No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
Carob agroforestry industry: An assessment of its potential for the low rainfall Murray valley region
Abstract
This paper reports the key findings of a study examining the potential
viability of a carob agroforestry industry in the low rainfall Murray Valley
region. The carob fruit, typically produced on female and hermaphrodite trees
older than 6 years, is valued for a range of products derived from the seed
and pod. From the seeds, the endosperm is extracted for a galactomannan, which
forms an edible gum (termed ‘carob bean gum’ or ‘locust bean
gum’) and has become a valuable natural food additive. Carob powder,
made by grinding the roasted pod, is used for the human food industry (with
cocoa products and syrups). Ripe pods also have potential as a high energy
stockfeed. The gum is used extensively in Australia as a thickening or binding
agent, particularly for canned pet food products, with current imports valued
at A$10 million/year. The current Australian demand for ‘pet
food’ and ‘technical’ grade gum is estimated at 1200
t/year, with a further 200 t/year of the higher quality
‘food’ grade gum. Assuming a modern plant was built in Australia,
the current Australian demand for carob gum could be met with about 2250 t of
carob seed (seed value at $1600/t). This equates to 5405 ha of
trees (at 104 trees/ha) with medium rainfall and low technology management
(yielding 40 kg pods/tree); or 1080 ha of trees (at 208 trees/ha) with
supplementary irrigation and fertilising (yielding 100 kg pods/tree). As
such, carob could be a commercial tree crop for landholders in the Murray
Valley region. This could be through the sale of seeds and pods, or as a
supplement to livestock feeding. Economic analyses were undertaken to assess
the relative viability of commercial returns when trees had access to adequate
water through medium rainfall or irrigation, and growers had access to both
the carob gum and powder markets. Commercial opportunities for carob growers
within Australia vary considerably depending on establishment and maintenance
costs, yields and access to markets.
... The productivity of Spanish traditional carob orchards (less than 50 trees ha -1 ) is relatively low and harvesting costs are very high. Since the 1980s, increased carob plantings in several regions of both countries have been associated with intensification of the orchards (Esbenshade and Wilson, 1986;Tous and Batlle, 1990;Esbenshade, 1994;Tous, 1994Tous, , 1995Race et al., 1999;Tous et al., 2013). These authors recommend higher densities of about 150-200 trees ha -1 , with drip irrigation and mechanical harvesting for improved yields and economic viability. ...
... Cultivars from the European-American cultivar collection established by the late Professor J. Eliot Coit of the University of California which were brought by HW Esbenshade to Australia in the early 1980s (Esbenshade and Wilson, 1986) are used in the modern orchards (Tous, 1995;Race et al., 1999). Of those introductions, 'Sfax', 'Tylliria', 'Santa Fe' and 'Clifford' appear to be the most outstanding cultivars so far. ...
... The carob tree, also referred to as locust bean tree, belongs to the legume family, is widely cultivated in Mediterranean countries for its indisputable ecological, industrial and ornamental importance (Race et al., 1999;Zengin et al., 2008). In Lebanon, carob trees are abundant and distributed along the coastal lower hills. ...
