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Who is an artist? New data for an old question

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Abstract

Employment in the arts and creative industries is high and growing, yet scholars have not achieved consensus on who should be included in these professions. In this study, we explore the “professional artist” as the outcome of an identity process, rendering it the dependent rather than the independent variable. In their responses to the 2010 Strategic National Arts Alumni Project survey (N = 13,581)—to our knowledge, the largest survey ever undertaken of individuals who have pursued arts degrees in the United States—substantial numbers of respondents gave seemingly contradictory answers to questions asking about their artistic labor. These individuals indicated that they simultaneously had been and had never been professional artists, placing them in what we have termed the “dissonance group.” An examination of these responses reveals meaningful differences and patterns in the interpretation of this social category. We find significant correlation between membership in this group and various markers of cultural capital and social integration into artistic communities. A qualitative analysis of survey comments reveals unique forms of dissonance over artistic membership within teaching and design careers.

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... The title of an "artist" is given to workers who see themselves, and are seen by others, as producers of artistic objects and ideas. The inclination to treat the category as an occupation or profession has led some scholars to apply the same methods of definition and analysis as they would with doctors, lawyers, and other professionals [Lena, Lindemann 2014]. ...
... They have the skills and competencies that could be embedded in a range of contexts in the corporate sector to yield significant benefits and value [Kouzmine-Karavaïeff, Hameed 2022]. It leads to the discussion whether a certain number of hours is dedicated to an artistic practice within a paid time framework excluding those who create or perform during their non-work time [Lena, Lindemann 2014]. ...
... The next issue concerns the status of "the professional" -the "professional artists" might be seen as the outcome of an identity process, rendering it the dependent rather than the independent variable [Lena, Lindemann 2014]. Scholars Andrea Baldin and Trine Bille in the study Who is an artist? ...
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The aim of this research is to define what kind of key challenges and implemented solutions regarding the artist status are common in Europe, and how to develop a systematic approach for artist recognition and support in the Baltic context. Using qualitative research methodology (desk research, qualitative interviews, focus group discussions) the authors analyse the current theoretical and empirical discussion in the European Union member states and especially in the Baltic countries, highlighting different practices and experiences in defining the status and recognition of the artist, and support systems that adjust for specific needs in different countries. Based on international experience, the authors develop suggestions relevant for forthcoming and long-awaited changes in different laws regarding the status of creative persons or professional creative organisations in several countries (Latvia, Estonia etc.). Keywords: the status of creative persons, the recognition of artists, support for arts, fair pay in culture, cultural policy. Culture Crossroads Volume 23, 2023, https://doi.org/10.55877/cc.vol23.382
... Artists repeat artistic content that other artists invented, they combine elements from different cultural communities, and borrow stylistic elements from others' previous works. The repetition of artistic content signals group membership and draws boundaries around artistic communities [44,46]. ...
... Community involvement and maintaining an artistic identity are more important than high revenues and popular acclaim [46]. Though many creatives pursue financial disinterestedness, they typically depend on producers, agents, or galleries that hold commercial interests. ...
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How can researchers from the creative ML/AI community and sociology of culture engage in fruitful collaboration? How do researchers from both fields think (differently) about creativity and the production of creative work? While the ML community considers creativity as a matter of technical expertise and acumen, social scientists have emphasized the role of embeddedness in cultural production. This perspective aims to bridge both disciplines and proposes a conceptual and methodological toolkit for collaboration. We provide a systematic review of recent research in both fields and offer three perspectives around which to structure interdisciplinary research on cultural production: people, processes, and products. We thereby provide necessary grounding work to support multidisciplinary researchers to navigate conceptual and methodological hurdles in their collaboration. Our research will be of interest to ML researchers and sociologists interested in creativity that aim to conduct innovative research by bridging both fields.
... En el caso de Estados Unidos, el Proyecto de Industrias Creativas reportó que en 2006 más de 548.000 negocios del arte emplearon 2.9 millones de trabajadores, lo cual constituía el 4.3% de todos los negocios del país (Lena & Lindemann, 2014). ...
... Conviene por tanto reconocer en el vocablo artistas a aquellos trabajadores que se perciben a sí mismos y son percibidos por otros como productores de objetos artísticos e ideas. Estos pueden ser: músicos, bailarines, actores, pintores, escultores, poetas, novelistas, compositores, entre otros; y también los trabajadores relacionados con el arte tales como dramaturgos, directores de teatro, escenógrafos, curadores y más, quienes, a través de su actividad creativa, la cual realizan por iniciativa propia o a petición de otra parte, contribuyen a revitalizar industrias, sectores y ciudades (Lena & Lindemann, 2014). ...
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El presente artículo propone una reflexión acerca de la situación de los derechos de los artistas cuando se desempeñan como trabajadores o prestadores independientes de servicios dentro de la industria creativa en Colombia, para lo que se revisan los conceptos de empleado y trabajador, así como las de artista profesional y aficionado desde una perspectiva legal y doctrinal. De igual forma se revisa el cuerpo normativo de la industria creativa en Colombia como apuesta para la generación de empleo y desarrollo. Por último, se proponen algunas sugerencias de protección e incentivo laboral de la profesión de artista a ejemplo de la recién promulgada Ley del Actor.
... Engaging in musicking, a form of social interaction, facilitated the development of innate musical talents in young individuals (Trevarthen et al., 2014), shaped further by cultural norms and community interactions. Regarding artistic identity, the study revealed that musicians overwhelmingly identified themselves as "artists," contrary to findings suggesting some felt excluded from the wider art world (Lena & Lindemann, 2014). Musicians perceived their involvement in music as inherently artistic, requiring creative aptitude and emotional expression in composition and performance (Gerry et al., 2012;Pitts, 2009). ...
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This study examined the intricate life experiences and challenges faced by music core groups within the ever-changing Cebu Province Music Industry. A qualitative multiple-case study technique was employed to harmonize narratives by revealing common experiences and challenges. Furthermore, the research aimed to provide interventions that might assist music core groups in effectively addressing their difficulties. Through cross-case analysis, the study uncovered underlying themes, such as Evolution and Growth, Challenges, Support Systems, and Passion and Personal Fulfillment, that transcended the boundaries of different music core groups. The text explored distinct variations in terms of Business Orientation, Role and Artistic Identity, Artistic Foundation, and Creative Liberty. Coping strategies were found to be essential for building resilience and took several forms, including faith, self-care, diversion, economic bargaining skills, continual learning, and community participation. The discovery of these coping methods offered valuable insights into the resilience techniques utilized by music core groups. Moreover, the research extended beyond mere inquiry and put forth interventions designed to assist music core groups in surmounting their difficulties. This research provided practical suggestions to aid stakeholders, policymakers, and industry participants in improving the sustainability and well-being of the dynamic music community in Cebu Province. These recommendations aimed to build specific initiatives for this purpose.
... Many authors have noted the difficulty of conceptualising creative practices from an occupational or professional perspective (see Wassall and Alper 1989, Menger 2005, Lena and Lindemann 2014. One such challenge is that some creatives do not hold a degree or certification in their chosen field and may not be members of a practitioners' association. ...
