gr. lay west of
Gr.. The remains of a body oriented north-south (head to north), supine and with face
orientated upwards, were directly interred into a simple pit cut into the sand. The bones were
once again in a poor condition with most of the cortical bone split and flaked. The individual
was aged as a middle adult from the dentition (– years) and the pubic symphysis. The
pelvic morphology and the skull features indicated a possibly male individual. The arms and
legs were extended with the hands placed on the thighs. See Table for packing locations.
The proximity of B. to the surface meant that little macroscopic information was
available from the burial. The bones were in very poor condition. No osteoarthritis was
observable in the major appendicular joints of B.. There was no evidence for osteophytosis
or osteoarthritis in the vertebrae. All of the teeth were present and no hypoplasia was visible
on the teeth. A septal aperture was visible in the left humerus.
Grave 1042
Burial 56 (length: cm; width: cm; depth below surface: cm): Gr. was found in
the southwestern corner of T. The burial was interred directly into a simple pit dug into
the sand. The grave contained the remains of a female evident from the pelvic morphology
and skull. The dentition (suggesting an age of –) and pubic symphysis indicated that
J. ROWLAND, S. INSKIP, AND S. ZAKRZEWSKI JEA
the individual was a young adult at the time of death. The head was placed in the south-east
with the feet to the north-west. The arms were extended and placed on the thighs. The face
was orientated upwards. See Table for packing distribution.
As with B., the proximity of the burial to the surface has resulted in poorly preserved
bones. As such, little macroscopic information was available. Interestingly the body had
suered from breakages to the right femur and the right ulna and radius prior to excavation.
Due to the poor condition of the remains it was not possible to examine the broken edges
to ascertain whether the breakages were peri mortem (at time of death) or post mortem.
A second interesting feature was the placement of a piece of pottery into the pelvic cavity,
which would have eectively blocked the pelvic outlet.
No osteoarthritis was observable on any synovial joints. One linear enamel hypoplasia was
observable on the upper premolars, permanent canines, and incisors. Shovelling was present
on the upper nd incisors and an extra cusp was present on the lower rd molars. There was
no Inca bone in this individual. Grade calculus (following Brothwell) was present on the
molars.
Grave 1043
Burial 57 (length: cm; width: cm; depth below surface: cm): Gr. contained
double-vesselled Con , in which the remains of an adult male (as indicated by the pelvis
and very robust skull) had been placed. The dentition indicated an individual aged between
– years but a substantial amount of the molars have been lost ante-mortem. Placed in
the con supine, the skull was placed in the west with the feet to the east. The face was
orientated upwards, with the arms flexed at the elbow with the forearms placed right over left
on the thorax. The individual was placed in a con that was too small. The feet were outside
the con, which has been cut open at the east end. The head was forced up against the west
end of the con. Due to the exposure of the feet, the foot bones and the lower legs were more
poorly preserved than the rest of the remains in the con.
B. had many pathological changes associated with advancing age. This included
degenerative joint disease between the lumbar vertebrae, ossification of costal cartilage, and
osteoarthritis in the neck. Osteoarthritis was present in the left elbow at the left ulna joint. No
other major appendicular joints had osteoarthritis. Identification of ossified thyroid cartilage
further indicates an old individual. The individual did not have an Inca bone.
Grave 1044
Burial 58 (length: cm; width: cm; depth below surface: cm): Gr. was dug
directly into the sand south of Gr.; the individual was sexed as female from the pelvic
morphology. The bones were poorly preserved, and it was not possible to estimate age beyond
identifying it as an adult. The body was interred west–east supine, with the face orientated
upwards. The arms were flexed at the elbow, with the forearms crossed right over left on the
thorax. No osteoarthritis was observable in the jaw, wrists, right elbows, ankle, or hands.
Osteoarthritis was present in the hips. Lipping and pitting on the left proximal ulna indicates
osteoarthritis in the left elbow. The sternal clavicle ends are expanded inferiorly. Small extra
sutural ossicles were visible in the lamboid suture, but no Inca bone was present.
Grave 1045
Burial 59 (length: cm; width: cm; depth below surface: . cm): Gr. contained
the semi-articulated remains of one middle-aged adult. The body was interred directly into
a simple pit dug in the sand. Due to the location of the burial on the very edge of the gezira,
bones below the spine have been lost to erosion, and the lower arms were disarticulated. The
head was placed to the west, and the arms were extended, but the position of the hands is
unknown. The skull was damaged due to the proximity to the surface. Without the pelvis it
was dicult to sex the individual, but it appeared from the skull to be a possible male. See
Table for areas where packing was present.
Brothwell, Digging up Bones, and –.
THE PTOLEMAIC-ROMAN CEMETERY
Three linear enamel hypoplastic defects were present on the canines. Osteoarthritis was
present on the second lumbar vertebra and thoracics nine and ten. Osteoarthritis was also
observable in the right acromioclavicular joint. Ossification of the costal cartilage also further
suggests a middle-aged or older adult.