Cette thèse de doctorat porte sur la valorisation du déchet solide issu de la préparation de la mélasse de caroube libanaise pour la production de bioénergie et de molécules à valeur ajoutée. L’analyse de la composition de ce déchet a montré qu’il contient 45 % (g/g) de sucres, substrats exploitables pour la fermentation alcoolique ou lactique, la production de biohydrogène, ou comme source de carbone pour la croissance d’une algue dans un procédé de phycoremédiation (traitement des eaux par les algues) pour l’élimination de micropolluants pharmaceutiques. Les résultats obtenus ont montré que la fermentation alcoolique en phase liquide à partir d’extraits de déchet de caroube peut conduire à des rendements élevés en bioéthanol sous réserve d’enrichir le milieu de culture par les éléments nécessaires pour la croissance de la levure Saccharomyces cerevisiae (en particulier l’azote), tandis qu’il est possible de produire directement le bioéthanol sur le déchet par fermentation en milieu solide sous réserve de contrôler précisément l’humidité. Nous avons également démontré que la fermentation lactique par immobilisation de Lactobacillus rhamnosus sur des billes d’alginate constitue une alternative possible au bioéthanol pour les sucres extraits du déchet. Cependant, un enrichissement du milieu de culture, ainsi que l’utilisation d’une invertase en prétraitement sont nécessaires afin de maximiser le rendement et la productivité de l’acide lactique. L’immobilisation des microorganismes a permis de réutiliser les mêmes billes d’alginate au cours de cinq cycles successifs de production. Une autre alternative potentielle aux voies précédentes est la fermentation sombre pour la production de biohydrogène directement à partir du déchet. Si des rendements intéressants ont été atteints, il faut noter que comme précédemment dans le cas de la fermentation solide du déchet, une forte dépendance aux conditions initiales de broyage a été mise en évidence ; de plus, à la carence en azote qui obligeait à supplémenter les milieux en fermentation en phase liquide s’ajoutent des besoins en fer. Enfin, l’utilisation du déchet comme substrat carboné dans un procédé de phycoremédiation avec l’algue Ankistrodesmus braunii a montré que l’élimination de 90% du diclofénac initial pouvait être atteinte en conditions de mixotrophie, même si seulement un tiers du diclofénac éliminé est effectivement métabolisé par l’algue.
... Being a member of Ceasalpinaceae family, carob (Ceratonia siliqua L.) is a perennial plant ( Turhan et al., 2007). Carob is a valuable nutrient used in food industry, in the production of molasses and various animal feeds as well direct consumption ( Race et al., 1999;El-Shatnawi et al., 2001;Pekmezci et al., 2008). Grinded and floured form of carob, can be used as an alternative of cacao in the production of ice cream, cake and sweet foods ( Pekmezci et al., 2008;Urbaş, 2008 Figure 2. ...
Bakery products are a nutrition group that is chosen by many people in different countries. Due to low cost, being prepared practically and nutritious, appealing to all age groups and being economical, they are preferred. Considering consumption rate of bakery products consumed by people, the enrichment by needed basic food items is inevitable.
In this study, research of some functional and chemical properties of carob and soy flour that can be used as alternatives of wheat flour, and use of them as food additives in production of bakery products such as pasta, biscuits, cracker, bread etc. is aimed.
It is investigated that carob flour (CF) and soy flour (SF) one of the materials that can be used as bakery product enrichment agent and obtain functional foods. CF has a unique smell, color and taste, has high dietary fiber content (32.87%), complex carbohydrates and a small amount of fat (0.31%). And it is also investigated that soy flour (SF) has a high protein rate (p<0.05) and dietary fiber content compared to wheat flour (WF). Carob flour is found to have low energy content compared to WF and SF.
Based on the functional analyses of flour samples, it is determined that CF and SF samples have a higher water absorption capacity and solubility in water compared to WF. Due to these properties, it is predicted that these flours can be used as alternative food additives and are supposed to contribute to food industry in terms of the properties of the last product and improvement of species.
... Being a member of Ceasalpinaceae family, carob (Ceratonia siliqua L.) is a perennial plant ( Turhan et al., 2007). Carob is a valuable nutrient used in food industry, in the production of molasses and various animal feeds as well direct consumption ( Race et al., 1999;El-Shatnawi et al., 2001;Pekmezci et al., 2008). Grinded and floured form of carob, can be used as an alternative of cacao in the production of ice cream, cake and sweet foods ( Pekmezci et al., 2008;Urbaş, 2008 Figure 2. ...
In recent years, with the increasing of people’s interest in nutrition and health subjects, importance of nutrition has been increased steadily and number of studies on enrichment of foods and production of functional products have been increased. Enrichment of foods is one of the developed applications for solution of health problems which are likely to be seen in society. For this purpose, various foods having
various properties are being developed with the use of different fruits and vegetables’ flours.
Chestnut has a rich nutrition items, it has been used since previous times in nutrition and in daily diets due to being grown at natural conditions as well. Basically, being composed of carbohydrate, water, and a very low amount of fat, chestnut shows cereal features rather than fruit. When grinded, chestnut becomes a lightcoloredflour. This flour is used in puddings, bakery products, and production of bread, breakfast cereals,soup and sauces.