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Much of the research on cultural and creative industries has been ‘Western-centric’, but recent interest into cultural and creative industries in the Global South confirms that this conceptual frame is not always directly transferable. This first comprehensive analysis of the last three decades of cultural and creative industries in Santiago de Chile is based on detailed participant observations and multiple in-depth interviews with cultural professionals in the city. The findings indicate that ‘Western’ economic narratives fail to capture the role of Chile's political and cultural context, and especially the socio-urban fabric of Santiago itself, in the eclectic mix of practices that has developed across various locales. The city's self-transformation can be seen to embody a process of autopoiesis, a concept first proposed by Chilean scholars. This cultural autopoiesis has been impacted by external shocks that include COVID-19. The study advances existing empirical and theoretical understandings of the development of cultural and creative industries in the Global South and beyond.
... Artists and creative workers themselves are exceptionally varied in terms of their skills, roles, education, social identities, aims, and earnings. They, and the work that they do, are incredibly diverse despite being collected into the same occupational group (Lena & Lindemann, 2014;Skaggs & Aparicio, 2023). Some kinds of artists will defy all generalities in this text; however, this is an attempt to conceptualize the commonalities of failure that characterize aspects of artistic or creative work that are characteristic of all artists at some point in their personal artistic process or their career. ...
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This essay presents the argument that failure in the arts is kaleidoscopic, presenting myriad points and types of regular, repeated, patterned failures that are concealed by focusing on financial earnings as the primary way that failure is experienced by artists. This framework is useful as a way to examine and review knowledge about the arts through outlining how individuals, groups, artistic products, and ideas can fail to accumulate economic, human, social, and cultural capital.
... Comme le rapporte Vincent Dubois dans son ouvrage de référence sur la politique culturelle en France, André Malraux, qui fut nommé en 1959 au nouveau poste de Ministre des Affaires culturelles en 1959, use dans ses mémoires d'un trait d'esprit pour évoquer cette incertitude : « J'avais obtenu un petit succès au Conseil des ministres, en affirmant que j'étais le seul ministre qui sût qu'il ignorait ce qu'était la culture »(Dubois 2012, 425). 2 Une caractéristique partagée avec les politiques d'environnement : « la culture comme l'environnement se veulent des catégories transversales aux secteurs classiques et le décloisonnement est au centre de leur mode d'organisation. D'autre part, le flou de l'espace couvert est aussi ce qui en assure la pérennité par une moindre visibilité et des ajustements répétés »(Lascoumes & Le Galès 2018, 77). 3 Des artistes qui d'ailleurs eux-mêmes peinent parfois à se définir comme tels(Lena & Lindemann 2014). 4 Soit les beaux-arts, la sculpture, la musique orchestrale, l'opéra, le théâtre, la littérature ou encore la poésie(Wright 2017, 51). ...
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Ces lignes sont reprises de l'introduction d'un rapport de mandat réalisé pour la section culture de la Ville de Sion. Celle-ci a souhaité connaître mieux le système culturel de son territoire et rénover sa politique culturelle. Le rapport final sera publié au cours de l'année 2024.
... El concepto "artista" hace referencia a quien crea obras de arte, como dibujos, pinturas y fotografías, y su reconocimiento como tal depende tanto de la percepción que el autor de las imágenes tiene de sí mismo como de la opinión de sus pares de la comunidad artísti-ca (Lena & Lindemann, 2014). Sin embargo, el componente artístico no debe ser ignorado, independientemente de que su creación dependa de algo o de alguien, pues lo relevante es el reconocimiento de la capacidad de crear o intervenir en una imagen. ...
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Introducción A lo largo de la historia, la tecnología ha ejercido una in-fluencia significativa en el arte. En la actualidad, el uso de los deno-minados "generadores de arte", que son aquellos programas infor-máticos o softwares de inteligencia artificial capaces de generar con relativa autonomía imágenes artísticas, como dibujos, pinturas y fotografías, ha desencadenado una revaluación del rol del ser huma-no en el proceso creativo de una obra. Algunos entusiastas del arte podrán afirmar que esta tecnología sustituye la creatividad humana, es decir, que el arte es creado "por" una inteligencia artificial, otros en cambio podrán argumentar que potencia la creatividad humana, es decir, el arte es creado "con" la ayuda de una inteligencia artificial. Para abordar esta cuestión, en primer lugar, se revisará el impacto de la tecnología en el arte, considerando las repercusiones tanto de la fotografía como de la inteligencia artificial en la creación de imágenes artísticas. Luego, se examinará a los generadores de arte y los procesos creativos que surgen de su uso, prestando atención a los conceptos que se emplean para referirse a los roles asumidos por los humanos, en lugar del término genérico "usuario". Finalmente, se presentará una propuesta que sugiere dos conceptos para los roles creativos de los usuarios de generadores de arte: "cliente", para aquel que encarga una obra de arte a un software que sustituye el artista
... Retaining a literary writing identity is easier for authors that have been socialized into cultural life, where being or becoming an artist is seen with natural ease through their habitus or disposition (Bourdieu, 1996) and where those not integrated into artistic communities have difficulty defining themselves as artists (Lena & Lindemann, 2014). Authors coming from outside cultural life are disadvantaged, as they lack knowledge about the functioning of cultural life and are not embedded in the social relationships and communities that may help them get published and decode what is going on. ...
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Most artists who venture into an artistic career discontinue after their debut work. This article contributes to the understanding of early artistic career discontinuation and continuation by drawing on 53 mainly longitudinal interviews with early-career Swedish novelists. The article develops interactionist theories of careers and social worlds, and suggests that continuation of literary careers depends on realizing an artistic identity and the alignment of trajectories in life, thereby providing time for creative work to emerge. The alignments are arrangements of tra-jectories that work together, and aligning trajectories makes it possible to legitimize an artistic identity in relation to competing identity claims (and roles) from other trajectories in life. The legitimation creates normative acceptance of the writing identity and activity. The ease of claiming a literary writing identity depends on a person's author type, finances, engagements in work and family, and time management skills. The article proposes that creative career continuation is influenced by historical, situational and cultural availability, as well as the ability to claim an artistic identity and manage intermingling trajectories and priorities in life.
... Early career is a time when workers must build and acquire skills, resources, and social connections to establish themselves in their work and occupational identity as an artist. Once having worked in the arts in some capacity, some individuals might still be hesitant to call themselves artists (Lena & Lindemann, 2014) or might eschew arts-related employment in favor of non-arts work as a way to signal commitment to their personal creative work or artistic practice (Adler, 2020). When Røyseng et al. (2007) published their study of young artists' expectations and understandings of their work as artists, they found that early career artists were unprepared for the realities of the working world, especially for the administrative and business-related tasks required for managing one's career in the arts. ...
... In his study, Shavinina (2008) defined the characteristics of the gifted entrepreneurial individual as; innovative, creative, capable of working independently, not afraid of difficulties, perfectionist, and not like to be bound by rules. On the other hand, Lena and Lindemann (2014) defined the artist as a creative, perfectionist person who enjoys working independently and producing original works. It can be interpreted that the state of the gifted student's art education affects the entrepreneurship aspect. ...
