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Forest Energy Procurement: State of The Art In Finland And Sweden
Abstract
The EU should produce 20% of their energy from renewable sources, including bioenergy, by 2020. Each member state has their own target, for example, Finland should produce 38% and Sweden 49% of their energy from renewable sources by 2020. In this context, the development of forest energy utilization and more effective and economic supply systems plays an important role in both countries. The Nordic countries are the world leaders in the utilization of forest biomass for energy production. This paper provides a short overview of the driving forces behind the current technical solutions of forest energy procurement systems in Finland and Sweden and some perspectives on possible future developments. At the moment, the by‐products from forest industries (e.g., sawdust, black liquor) have a high degree of utilization in both countries. Additional raw materials for energy production include logging residues, stump and root wood, small diameter wood, and other wood not in demand by the traditional forest industries. Forest energy supply chains may be characterized based on the location of comminution into roadside comminution , terminal comminution, or comminution at a plant . The productivity of the generally highly sophisticated and costly procurement machinery is, to a large extent, dependent on the operator's skills and thus new technological solutions should be developed to improve their usability and consequently efficiency.
This article is categorized under: Bioenergy > Economics and Policy
... Most fuelwood supply chains follow the same principles. First trees are felled, delimbed and forwarded to a landing where they are stacked for storage or transported to a specific storage site such as a wood yard or terminal (Routa et al. 2013). Then they are seasoned long enough to ensure moisture has decreased to a desired level. ...
... Naturally variations of these supply chains and methods occur depending on harvesting circumstances such as the terrain and machines as well as types of fuelwood to be harvested. For example, in Nordic countries logging residues and wholes trees are used much more extensively than in Central and Southern Europe (Routa et al. 2013). ...
... Productivity in tonne dry matter/PSH 0 varied from 2.12 to 2.61 for the plots. Compared to other studies, a unique feature is the small average tree volume of 10 dm³ (Laitila and Asikainen 2013: 57 dm³, Fulvio and Bergström 2013: 30-40 dm³, Affenzeller 2007: 46 dm³, Elmer 2011, which explains the low productivity. Other, similar equipped heads showed higher productivities, but also under better conditions concerning tree volume. ...
... A number of review articles on roundwood and biomass logistics have been published in recent years (Routa et al. 2013, Wolfsmayr and Rauch 2014, Ghaffariyan et al. 2017, Erber and Kühmaier 2017, Kogler and Rauch 2018, Koirala et al. 2018, Kühmaier and Erber 2018, Malladi and Sowlati 2018, Acuna et al. 2019, Spinelli et al. 2019. However, there has been no review of studies focusing on the Nordic countries, where supply is characterised by high volumes and long distances. ...
... Comminution is a key part of the forest chip supply chain, taking place on the logging site, on the roadside landing, at a terminal, or at the plant (Hakkila 2004, Eriksson et al. 2013, Routa et al. 2013. A system where wood is comminuted on the roadside landing is integrated with truck transportation, and can increase idling times for both the chipper and trucks (Asikainen 1995, Routa et al. 2013, Eriksson et al. 2013. ...
... Comminution is a key part of the forest chip supply chain, taking place on the logging site, on the roadside landing, at a terminal, or at the plant (Hakkila 2004, Eriksson et al. 2013, Routa et al. 2013. A system where wood is comminuted on the roadside landing is integrated with truck transportation, and can increase idling times for both the chipper and trucks (Asikainen 1995, Routa et al. 2013, Eriksson et al. 2013. ...
Logistics of roundwood and biomass comprise a high number of operations, machinery, storage sites and transportable roundwood and biomass assortments. Moreover, complex and highly varying operational environment through the year poses logistics challenges incurring additional costs. An extensive review of studies was conducted in Sweden and Finland concerning roundwood and biomass logistics, starting from roadside landings and ending with delivery to a mill or a conversion facility. The main aim of the review was to describe trends in roundwood and biomass logistics since the start of the century. Papers were classified to categories of truck transports and roads, terminals, multimodal transports, storage and supply chain logistics. Slightly over 50% of reviewed articles were constrained to biomass only, 31% to roundwood only and 14% to both. Rapid technology development, amendments concerning road transports, increasing environmental concerns and forestry sector’s push to decrease the logistics costs can be seen as the biggest drivers for the reviewed studies and their study objectives. These aspects will also drive and increase the demand for research and development in roundwood and biomass logistics in the future.
... The overall benefit of recovering residues is often associated with the avoided cost of logging residue management and the higher utilization of base machines [34]. In many cases, this is a stronger driver than the additional revenue accrued through recovery [35]. ...
... On the other hand, roadside processing generally allows the use of larger and more powerful machines with potentially better performance [55]. The position of the biomass processing stage within the work chain influences the efficiency of the supply system, defines different working methods, and determines the type of biomass that will be transported to the end user [34,56]. Eventually, operations managers need to balance the advantages and disadvantages of processing the residue at different stages along the supply chain [57]-a complex problem that has often been tackled through modeling, simulation, and logistics planning [58,59]. ...
... What is most important is that cut-to-length harvesting is dominant in all the Nordic countries and harvest residues such as tops and branches are left on the cutover. Therefore, residues must be moved to a landing before or after comminution [34]. Today and in the largest majority of cases, residues are moved to a landing in loose uncomminuted form using a forwarder with enlarged loading space [84]. ...
Purpose of Review
Integrated harvesting (i.e., the combined harvesting of roundwood and residues) has a large potential for replication, since all operations produce residues, which could be turned into a collateral product. For this reason, much work has been produced over the years about the subject, and the current bibliography is abundant, fragmented, and occasionally contradictory. The goal of this paper was to analyze both recent and older fundamental studies about integrated harvesting and extract the essential concepts, which may inform managers as they plan for harvesting roundwood and forest residues together.