In food industry, there are intensive studies on the production of especially cereal products with different wheat flour and different flour additives. In the light of these studies, some Europe countries, mainly in Italy, especially use of chestnut is being widespread in commercial scale in the production of biscuit, breakfastcereal, muffin and dessert. Instead of wheat flour chestnut flour is used or added in different substitution rates. Within the scope of this review, properties of chestnut fruit, nutritional facts of chestnut, chestnut flour and properties, utilization of chestnut flour in food industry were discussed.
... The carob tree, also referred to as locust bean tree, belongs to the legume family, is widely cultivated in Mediterranean countries for its indisputable ecological, industrial and ornamental importance (Race et al.,1999;Zengin et al.,2008). In Lebanon,carob trees are abundant and distributed along the coastal lower hills. ...
The aim of this work was to develop a strategy for second-generation ethanol production from carob solid waste issued from Lebanese food industry. The pros and cons of submerged (SF) and solid-state fermentations (SSF) using S. cerevisiae on ethanol yield and productivity were compared, including the respective roles of upstream and downstream processes, such as the size reduction, or sugar and ethanol recovery processes. The design of experiments methodology was applied. Experimental results demonstrated that SSF applied to cut carob waste from carob syrup preparation was simpler to operate and more cost-effective, maintained yield and productivity (0.458 g ethanol/g consumed sugar and 4.3 g/(kg waste)/h) in comparison to SF (0.450 g ethanol/g consumed sugar and 5.7 g/(kg waste)/h), and was able to achieve ethanol production up to 155 g/(kg waste) at low water demand, while SF reached only 78 g/(kg waste) due to the limitations of the sugar extraction pretreatment.
... Pods are utilized as a processed carob syrup (pekmez in Turkish), carob powder for human consumption (1,11,12) as well as animal feed. The carob powder produced by roasting and milling of the carob kibbles is mainly used as a substitute or extender of cacao in baking and chocolate manufacturing (13)(14)(15). In Turkey, carob powder is also consumed as a hot drink like Turkish coffee. ...
... In Table 2, the Latin name, the family and the English name of each of the suggested plants, is mentioned, as well as the most important literature, in which the crops are recommended for cultivation in regions like Puglia in Italy and Epirus -Western Greece in Greece. Xanthorrhoeaceae Aloe vera Genet and van Schooten, 1992;Saks and Ish-shalom-Gordon, 1995;Aguilar and Brink, 1999;Nilanjana and Chattopadhay, 2004; IASC Ceratonia siliqua Caesalpiniaceae Carob, St John's Bread Mitrakos, K, 1981;Battle and Tous, 1997;Fletcher, 1997;Race et al., 1999;Orwa et al., 2009a Ficus carica Moraceae Fig Morton, 1987a;Tapia et al., 2003;Flaishman et al., 2008 Lavandula sp. Lamiaceae Lavender McGimpsey and Rosanowski, 1999;Curtis, 2005;Adam, 2006;Spector, 2009;DAFF, 2009;McNaughton, 2010 Olea europea Oleaceae Olive Pontikis, 2000;Fiorino, 2003;Sibbett et al., 2005;Vossen, 2007;Alfei et al., 2013 Opuntia ficusindica Cactaceae Prickly Pear Barbera et al., 1992;Ecocrop, 2009;Orwa et al., 2009a;Heuzé and Tran, 2011;Stratoudakis, 2013 Origanum vulgare Lamiaceae Oregano Padulosi, 1997;Pitzer, 1999;Kintzios, 2002;THSA, 2005;Crocker, 2005 Punica granatum Punicaceae Pomegranate Shanan and Tadmore, 1979;Morton, 1987b;Costa and Melgarejo, 2000;Stover and Mercure, 2007;Orwa et al., 2009b Vigna unguiculata Fabaceae Cowpea, Black eye pea Davis et al.,1991;Quinn, 1999;Dugje et al., 2009;DAFF, 2011;Heuzé and Tran, 2013 ...
Italy and Greece host a rich diversity of vascular plants. Among local plants some are more resistant to drought than others, a characteristic associated with their genetic structure. An extensive literature review regarding drought resistant local plants of SE Italy and NW Greece that can be used in the framework of agricultural cultivations and landscaping, is presented in this paper. As a result, classification tables containing 47 representative species of local flora fully adapted to xerothermic conditions and 9 species of xerothermic distinguished for their good probability to present low-water demands and yet profitable options for growers, have been created.