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International Journal ofModern Education Studies Year Volume X, No X Pages: XX-XX http://www.ijonmes.net dergipark.gov.tr/ijonmes Article Info: Received : XX.XX.XXXX Revision : XX.XX.XXXX Accepted : XX.XX.XXXX This study aims to investigate the effect of gifted students' art education on their professional preferences. The survey model, one of the quantitative research models, was used. A total of 320 students from the Çukurova Science and Art Center art field and general talent field, which were determined by the convenience sampling method, constitute the research sample group. The occupational preference inventory prepared by Atli and Kendal (2017) was used in the research. The inventory comprises six sub-dimensions: investigative, entrepreneurial, artistic, social, realistic, and traditional. Independent Sample t-Test and Anova Test were applied for the analyses, and Cohen's d and Eta Square tests were applied to calculate the effect level in meaningful data. As a result of the research on general talent and art students, it has been determined that there are significant differences in gender, school type, school level, and age.
... Criteria for inclusion are broad in both studies, with the result that artists who are less active, and do not necessarily consider their artistic practice to be at the heart of their employment, are also included. Lena and Lindemann (2014) have used the US Strategic National Arts Alumni Project survey (N = 13,581), the largest survey undertaken of individuals who have pursued arts degrees in the US,A to explore who self-defines as a "professional artist." They have explored the professional artist as being the outcome of an identity process. ...
Chapter
The purpose of this article was twofold. Firstly, to investigate the heterogeneity among artists as an occupational category and secondly, to define arts as a profession and thereby to make a distinction between professional artists and amateurs. Artists’ income and working conditions have been the subject of several studies, and many different sampling criteria have been used. Scholars have not yet achieved consensus on who should be included in the profession. In this article, we make an innovative contribution to this conversation. By applying a finite mixture model, which combines latent profile and latent class analysis, we have been able to identify different segments of artists in terms of professionalism. Each of these mutually exclusive classes is characterized by a particular income and working situation. We also include a membership function, estimated through a logistic regression, which allows prediction of the probability that an individual will belong to each class, given his/her socioeconomic characteristics. The subject of our study is Danish visual artists. The dataset consists of a combination of register data from Statistics Denmark and data collected from a questionnaire survey with 892 respondents. Based on the artists’ civil registration numbers, the two sources have been merged into a unique dataset. Our finite mixture model shows the heterogeneity among artists. Combined with a theoretically definition of arts as a profession, our research propose a distinction between professional artists and amateurs that cuts across categories used in prior literature. The results can be beneficial to cultural policy.
... Si bien el perfil profesional y la situación socioeconómica del colectivo de artistas y de otros profesionales de la cultura, más ligados al sector de las artes escénicas, han sido objeto de debate e interés desde hace años (Benhamou, 1997;Steiner y Schneider, 2013;Lena y Lindemann, 2014;Fundación AISGE, 2016), el conocimiento de la realidad diferenciada de hombres y mujeres es todavía escaso. Solo recientemente, las desigualdades de género en el mercado de trabajo de estos profesionales han captado la atención de asociaciones profesionales nacionales e internacionales, así como de la academia. ...
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Este artículo tiene como objetivo el análisis de las desigualdades de género en el sector de las artes escénicas en España y, en concreto, las desigualdades que se manifiestan en el ámbito remunerativo. A partir de una muestra de ochocientos profesionales del sector, los resultados revelan una peor situación laboral de las mujeres, cuyas retribuciones salariales siguen siendo inferiores a las de los hombres, incluso cuando desempeñan las mismas funciones, tienen un mayor nivel de formación, ocupan los mismos cargos y llevan los mismos años trabajando en el sector. El conocimiento de estas desigualdades y sobre todo su carácter multidimensional puede ayudar a las administraciones públicas, pero también al sector privado, en el desarrollo y la aplicación de medidas de impulso a la igualdad de género en el sector, base de la diversidad de las expresiones culturales
... Si bé el perfil professional i la situació socioeconòmica del col·lectiu d'artistes i d'altres professionals de la cultura, més lligats al sector de les arts escèniques, han sigut objecte de debat i d'interés des de fa anys (Benhamou, 1997;Steiner i Schneider, 2013;Lena i Lindemann, 2014;Fundació AISGE, 2016), el coneixement de la realitat diferenciada d'homes i de dones és encara escàs. Només recentment, les desigualtats de gènere en el mercat de treball d'aquests professionals han captat l'atenció d'associacions professionals nacionals i internacionals, així com de l'acadèmia. ...
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Aquest article té com a objectiu l’anàlisi de les desigualtats de gènere en el sector de les arts escèniques a Espanya i, en concret, les desigualtats que es manifesten en l’àmbit remuneratiu. A partir d’una mostra de vuit-cents professionals del sector, els resultats revelen una pitjor situació laboral de les dones, les retribucions salarials de les quals continuen sent inferiors a les dels homes, fins i tot quan exerceixen les mateixes funcions, tenen un nivell superior de formació, ocupen els mateixos càrrecs i porten els mateixos anys treballant en el sector. El coneixement d’aquestes desigualtats i, sobretot, el caràcter multidimensional d’aquestes poden ajudar les administracions públiques, però també el sector privat, en el desenvolupament i l’aplicació de mesures d’impuls de la igualtat de gènere en el sector, base de la diversitat de les expressions culturals.
... Although failure can trigger feelings of helplessness that result in abandoning goals (Bandura, 1982), it can also be experienced as a motivation to explore alternative ways to attain that goal (Sitkin and Pablo, 1992;Amabile et al., 2005). The tendency to explore alternatives is typically stronger in environments in which failure is common and when success is important to maintain one's identity, as is often the case with entrepreneurs and freelance artists (Brunstein and Gollwitzer, 1996;Lena and Lindemann, 2014). The idea that failure to attain a goal can induce exploration is also consistent with bounded rationality models of problemistic search. 1 When applied to our context of collaborative choices, the actor initially prefers to collaborate with people in her local network to attain her goal and observes the outcomes 1 Specifically, our setting can be modeled as a variant of the multi-armed bandit model of individual agent adaptation to an uncertain task environment (Brand, Sakoda, and Woods, 1957;Denrell and March, 2001;see Puranam et al., 2015 for a summary description; Sutton and Barto, 2018). ...
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People in the early stages of their careers often face a trade-off between cultivating a closed network that helps them secure the resources they need to survive or developing an open network that can help them succeed. Actors who overcome this trade-off transition from a closed network to an open network; those who fail to do so can be caught in a survival trap that jeopardizes their chances of having a successful career. We identify the factors that enable and constrain network transitions and test our theory on a sample of Korean pop (K-pop) freelance songwriters before they have attained their first commercial hit. These songwriters initially rely on a closed network of collaborators and transition toward an open network by working with fellow songwriters who are not connected to those collaborators. This network transition occurs faster among songwriters who eventually attain their first hit than among those who remain unsuccessful. Songwriters are more likely to collaborate with new distant colleagues when they have a reference group of commercially successful peers and when they have created stylistically similar songs in the past that have failed to become hits. However, most of their new distant colleagues also lack a hit, revealing a status barrier that constrains the network transition of early-career songwriters.