Grave 1046
Burial 60 (length: cm; width: cm; depth below surface: cm): Gr. contained
the remains of one partially articulated adult placed in double-vesselled Con , which was
orientated north-east–south-west (head to the north-east). The upper body was completely
disarticulated. The pelvis and legs remained in situ, but the feet were disarticulated, with the
right foot planter side up (superior), but remaining in the lower half of the con. Although
disarticulated, packing was evident in all four areas (see Table ).
The individual was aged as young based on the dentition (– years) as well as the
progression of epiphyseal fusion. All long bones were fused, but the iliac crests were still
fusing. The pelvic morphology signifies that the individual was female. While it is not
possible to comment on the position of the arms, the legs were extended and indicate that
the individual was probably buried supine. Considering the extensive disarticulation of the
skeleton, it appears likely that the body was moved after substantial decomposition.
There was no evidence for osteoarthritis in any of the major synovial joints of the skeleton.
Grade cribra orbitalia was observable in the left orbit. This individual did not have an
Inca bone. Extensive calculus was present on the teeth of the individual (grade and ).
The upper right canine had a small cavity on the mesiobuccal surface at the cemento-enamel
junction. Two bands of linear enamel hypoplasia are visible on the incisors. Squatting facets
are observable on the left talus, while the right is unobservable.
Particularly interesting for this burial was the presence of cartonnage, which was found
over the legs and in fragments over all of the other parts of the skeleton with the exception
of the feet.
F. . G., B. — detail of the cartonnage fragments.
J. ROWLAND, S. INSKIP, AND S. ZAKRZEWSKI JEA
Grave 1047
Burial 61 (length: cm; width: cm; depth below surface: cm): Gr., a simple pit
dug directly into the sand, contained the remains of B., which were particularly poorly
preserved owing to the proximity of the grave to the surface. As such, sun bleaching and
weathering have eroded much of the cortical bone surface. Despite this, the skull and pelvic
morphology suggest a male individual. The face was orientated upwards, with the body
extended supine. The arms were extended with the hands placed on the thighs. The body
was placed in the grave west–east, with the head in the west. See Table for the distribution
of packing.
The preservation of the skeletal material meant that the macroscopic observation of
pathologies and other traits was inhibited. Nevertheless, right metacarpals and had
evidence of fracture. The bone was well-healed, as evidenced by a remodelled lamellar callus.
Some inferior displacement of the metacarpal midshafts is observable as a result of the
fracture. As a result, the bones are shorter than their left counterparts. One of the proximal
manual phalanges is also misshapen but the poor preservation prevents a firm diagnosis of a
fracture. The medial and distal phalanges of metatarsal are fused together.
In addition to the recording and analysis of the human skeletal remains, a program of
reconstruction continued for the ceramic cons that have been excavated since .
Concluding Remarks
As with the previous burials excavated by the current mission at Quesna, there were very
few objects found in association with those examined during the and seasons. The
pottery disc found in the eye socket of B. is one such rare find. The ceramic evidence from
T suggests a date of Ptolemaic to Roman, with the sherds found in T dating predominantly
to the Ptolemaic to Roman periods, with a number of later sherds dating to the Ottoman
period and modern times. From the results of the geophysical survey carried out during ,
T marks one of the easternmost areas for which subsurface features were located, and it is
possible that it is one of the latest areas of the cemetery at Quesna, if the cemetery expanded
outwards over time. In comparison with the excavations in T and T, T also represents
the densest area of burials to be excavated by the current mission and it also represents the
greatest number of pit and multiple burials, with the lowest proportion of ceramic cons.
In terms of the health of the population, it is interesting to note the possibility of early
onset arthritis due to occupation in T, whereas in T, in the north of the site, there is a low
incidence of osteoarthritis, with the age of the individuals in which it occurs suggesting that
it related to age rather than occupation. Of additional interest is the fact that T displays a
much greater degree of cohesion of burial orientation, with the burials either of west–east or
east–west orientation, with only two burials with the head in the south, whereas in T, there
is a roughly even split between north–south and west–east burials — although with no burials
with head to the east, and only one oriented with the head to the south. This furthermore
supports the supposition that T may be within one of the latest areas of the cemetery, with
the evidence from T suggesting that earlier burials were oriented north–south and later
west–east. In addition, there is a much greater variation in the position of the arms and
hands in T. In T, all of the burials where arm position was discernible, had been placed
with the hands over the chest, right over left, whereas in T, the majority of the burials were
placed with the arms extended, with hands on the pelvis or over the thighs, and those burials
with the arms across the chest included one with the arms lain left over right, as well as two
with the arms right over left.
Rowland, JEA , and fig. ; the latter shows, however, a greater proportion of north–south burials with
arms crossed over the chest, as well as west-east burials with extended arms.