... The annual production of carob pods is 374,800 to 441,000 tons on 200,000 ha with very variable yields depending on the cultivar, region, and farming practices. Main carob bean producer and exporter countries are Spain, Italy, Portugal, Morocco, Greece, Cyprus and Turkey (Roukas, 1994;Catarino, 1993;Battle and Tous, 1997;Race et al., 1999;Tunalıoglu and Özkaya, 2003). Current world production of carob seed averages approximately 30,000 ton/year and more than 95% of this production originates in the Mediterranean Region (Curtis and Race, 1998). ...
Some physical properties of carob bean (Ceratonia siliqua L.) were evaluated and the application of these properties also discussed. The carob bean has an average of 13.8% (d.b.) moisture content. The average seed length, width, thickness and geometric mean diameter were 8.69 mm, 6.43 mm, 3.88 mm, and 5.99 mm, respectively. The average 1000 seed weight, volume and surface area of carob bean were 158.56 g, 81.23 mm3 and 96.22 mm2, while the sphericity and aspect ratio were 0.70 and 74.09%, respectively. The average bulk density of seed was 899 kg/m3 while the true density was 1364 kg/m3, and the corresponding porosity was 33.78%. The gravimetric and volumetric flow rates of carob beans were 104 g/s and 115.37 ml/s, respectively. The average static and dynamic angle of repose values were found 31.20° and 23.80°, respectively. The static coefficient friction was least in case of stainless steel sheet while it is highest for PVC.
... More than spring and summer, autumn and winter rainfall is the most important water supply to sustain spring flush of Mediterranean vegetation (Oliveira et al. 2002) and for the survival of young carob plants (Marques et al. 2001). The non-limiting precipitation values registered in 1996-97 and 1997-98 (590-522 mm) for branch growth are consistent with the indications of several authors and for different regions (Race et al. 1999;Tous and Battle 1990). Nevertheless, Correia and Martins-Loução (1996) observed some vegetative growth in years with 350-400 mm of rainfall registered between September and April. ...
This work aimed to assess how potassium (K) and nitrogen (N) fertilisation may affect the use of precipitation in terms of vegetative and flowering response of 15-year-old carob trees during a 3-year experiment. A field trial was conducted in 1997, 1998 and 1999 in Algarve (Southern Portugal) in a calcareous soil. Four fertilisation treatments were tested: no fertiliser (control); 0.8 kg N/tree (N treatment); 1 kg K2O/tree (K treatment) and 0.8 kg N/tree plus 1 kg K2O/tree (NK treatment). No irrigation was applied during the experimental period. Branch length increments were measured every month throughout the growing season and inflorescence number was registered once per year. There was a strong seasonal effect on vegetative growth, since low levels of precipitation (115 mm) during October 1998–March 1999 suppressed the increment in branch length. N supplied to the trees (N and NK treatments) tended to increase water use indices in terms of vegetative growth. No response to K alone was observed in trees fertilised only with K. The number of inflorescences increased throughout the experimental period, particularly for N and NK treatments, and a reduction of the precipitation amount during April, May and June, may also enhance flowering. This knowledge could be important when making decisions concerning fertilisation under dry conditions. The results reported here indicate that tree growth (expressed as the branch growth) and flower production under dry-farming conditions, may be achieved by applying 0.8 kg of N (as ammonium nitrate) per tree during the growing season. However, N uptake and use depends on soil water availability.
... Merwin (1980) reported the use of runoff water and drip-irrigation of carob-tree orchards in Mexico. In Australia, carob has been explored as a potential tree crop industry in low rainfall areas (<500 mm per year, Race et al., 1999). ...
Carob-tree (Ceratonia siliqua L.) is a sclerophyllous leguminous tree species widely cultivated in whole Mediterranean basin. The fruits (a dry pod) are normally used after crushing to separate seed and pulp, and the seed endosperm is processed to obtain a mucilaginous gum, which is then used in a wide range of commercial food products as a thickener and stabilizer. Contrary to other traditional crops, there is an increasing demand for carob products, which represents a potential benefit to farmers and a diversification of farm incomes. However, current information about the ecology of this crop has not yet been integrated and so there are some doubts about the correct management of natural resources, like water and soil nutrients, in order to improve productivity. These items are particularly important in Mediterranean areas where growth and yield are mostly limited by both climatic and edaphic conditions. In this short communication, some data concerning water and nutrients use (particularly nitrogen) in carob-tree are reviewed.