... Informants have identified themselves as artistic workers. This supports Lena and Lindemann's (2014) and Kucharska and Mikołajczak's (2018) claim that there is a lack of consensus on what constitute artists, designer and art designers. Consider the following quotes from informants (Table 2): ...
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Creative entrepreneurship have contributed to economic development of regions and countries and have become models for the countries in the western world. Jewelry designer entrepreneurs are one of the contributor towards creative economy for their role in economic prosperity. This article investigates brand building efforts of jewelry designer entrepreneurs. We explore how jewelry designer entrepreneurs develop and communicate brand narrative and brand backstories confer value to jewelry. This study used a qualitative approach. Semi-structured in-depth interviews were conducted with 7 Portuguese designer jewelry. The study identified seven themes to reflect the brand narratives of the Portuguese jewelry designer entrepreneurs: 1) Designer artists considered the importance of international recognition; 2) Designer jewelry uses the ontological metaphor to connect emotionally; 3) Designer jewelry making a jewelry piece that is fluid and organic; 4) Limited association with fashion; 5) Distinctive brand communication; 6) Fair pricing strategy and 7) Identifying self as artistic worker.The study also shows that jewelry designer entrepreneurs adopts a distinctive brand communication tactics to connect emotionally with imagine customers. This study proposes a general and managerial guide to boost personal brand jewelry designers entrepreneurs through brand narratives. This study bridges an academia gap on personal branding exploring how jewelry designer entrepreneurs develop and communicate brand narrative and brand backstories adding value to the jewelry industry.
... Szersze rozważania na ten temat przedstawione zostały w licznych tekstach problemowych (Freidson 1986;Gołaszewska 1986;Frey, Pommerehne 1989;Golka 1995;Karttunen 1998;Throsby 2001;Heinich 2007;Throsby, Zednik 2010;1. Wstęp Towse 2011;Lena, Lindemann 2014;Bachórz, Stachura 2015;Murzyn-Kupisz, Działek 2017Frey 2019). Instytucjonalna teoria sztuki pozwala uznawać za artystę osoby, których propozycje artystyczne zostały przyjęte i uznane przez instytucje świata artystycznego. ...
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W książce zaproponowano i rozwinięto koncepcję geografii sztuki jako subdyscypliny geografii społeczno-ekonomicznej. Ukazano w sposób syntetyczny terytorialny wymiar życia artystycznego w różnych skalach przestrzennych ‒ miejsc i ośrodków artystycznych. W tym celu uwzględniono dorobek nauk społecznych i humanistycznych. Sformułowane ramy koncepcyjne i pojęciowe terytorialnego pola sztuki wykorzystano do zobrazowania zmieniającej się organizacji przestrzennej prywatnych galerii sztuki współczesnej i ich skupisk w Krakowie w latach 1989–2019. http://denali.geo.uj.edu.pl/publikacje,000255
... Nevertheless, this is still an area needing more examination as serious games used in business and engineering courses have more often been evaluated in terms of learning outcomes (Bulander, 2010) but these have shown mixed ndings (Bakhuys Roozeboom et al., 2017). The need for strong professional identity is critical for students who are entering creative industries such as design and media because their professionalism is highly intertwined with their ability to demonstrate unique creative voices that are driven from strong artistic identities (Lena & Lindemann, 2014). How character identi cation in uences the learning and professional identities of higher education students still need to be further investigated. ...
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Character identification occurs when game players adopt the identities of game characters to different degrees. Character identification can enhance identity development and learning of young adolescents but how higher education students in professional programs develop character identification using a gamification learning mobile app and use it to support their learning of professional skills and development of professional identities have not been examined. This study describes the design of a character-based gamified learning quest to support the learning of design skills. Through 13 learning quests, 4 3 tertiary design and media students used the professional media roles and ‘power’ attributes of their chosen characters towards the design of an innovative media product. The study investigates the developed character identification for their professional. Content analysis of students’ video blog reflections indicated that more than half of them were able to establish deep identification with their chosen characters. Students who had deep identification enacted their character by actively ideating, prototyping and testing design ideas whereas those who had shallow or no identification largely focused on ideation. Regression analysis showed that deep character identification during design conceptualization predicted students’ design project scores. How the study findings can inform the practical applications of character-based gamification in higher education professional learning programs are discussed.
... Como indica Henry McGhie (2020), muchos de los objetivos que se plantean los museos en el desarrollo de su función social están estrechamente relacionados con los Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible (ODS) en materia de protección y salvaguardia del patrimonio cultural y natural, el apoyo a la educación, la investigación y la participación cultural y como vía para abordar problemas de desigualdad, pobreza, marginalidad, participación y acceso a los recursos culturales y poniendo énfasis en la capacidad de los museos y centros de arte para ampliar la generación de oportunidades para los niños, los jóvenes, las personas mayores y las desfavorecidas. En España, el plan Museos + Sociales, impulsado por la Secretaría de Estado de Cultura "con el objetivo de conseguir que las instituciones museísticas se adapten a las realidades sociales del contexto actual, con la finalidad de ser accesibles y responder a las necesidades de toda la ciudadanía" (Azor Lacasta et al., 2013-2014, impulsó el museo como espacio de integración y de conocimiento mutuo. La relación física del espacio museístico con sus públicos se convertía así en fundamental, y muchas de las actividades encuadradas en este tipo de programas estaban dirigidas a ello, a facilitar esa conexión entre la sociedad y el espacio del museo. ...
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Culture in general and, specifically, the activity carried out by museums, art centers and artists, has undergone profound changes over the last decade, in its channels and strategies for social approach. The way in which digital transformation, common to our entire society, has affected this sector has not only enabled to strengthen the social function of museums towards their audiences, making artistic creation 1 Investigadora independiente, especialista en mercado del arte. RESUMEN La cultura en general y, en concreto, la actividad desarrollada por museos, centros de arte y artistas, ha experimentado durante la última década profundos cambios en sus canales y estrategias de aproximación a la sociedad. La forma en que la transformación digital, común a toda nuestra sociedad, ha incidido en dicho sector no sólo ha permitido fortalecer la función social de los museos respecto de sus públicos, haciendo más accesible la creación artística, así como la conexión de los artistas independientes con la sociedad, sino que ha demostrado ser un elemento fundamental de cohesión social y de desarrollo cultural en época de confinamiento, aportando nuevas estrategias, canales y contenidos más sensibles y comprometidos, sostenibles, creativos, allí donde la presencialidad, imprescindible para el disfrute de la actividad cultural, se ha visto limitada.