... More than spring and summer, autumn and winter rainfall is the most important water supply to sustain spring flush of Mediterranean vegetation (Oliveira et al. 2002) and for the survival of young carob plants (Marques et al. 2001). The non-limiting precipitation values registered in 1996-97 and 1997-98 (590-522 mm) for branch growth are consistent with the indications of several authors and for different regions (Race et al. 1999;Tous and Battle 1990). Nevertheless, Correia and Martins-Loução (1996) observed some vegetative growth in years with 350-400 mm of rainfall registered between September and April. ...
The purpose of this experiment was to analyse soil nutrient availability as factors controlling vegetative and reproductive
growth in carob (Ceratonia siliqua) trees. The orchard with 10 year-old trees, was established on a calcareous soil (total calcium carbonate: 65.2 %; active
lime: 17.5 %). Four fertilization levels were tested: no fertilizer (C); 0.8 kg N.tree−1 (N treatment); 1 kg K2O.tree−1 (K treatment) and 0.8 kg N.tree−1 plus 1 kg K2O.tree−1 (NK treatment). No irrigation was applied during the experimental period. Branch length increment, inflorescence number,
leaf area index, fruit and leaf mineral content were registered. Correlations between growth patterns and climatic variables
were evaluated in order to discriminate between fertilization effects and abiotic stress, typical of Mediterranean climate,
such as drought. The preliminary results of a NK fertilization trial are here presented and tree responses to N and K application
were disc ussed in terms of source-sink effects, namely vegetative versus reproductive growth. The knowledge of these growth
patterns could be important for making decisions related to fertilization. Thus, modifying orchard fertilization regimes may
be a helpful strategy to improve yield on these particular droughty sites.
... Cunningham (Gutteridge & Shelton 1991); in sacco DMD 86% (Ahn et al. 1989); Liveweight gains of 0.7 kg/hd/d for young growing cattle (Gutteridge & Shelton 1991 Tipuana tipu; productivity under 3 cutting regimes in Redland Bay, SE Qld Gutteridge 1999 Albizzia chinensis, Leucaena leucocephala, Tipuana tipu EDM Hacker 1993 Queensland; potential of Cajanus, Desmodium, Glycine, Psoralea, Sesbania, Vigna and others as forage species Hawley andLowe 1994 SE Queensland Henschke 1997 Kangaroo Island; management options for saline areas; Acacia saligna, Melaleuca uncinata, Phalaris, cocksfoot, Lucerne, pucinellia, salt bush Jackson and Ash 1998 Queensland; tree-grass relationships; Eucalyptus spp. and Corymbia erythophloia; perennial grasses; pasture yield and quality Grazing management in the tropics Knight et al. 1997 Murray-Darling Basin; alley farming guide Lake 1997 Dual purpose trees in agroforestry Lindeque et al. 1999 Evaluating fodder shrubs in South Africa Low 1997 Weeds; Acacia nilotica (prickly acacia); Prosopis spp (mesquite) Lowry 1992 Planchonia careya; cocky apple; common small tree of open tropical woodland; possible valuable supplement for cattle grazing some native pastures; rate of disappearance of DM in sacco ~54% in 24 h; distribution map; Lowry 1995 27 tree species; DMD 29-89% Milthorpe et al. 2001 Report evaluating the existing and potential use of 15 chenopod shrubs as forage supplements during drought Miller et al. 1997 Acacia aneura Otsyina et al. 1999 Evaluation of 16 semi-arid forage trees and shrubs Owino 1996 Calliandra calothyrsus; differential adaptedness to frequent cutting after 6 cutting cycles over 2 years (Kenya) Peoples et al. 1996 Calliandra calothyrsus, Codariocalyx gyroides, Gliricidia sepium; N 2 fixation; Race et al. 1999 Potential viability of a carob agroforestry industry in the Murray Valley region; whole pods useful as a fodder supplement Richmond and Ghisalberti Emilio 1994 Review Eremophila species (83); cultural, food, medicinal uses and potential applications; 16 species identified as either currently used or potential for fodder; common names/locations Source and scope Richmond and Ghisalberti 1995 Review Myoporum species (31); cultural, food, medicinal uses and potential applications; some useful as fodder plants (M. platycarpum, M. kermadecense); many others toxic to animals Thomson et al. 1994 Acacia; 125 species; subtropical dry zone; summary of potentially suitable Acacias for fodder eg. A. aneura, a. estrophiolata, A. pendula, A. georginae, A. kempeana etc ...
The carob tree, Ceratonia siliqua L, is a characteristic constituent of the evergreen, "maquis" and "garigue" vegetation type in low-altitude areas in the Mediterranean Basin. All over these territories, this dioecious and thermophilous tree has been extensively cultivated for its pods. These trees are used for both human consumption and as a sugar-rich animal feed. However, currently the main interest is seed production for gum extraction from the endosperm, which is used as a stabilizer in numerous commercial food products. Most cultivars are female, and require the presence of pollen donors in the orchards. The carob is mainly insect-pollinated (flies, bees, and wasps), but is also wind-pollinated, depending on the habitat. The carob tree shows some outstanding features, like rusticity and drought resistance, and produces under reduced orchard management, and thus is well suited for part-time farming. Carob's main limitation is its frost sensitivity. In addition, modern carob orchards start bearing earlier (fourth year after budding) than traditional carob plots, and they increase yield steadily in response to minimum cultural care and deficit irrigation. This crop has received little attention until now, but currently it is being reemphasized as an alternative in dryland (500mm) or in supplementary drip irrigation areas with a Mediterranean climate for diversification and revitalization of coastal agriculture. This chapter describes carob's economic importance worldwide and their genetic resources and it also reviews various aspects of its taxonomy, botany, origin, ecology, properties, uses, diversity, and breeding. All the life cycle descriptions are referred to the northern hemisphere climatic conditions. In addition, a full account of the crop-producing areas, agronomy, limitations, industry market, and prospects is presented.
P. vera (2n=30) is the only species in this genus, successfully grown in orchards, which produces edible nuts large enough to be commercially acceptable. Other species and sub-species, producing smaller nuts, which are mainly used as rootstocks or for oil, agro-forestry, timber production and carpentry (Barghchi and Alderson, 1989). Pistachio cultivation plays an important role in the agricultural economy of arid and semi-arid countries such as Iran, a country that leads the world in the production of these nuts. The largest genetic diversity of pistachio is found in Iran and the most valuable quality of pistachio in the world is originated from Iran. Although the chromosome number of P. vera has been previously reported (Zohary, 1952; Bochantseva, 1972; Fasihi Harandi, 1996a,b) this is the first time work on the meiotic behavior in P. vera is reported independently.
Pistacia atlantica is located specially in the semi arid and arid regions, the trees grow in a wild population, that can stand strong winds and very poor soils and long periods of drought. The approximative age of the trees can reach easily 1000years old.
In Algeria, this crop is underutilized inspite of its potential of adaptation to the arid conditions. The wild ecotypes are subjected to a genetic erosion caused by forest fires, deforestation, desertification, pollution, climatic changes, animal actionand finally the human action .
Seed galactomannans function as both an energy reserve and a water reservoir in germinating seed of many leguminous plants, and are used commercially as gelling agents, mainly in processed foods. Cassia brewsteri is a leguminous tree endemic to eastern Queensland. The galactomannan content of 40 samples of C. brewsteri seed from throughout the distribution of the species ranged from 28.3 to 39.7% of seed dry weight. The galactomannan content of whole seed was 33.7 ± 0.4% (mean and s.e.m. on a dry weight basis). The mannose : galactose ratio ranged from 4.6 to 6.3 and averaged 5.4 ± 0.1. C. brewsteri gums prepared in a manner analogous to that used in the preparation of commercially available carob gum were tested for gel strength relative to the industrial gelling agents carob gum and Senna tora gum. The break force index (BFI) for the most effective C. brewsteri gum preparation was 107% relative to carob gum and 83% relative to Senna tora gum. On the basis of these biochemical and functional data, C. brewsteri has potential as a source of commercial seed galactomannans.
ResearchGate has not been able to resolve any references for this publication.