... En términos generales, la situación laboral actual de los trabajadores culturales presenta signos claros de precariedad (Throsby, 2010;Rowan, 2017), y especialmente en el caso de los artistas plásticos y visuales (Bille, 2012;Abbing, 2002), con altos niveles de autoempleo, salarios bajos, inestabilidad, baja tasa de afiliación a los sistemas de seguridad social en diferentes países. En los últimos años los artistas deben combinar la producción artística con labores de autogestión, comunicación y promoción profesional, aunque conservan un alto nivel de aceptación de su situación e identidad como artistas y una visión positiva de su trabajo, a pesar de la precariedad (Zafra, 2017;Lena y Lindemann, 2014;Steiner y Schneider, 2013). ...
... Criteria for inclusion are broad in both studies, with the result that artists who are less active, and do not necessarily consider their artistic practice to be at the heart of their employment, are also included. Lena and Lindemann (2014) have used the US Strategic National Arts Alumni Project survey (N = 13,581), the largest survey undertaken of individuals who have pursued arts degrees in the US,A to explore who self-defines as a "professional artist." They have explored the professional artist as being the outcome of an identity process. ...
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The purpose of this article was twofold. Firstly, to investigate the heterogeneity among artists as an occupational category and secondly, to define arts as a profession and thereby to make a distinction between professional artists and amateurs. Artists' income and working conditions have been the subject of several studies, and many different sampling criteria have been used. Scholars have not yet achieved consensus on who should be included in the profession. In this article, we make an innovative contribution to this conversation. By applying a finite mixture model, which combines latent profile and latent class analysis, we have been able to identify different segments of artists in terms of professionalism. Each of these mutually exclusive classes is characterized by a particular income and working situation. We also include a membership function, estimated through a logistic regression, which allows prediction of the probability that an individual will belong to each class, given his/her socioeconomic characteristics. The subject of our study is Danish visual artists. The dataset consists of a combination of register data from Statistics Denmark and data collected from a questionnaire survey with 892 respondents. Based on the artists’ civil registration numbers, the two sources have been merged into a unique dataset. Our finite mixture model shows the heterogeneity among artists. Combined with a theoretically definition of arts as a profession, our research propose a distinction between professional artists and amateurs that cuts across categories used in prior literature. The results can be beneficial to cultural policy.
... Professional artistry resembles the 'interdependent' definition of socially mediated identities (Markus & Kitayama 1991). In terms of educational engagement, the professional position appears linked (mistakenly and regrettably) with market-oriented benchmarks, such as a desire to work independent of instruction-centred circumstances, spaces, schedules and material limitations (Lena & Lindemann 2014). Linking student-as-artist identities to vocational measures and market-oriented benchmarks makes it more difficult for the student to work within the current educational setup and inadvertently limits their participation in broader creative communities (Bain 2005). ...
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Self‐identification is essential to the mediation of educational outcomes, however the selective self‐identification of students as an artist remains a relatively unexplored area of research in art education. This project uses qualitative narrative analysis to deconstruct the life stories of university‐level art students, to examine formative processes underlying selective artistic self‐identification, and to discern how dispositions developed in earlier experiences impact student engagement, performance and motivation at the university level. Research findings indicate students‐as‐artist identities develop along two distinct dramaturgical positions and emphasise the importance of mentor relationships, student‐choice, open exploration, and environmental support to the development of emerging student‐as‐art identities. The researcher reviews literature broadly supporting an examination of selective self‐identification, outlines methods used to deconstruct the life stories of university‐level art students, examines evidence of emerging patterns in the data, and concludes with a short discussion of how findings of this project impact the teacher’s role in corroborating selective artistic self‐identification in students.
... Thus, like Daniel Cornfield (2015) and others (e.g., Faulkner, 1983;de Laat, 2015) who have investigated the career trajectories of arts-related workers in a qualitative fashion, we are able to assess factors that explain the 3 Working in the arts, even arguably as an artist in the narrow sense, does not mean that individuals will automatically claim the title of "artist. " This is a point that Lena and Lindemann (2014) address in detail by way of other SNAAP data. ...
Technical Report
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How best to balance in the curriculum preparation for specialized, skill-heavy careers in highly competitive arts professions with the sort of educational preparation characteristic of a liberal arts curriculum that promises to prepare students for flexible, self-directed, adaptable career paths with the multiple episodes and pivots that have become so commonplace for this generation? What is most “foundational” in an undergraduate education in the arts and what skills and knowledge should be deferred to advanced study or the lessons of working life? Strategic National Arts Alumni Project (SNAAP) survey data provide abundant insights into this perennial dilemma of curriculum design. While this SNAAP Special Report does not address all of these questions, it sheds light on an important yet understudied question related to the challenge of preparing students for an artistic career.
... En términos generales, la situación laboral actual de los trabajadores culturales presenta signos claros de precariedad (Throsby, 2010;Rowan, 2017), y especialmente en el caso de los artistas plásticos y visuales (Bille, 2012;Abbing, 2002), con altos niveles de autoempleo, salarios bajos, inestabilidad, baja tasa de afiliación a los sistemas de seguridad social en diferentes países. En los últimos años los artistas deben combinar la producción artística con labores de autogestión, comunicación y promoción profesional, aunque conservan un alto nivel de aceptación de su situación e identidad como artistas y una visión positiva de su trabajo, a pesar de la precariedad (Zafra, 2017;Lena y Lindemann, 2014;Steiner y Schneider, 2013). ...
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This research explores financial, social and environmental factors as it pertains to the economic sustainability of visual arts entrepreneurship in Nigeria. The creative industry, encompassing activities centered on creativity, innovation, and intellectual property, is pivotal in Nigeria’s economy. Creative entrepreneurship within this industry emphasizes creativity in entrepreneurial efforts, often leading to businesses that integrate cultural expressions and artistic values, particularly in visual arts. This sector not only contributes significantly to Nigeria’s GDP but also plays a vital role in cultural representation and economic development, marking its importance in the nation’s broader creative landscape. A mixed-methods approach involving an online questionnaire consisting of 40 formulated economic sustainability assessment questions was distributed to 173 respondents in Lagos state, and a semi-structured interview with 4 respondents was employed to collect the data. The results revealed the predominant participation of younger individuals aged 20 to 45 in the visual arts sector of the Nigerian creative industry. Additionally, it identified a high rate of unemployment as a motivation for venturing into creative entrepreneurship. It further highlighted the challenges, opportunities, and strategies for promoting economic growth and resilience in this sector. Although the full potential of Nigeria’s creative industries is yet to be fully optimized, the research identified that governmental backing emerges as a pivotal factor for nurturing the economic sustainability of visual arts entrepreneurs in the creative sector. Keywords: economic sustainability, visual arts, creative entrepreneurship, creative industry(ies)
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Research on tokenism has mostly focused on negative experiences and career outcomes for individuals who are tokenized. Yet tokenism as a structural system that excludes larger populations, and the meso-level cultural foundations under which tokenism occurs, are comparatively understudied. We focus on these additional dimensions of tokenism using original data on the creation and long-term retention of postcolonial literature. In an institutional environment in which the British publishing industry was consolidating the production of non-U.S. global literatures written in English, and readers were beginning to convey status through openness in cultural tastes, the conditions for tokenism emerged. Using data on the emergence of postcolonial literature as a category organized through the Booker Prize for Fiction, we test and find for non-white authors (1) evidence of tokenism, (2) unequal treatment of those under consideration for tokenization, and (3) long-term retention consequences for those who were not chosen. We close with a call for more holistic work across multiple dimensions of tokenism, analyses that address inequality across and within groups, and a reconsideration of tokenism within a broader suite of practices that have grown ascendent across arenas of social life.
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Music composers exemplify precarious work: they historically have been freelancers and have relied on multiple jobs to subsidize their creative work. We focus here on the gender pay gap amidst such precariousness—heeding their income earned solely from composition and from the totality of jobs recently held. There is no gender pay gap when it comes to income earned from composition but there is a significant gap for income earned from all jobs, showing that women composers face relative disadvantage in subsidizing their creative work. We also find that men and women composers experience different and racialized returns to their capitals and career positioning when navigating precarious work. These findings have lessons for multiple literatures—including those on the new sociology of work and on creative careers.
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Gatekeepers exercise power by granting access to resources in their respective fields, and they typically distribute these resources based on evaluations of quality. Arts funding organizations act as gatekeeping organizations, and they use evaluation to determine who belongs in a given field and who does not. The case presented here is an American organization whose role is to fund contemporary art music. This type of music, as in academia, is typically evaluated via peer review. This organization must balance the conflicting priorities of its public and private donors: the former require openness and diversity, the latter aim to reproduce cultural hierarchies. To work around this inherent conflict, the organization chooses to not define publicly the type of music it supports. However, by managing the peer review process in a specific way, the organization can make the evaluation produce a result coherent with the definition of contemporary art music espoused by its private donors. With this case, we can see how arts funding organizations may exercise the power of defining the possibilities and limits of art production fields.
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Chapter
This chapter articulates the essence of educating the artist and highlights the theoretical, pedagogical, and contextual dimensions that influence technology-enhanced pedagogical practices in the arts at higher education. The notion of using technology for educating the artist appears incongruent to the predominantly studio-based approaches of teaching artistic practices. However, these kinds of long-standing pedagogical practices are slowly being disrupted by the proliferation of technologies in both society and educational institutions. With the forced global migration to online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic, the need for artist educators to have a repertoire of technology-enhanced pedagogical practices within their teaching toolkit is even more acute. This chapter sets the framing of the book as an inquiry about the possibilities of teaching and learning the arts in higher education with technology. It outlines how the book chapters are being organised to stimulate conversation among artist educators about possible pedagogical models, as well as inform higher education institutions about the contextual strategies needed to support the creation of technology-enhanced pedagogical practices in the arts.
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Thesis
A key issue in artistic labor market is human capital. The basic question is whether human capital can play a significant role in the first level artists’ labour market? Some cultural economists believe that human capital does not have any effect on the first level artists’ labour market, but the prevailing literature suggests a positive impact of human capital. On the other hand, despite the recent wave of attention of researchers to the importance and position of financial development, it is critical to investigate the role of external financing in cultural employment. However, no study has been ever done which examine the role of financial development in the first level artists’ labour market. This research, considering the frictions of the first level artists’ labour market, explain a different view through a theoretical study of the potential of financial development to finance the self-employment of artists. Our findings reveal the role of financial development in the first level artists’ labour market. The results show that financial development through existing mechanisms can play a significant role in reducing frictions in this market, or in reducing their adverse effects of them. Accordingly, the first level artists’ labour market will be adjusted to the social optimal equilibrium. To achieve this, it is necessary to develop the financial system to reduce the frictions of the first level artists’ labour market, and to supply innovative financial instruments to develop the access of the first level artists.
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The aim of this paper is to critically assess the notion of the creative cluster, and to consider whether it is an appropriate tool for the governance of the creative industries, or even a suitable point from which to begin an analysis of the creative industries. The paper argues that creative clusters are formally a sub-set of business clusters. A critique of the business clusters literature highlights its shortcomings: a focus on individual firm preferences and a lack of attention to non-economic, situated temporal and spatial variables; a lack of attention to the specificity of particular industries and their associated regulatory peculiarities; and finally, information issues associated with the operationalisation of the cluster model. The paper concludes with a discussion of an alternative approach, looking at a creative industries production system that would better meet the concerns of those seeking to govern the creative industries and creative clusters.
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This article reviews conceptual and operational issues in defining the creative sector and its arts and cultural core. Some accounts use establishment data to measure creative industry employment, some use firm-level data, and others use occupational data. The authors examine how cultural-sector employment is conceptualized in three pioneering cultural economy studies driven by distinctive policy agendas and constituencies. Choices about which industries, firms, and occupations to include affect the resulting size and content of the cultural economy. In comparing these three studies and others, the authors show that the Boston metro's creative economy varies in size from less than 1% to 49%, although most cultural definitions range from 1% to 4%. The authors explore how policy makers might use a combination of methods to produce a richer characterization of the regional cultural economy and reflect on the relevance of good numbers to cultural policy and creative region formation.
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▪ Abstract Artistic labor markets are puzzling ones. Employment as well as unemployment are increasing simultaneously. Uncertainty acts not only as a substantive condition of innovation and self-achievement, but also as a lure. Learning by doing plays such a decisive role that in many artworlds initial training is an imperfect filtering device. The attractiveness of artistic occupations is high but has to be balanced against the risk of failure and of an unsuccessful professionalization that turns ideally non-routine jobs into ordinary or ephemeral undertakings. Earnings distributions are extremely skewed. Risk has to be managed, mainly through flexibility and cost reducing means at the organizational level and through multiple job holding at the individual level. Job rationing and an excess supply of artists seem to be structural traits associated with the emergence and the expansion of a free market organization of the arts. Reviewing research done not only by sociologists, but also by economists, histo...
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This article attempts to define and measure cultural industries in Sweden. It starts with a discussion of the definition and delineation of the term “cultural industries,” arguing that a large range of goods and services can be considered culture industry products and that it is important to place the production and exchange of such products in the context of an industrial systems approach. The concept is then operationalized using Swedish data on employment and the activity of firms. The results suggest that the overall growth in both employment and the number of firms has been especially strong in the cultural industries. However, the number of active firms has been growing at a much faster pace than employment in these industries, indicating a quickly changing business environment. With regard to regional dimensions, Swedish cultural industries have a strong attraction to urban areas but an even stronger propensity to agglomerate. It is suggested that the spatial dynamics observed may be key to the development of the industries' competencies and success. In summary, the article presents the results of an extensive data analysis that found that cultural industries make an important contribution to the Swedish economy and labor market. It concludes by suggesting issues that need further quantitative and qualitative study.
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Since the inception of the field of cultural economics, researchers have sought to understand the unusual characteristics of the labor market for artists. In this paper, we attempt to reconcile the different explanations of the earnings of artists in the United States that have been advanced over the past fifteen years. As we will show, the differences in their explanations are often based on the use of different data sources. However, alternative theories about the underlying utility maximization process of artists as workers still exist.
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A Canadian art educator remarks on three aspects of discipline-based art education: comments from a Canadian perspective on the nature and scale of the Getty Institute for Educators on the Visual Arts; perceived problems in the development and implementation of projects currently under way; finally, some observations on the possibility of establishing discipline-based art education.
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Over the past two decades, urban and regional policy-makers have increasingly looked to the arts and culture as an economic panacea, especially for the older urban core. The arts' regional economic contribution is generally measured by totalling the revenue of larger arts organisations, associated expenditures by patrons and multiplier effects. This approach underestimates the contributions of creative artists to a regional economy, because of high rates of self-employment and direct export activity, because artists' work enhances the design, production and marketing of products and services in other sectors and because artists induce innovation on the part of suppliers. Artists create import-substituting entertainment options for regional consumers and spend large shares of their own incomes on local arts output. The paper takes a labour-centred view of the arts economy, hypothesising that many artists choose a locale in which to work, often without regard to particular employers but in response to a nurturing artistic and patron community, amenities and affordable cost of living. Because evidence on such economic impacts and location calculus is impossible to document directly, the distribution of artists across the largest US metropolitan areas is used as a proxy, using data from the PUMS for 1980, 1990 and 2000. It is found that artists sort themselves out among American cities in irregular fashion, not closely related to either size or growth rates. The paper further explores variations in the definition of artist, the relationship between artistic occupation and industry, and differentials in artists' self-employment rates and earnings across cities. It is concluded that artists comprise a relatively footloose group that can serve as a target of regional and local economic development policy; the components of such a policy are outlined.
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This article investigates occupational identity construction among contemporary Canadian professional visual artists. Through in-depth, semi-structured interviews I draw on the perceptions and subjective experiences of 80 Toronto visual artists to explore how individuals consciously articulate and act upon an occupational identity that they have carefully and deliberately chosen. I demonstrate how the informal nature of artistic occupational definitional parameters can render the title ‘professional artist’ an empty signifier. Given the limited means of clearly distinguishing between professional and amateur, and the lack of recognition attributed to artistic labour as ‘real’ work, I argue that professional status comes largely from drawing on a repertoire of shared myths and stereotypes to help create an artistic identity and project it to others.
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Part 1 Foreword Part 2 Part I: The Western Heritage Chapter 3 The Ancient Jewish Tradition Chapter 4 The Age of Antiquity Chapter 5 Music Education from the Early Christian Era to the Reformation Part 6 Part II: The New World: America Chapter 7 Early Music Education in the New World Chapter 8 The New England Roots of American Music Education Part 9 Part III: Early American Education Chapter 10 Education for A New Democracy: Building a Nation Chapter 11 The Pestalozzian Education Reform Movement Chapter 12 The Beginnings of Music in American Schools Part 13 Part IV: The Growth of Music Education Chapter 14 Music Education in an Industrializing America Chapter 15 The Development of Professional Education Organizations Chapter 16 The Beginning of the Music Educators National Conference Chapter 17 The Broadening Music Curriculum Chapter 18 The Music Educators National Conference Matures Part 19 Part V: Music Education after 1950 Chapter 20 American Education after 1950 Chapter 21 Government, Foundation, and Not-for-Profit Support for Arts Education Chapter 22 New Foundations of Music Education Chapter 23 New Curricular Foundations of Music Education Chapter 24 The Twenty-first Century Chapter 25 Reflections
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Much emphasis has been placed on the importance of agglomeration economies as a backbone to urban and regional growth. Case study research points out that particular cities and regions have a competitive advantage in industrial activity over others, yet we have little by way of a satisfactory means of formally studying the geography of these industrial patterns to demonstrate how the specific case studies fit into a larger pattern of agglomeration that can be applied to more than one place. Is the agglomeration itself in fact exhibiting statistically robust and significant patterns? What do the patterns look like and how do they differ by region? Using geographic information systems to analyze spatial autocorrelation and “hot spots” of industries, we compare the ten most populous metropolitan statistical areas across several “advanced” service sectors (professional, management, media, finance, art and culture, engineering and high technology). We find that much of the qualitative evidence on industrial clustering is evocative of broader macro patterns that are both similar and dissimilar across industries and geographies. Our results indicate that there are three spatial typologies of growth in the advanced services within U.S. urban regions. These typologies allow us to intimate qualities of place in general and of places specifically that drive the agglomeration of advanced services. New York City's art and culture and media industries represent key examples of geographically unique cases within advanced services that are explained relative to existing literature regarding the importance of density and cross-fertilization across industrial fields.
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Regional policy makers have always wrestled in vain to come up with regional economic development policies that are coherent and uniform and can be defended on economic grounds. However, most policies are either ad hoc or based on political considerations. The relevant literature dealing with regional economic development strategies is fragmented. It also does not provide any guidance to formulate an overall long-term strategy based on an integrated analytical foundation. It incorporates elements like entrepreneurship, human capital, workplace training, capital accumulation, R&D effort, innovations, technology, and technological cycles. This article proposes a human capital accumulation strategy for regional economic development that not only integrates the above diverse elements of the literature into a cohesive analytical framework but also provides the rationale for it to be part of a long-term policy for economic development on efficiency grounds.
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relatively new interdisciplinary space 卤 the organisation and management of cultural industries,. This opening paper provides an introduction to and a consideration of that territory; it is divided into four main sections. We begin by outlining a conceptual posi-tion on creativity and management, and how we might define the cultural industries. Our objective here is to present creativity in a broad organizational field, much in the way that innovation has recently become dis-cussed. Second, we examine the particularity of the cultural industries compared to other industries and how issues of management, organisation and governance are problematic, particularly given the nature of their trans-formation, or convergence. Third, we outline the broad intellectual space for understanding creativity in a knowledge economy, and indi-cate how this too presents challenges and op-portunities. Finally, we review the dimensions of a significant new space for interdisciplinary research (and policy making) 卤 the organisa-tion and management of cultural industries. We conclude by considering emerging themes from this field and by introducing the con-tributions from the individual papers to this special issue.
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Introduction: taking entertainment seriously (T. Nichols Clark). A political theory of consumption (T. Nichols Clark). Urban amenities: lakes, opera, and juice bars: do they drive development? (T. Nichols Clark). Globalization and the liminal: transgression, identity and the urban primitive (L. Langman, K. Cangemi). Consumers and cities (E.L. Glaeser et al.). The new political culture and local government in England (A. Bartlett et al.). Technology and tolerance: the importance of diversity to high-technology growth (R. Florida, G. Gates). Gays and urban development: how are they linked? (T. Nichols Clark). Amenities: recent work mainly by economists (A. Zelenev). The international mayor (T. Nichols Clark et al.). Starbucks, bicycle paths, and urban growth machines: emails among members of urban and community section of American Sociological Association. (Listserve). Amenities drive urban growth: leadership and policy linkages (T. Nichols Clark et al.). List of contributors, biographical sketches.
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Cities and regions have long captured the imagination of sociologists, economists, and urbanists. From Alfred Marshall to Robert Park and Jane Jacobs, cities have been seen as cauldrons of diversity and difference and as fonts for creativity and innovation. Yet until recently, social scientists concerned with regional growth and development have focused mainly on the role of firms in cities, and particularly on how these firms make location decisions and to what extent they concentrate together in agglomerations or clusters. This short article summarizes recent advances in our thinking about cities and communities, and does so particularly in light of themes advanced in my recently published book, The Rise of the Creative Class, which focuses on diversity and creativity as basic drivers of innovation and regional and national growth. This line of work further suggests the need for some conceptual refocusing and broadening to account for the location decisions of people as opposed to those of firms as sources of regional and national economic growth. In doing so, this article hopes to spur wider commentary and debate on the critical functions of cities and regions in 21st–century creative capitalism.
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The Nordic countries have a quite different urban structure and social systems than the USA. Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden may then constitute a critical test of the empirical reach of Richard Florida's much cited creative class thesis beyond its empirical basis in the USA. This paper employs comparative statistics to examine the importance of the quality of place in attracting members of the creative class to Nordic city regions, and it analyses the role of the creative class for regional economic development. Florida's original study focused only on city regions with more than 100,000 inhabitants. Our statistical analyses mainly support Florida's results with regard to these larger Nordic city regions. The paper, however, also analyses smaller city regions, which are important in the Nordic urban structure. The findings are clearly less supportive for these smaller regions, which mean that the original creative class approach has to be considerably refined when used in the Nordic context.
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Artistic labor markets expand along a path of highly unbalanced growth: competitive pressure, flexible specialization of the work organization and pervasive work contingency cross individual as well as entrepreneurial ideals such as self-achievement and innovativeness in ways that challenge conventional views of the skilled working process as well as the conventional survey and measurement methods.High differentiation of artistic products and steady oversupply, which are common traits of an imperfect monopolistic competition, are magnified by work arrangements that evolve towards increasingly fragmented and brokered employment relationship. Work trajectories combine features from professional as well as from entrepreneurial careers, under constraining contingency. Yet, uncertainty of the creative process, that goes along with the ‘functional flexibility’ requirement in the arts, helps to explain artistic behavior: neither a rational actor nor a deterministically driven agent, the artist may be depicted as a bayesian actor learning to balance self-actualization against occupational risk.
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This chapter is a continuation of ongoing work by economists and others on artists' labor markets and careers. It highlights the use of quasi-panel data obtained from census data to examine the employment and earnings of artists while comparing them to all the other professional and technical workers. It also provides a glimpse into what can be learned about artists' careers from true panel data.Quasi-panels from the seven most recent US censuses (1940–2000) provide a reasonably consistent set of findings in each census year. Artists are found to work fewer hours, suffer higher unemployment and earn less than members of the reference group. Over the sixty year period, disparities in unemployment and annual hours worked are found to shrink somewhat, but disparities in earnings do not. Artists earned less across all years even when only members working full-time year-round of each group are compared. The earnings of artists are found to display greater variability than those of other professional and technical workers.The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 is used to examine almost twenty years in the artists' lives and provides some insights into their careers. It suggests that many people participate in the artistic labor market, but that few succeed to the point that enables them to develop a career in the arts. In part due to their relatively high educational levels, artists are found to be able to transition from forays into arts occupations to jobs in professional and managerial occupations, not into service occupations as artist ‘mythology’ might suggest. We find that when the artists are young and struggling to make it they do work in various service occupations that tend to provide greater work schedule flexibility.
Article
This paper considers the prospects for constructing a neoclassical theory of growth and international trade that is consistent with some of the main features of economic development. Three models are considered and compared to evidence: a model emphasizing physical capital accumulation and technological change, a model emphasizing human capital accumulation through schooling, and a model emphasizing specialized human capital accumulation through learning-by-doing.
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Ethnographers and other students of interaction have documented the impact of status factors on students' success in school. Yet survey research data consistently show the absence of family background measure effects on high school grades. It is argued that conventional measures of family background fail to capture those cultural elements of status that make a difference in school interactions. Drawing on Weber's work on status groups and status cultures, and on Bourdieu's work on cultural capital, this paper reports the findings of an effort to assess the impact of one component of status culture participation--cultural capital--on one aspect of life chances--students' high school grades. A composite measure of cultural capital has a significant impact on grades, controlling for family background and measured ability. The pattern of relationships, however, differs strikingly by gender.
Article
Which is more important to New York City's economy, the gleaming corporate office--or the grungy rock club that launches the best new bands? If you said "office," think again. In The Warhol Economy , Elizabeth Currid argues that creative industries like fashion, art, and music drive the economy of New York as much as--if not more than--finance, real estate, and law. And these creative industries are fueled by the social life that whirls around the clubs, galleries, music venues, and fashion shows where creative people meet, network, exchange ideas, pass judgments, and set the trends that shape popular culture. The implications of Currid's argument are far-reaching, and not just for New York. Urban policymakers, she suggests, have not only seriously underestimated the importance of the cultural economy, but they have failed to recognize that it depends on a vibrant creative social scene. They haven't understood, in other words, the social, cultural, and economic mix that Currid calls the Warhol economy. With vivid first-person reporting about New York's creative scene, Currid takes the reader into the city spaces where the social and economic lives of creativity merge. The book has fascinating original interviews with many of New York's important creative figures, including fashion designers Zac Posen and Diane von Furstenberg, artists Ryan McGinness and Futura, and members of the band Clap Your Hands Say Yeah. The economics of art and culture in New York and other cities has been greatly misunderstood and underrated. The Warhol Economy explains how the cultural economy works--and why it is vital to all great cities.
Article
This paper examines the earnings, work patterns, and work histories of individuals employed in the field of dance using data from a survey of graduates of the Five College Dance Department. The respondents to our survey include not only those currently working in dance, but also some who never entered the profession and many others who entered but later left the field. We find that graduate education in dance, age, and prior dance experience are highly correlated with employment in the field of dance. Our findings are similar to those of other studies on artists, in showing that the returns to dance are low and that many of those employed in dance rely on non-dance jobs to supplement their dance earnings. Copyright Kluwer Academic Publishers 2003
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This paper organizes a discussion of the costs and benefits of cities around the question: Are cities becoming obsolete? While minimizing transport costs for manufactured goods no longer justifies the existence of cities, they still facilitate the division of labor and the flow of ideas. Cities' higher housing, commuting, and pollution costs seem stable over time. Only the costs associated with urban poverty may increase and these costs do not effect many newer cities. Although many older cities will continue their decline, the future of the urban form seems surprisingly bright. Copyright 1998 by American Economic Association.
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This article examines the evolution of New York City from a low-end, high-volume apparel manufacturing hub to an international fashion capital. Drawing on evolutionary economic theories, of path-dependence, it argues that 'New York City's initial specialization in ready-to-wear apparel has shaped its subsequent development as a mass-market oriented industry. At the same time, however, it shows how key institutional actors were able to alter the industry's course of development at critical historical junctures by nurturing and promoting their own local design talent. As such, the article's investigation into New York's ascendance as an international fashion center challenges the dominant interpretation of path-dependence in regional development theory and practice. It contends that industries are not held captive to past choices and illustrates how an industry's origins can shape but not over-determine its economic development trajectory.
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