Recent Findings
The analysis showed that integrated harvesting would generate additional revenue with a little extra effort, provided it is rationally implemented. In particular, residue recovery must be planned in advance to avoid residue dispersal and contamination. Roundwood is generally the main product, and therefore, the characteristics of the main harvesting systems and the value of the additional harvest limit the options for energy wood recovery. The system adopted for collecting forest residues must not incur a higher cost than the value of the energy product and must be compatible with the conditions imposed by the roundwood harvesting operation.
Summary
Successful implementation of the integrated harvesting concept requires skillful management of machine interaction, landing space requirement, and residue handling, to minimize cost and avoid product contamination. Residue processing is a crucial step of energy wood harvesting and can be performed with chippers, grinders, or balers, depending on site and market conditions.
... Logging residue removal can have the additional benefit of reducing site preparation costs (Gan & Smith 2007). Logging residue is a major energy source in Europe particularly in Sweden and Finland (Routa et al. 2013) but is largely unutilised in Australia (Ulrik 2012). An estimated 2.5-3.0 million oven dry tonnes of LR is produced annually in Australia (Bugg et al. 2002;Farine et al. 2012) though overseas studies suggest ecological and economic constraints considerably reduce the LR quantity available as biofuel (Routa et al. 2013). ...
... Logging residue is a major energy source in Europe particularly in Sweden and Finland (Routa et al. 2013) but is largely unutilised in Australia (Ulrik 2012). An estimated 2.5-3.0 million oven dry tonnes of LR is produced annually in Australia (Bugg et al. 2002;Farine et al. 2012) though overseas studies suggest ecological and economic constraints considerably reduce the LR quantity available as biofuel (Routa et al. 2013). ...
... To increase payloads when transporting uncomminuted LR, it can be progressively compressed with the crane during loading (Eliasson 2011). In Sweden and Finland, roadside chipping and grinding are the most common LR processing methods (Routa et al. 2013) as they can almost double its bulk density (Ranta & Rinne 2006). Logging residue bundling is more expensive than infield chipping except at longer terrain and road transport distances due to bundles having lower transport costs (Johansson et al. 2006). ...
Forest biomass (FB) is widely used overseas as an industrial energy source, particularly in Europe, but is currently little used in Australia. Typical attributes of FB disadvantage it as a fuel relative to traditional energy sources: high moisture content, low bulk density, spatial and temporal dispersion, low value and low energy content. As such, minimising FB delivered costs will be critical to further development of Australian forest biomass supply chains (FBSC).
The paper reviews published international and Australian research into the key FBSC elements (biomass source, primary transport, storage, secondary transport and processing) focussing on areas where Australian FBSCs could potentially apply the research to reduce costs and where additional Australian research is required. Logging residue (LR) was identified as the FB resource in Australia with the greatest potential for use as biofuel. Rapid infield drying of LR in Australian studies suggests that infield drying could be used to reduce secondary transport costs, which can be a significant part of the delivered FB costs. However, further development of Australian FBSC models supported by research into primary and secondary transport costs, drying and chipper performance will be required to identify trade-offs between potential FBSC costs and benefits and to facilitate forest managers’ decision-making processes regarding the establishment and running of FBSCs.
... • Technical feasibility and capacity of existing harvesting and transport technologies suitable for forest biomass assortments of small dimensions (Lindroos 2010). • Difficulties in accessing remote places and/or rough terrain, as well as in obtaining enough bulk material of biomass as a side product of regular felling for roundwood (Díaz-Yáñez et al. 2013;Routa et al. 2013). • Sustainability considerations, such as nutrient depletion and soil protection (Routa et al. 2013). ...
... • Difficulties in accessing remote places and/or rough terrain, as well as in obtaining enough bulk material of biomass as a side product of regular felling for roundwood (Díaz-Yáñez et al. 2013;Routa et al. 2013). • Sustainability considerations, such as nutrient depletion and soil protection (Routa et al. 2013). • Small-sized, fragmented forests in private ownership that fail to produce significant volumes or to negotiate contracts with the forest industry (Díaz-Yáñez et al. 2013). ...
... Whether, and how rapidly, markets can react to this demand in training skilled and qualified operators is outside the scope of this study. The possible deficit of skilled workers to meet the market demands of biomass production was already highlighted by Routa et al. (2013). ...
Sustainably managed forests provide renewable raw material that can be used for primary/secondary conversion products and as biomass for energy generation. The potentially available amounts of timber, which are still lower than annual increments, have been published earlier. Access to this timber can be challenging for small-dimensioned assortments; however, technologically improved value chains can make them accessible while fulfilling economic and environment criteria. This paper evaluates the economic, environmental and social sustainability impacts of making the potentially available timber available with current and technologically improved value chains. This paper focuses on increasing the biomass feedstock supply for energy generation. Quantified impact assessments show which improvements – in terms of costs, employment, fuel and energy use, and reduced greenhouse gas emissions – can be expected if better mechanized machines are provided. Using three different methods – Sustainability Impacts Assessment (SIA), Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), and Emission Saving Criteria (ESC) – we calculated current and innovative machine solutions in terms of fuel use, energy use, and greenhouse gas emissions, to quantify the impact of the technology choice and also the effect of the choice of assessment method. Absolute stand-alone values can be misleading in analyses, and the use of different impact calculation approaches in parallel is clarifying the limits of using LCA-based approaches. The ESC has been discussed for the recast of the Renewable Energy Directive. Potential EU-wide results are presented.
... The European Union aims to produce 20 percent of its total energy as renewable resources by 2020 (Eliasson et al. 2017). Generally, forest biomass supply chains have been created in Sweden and Finland such as roadside comminution, terminal comminution, or comminution at the processing plant, (Routa et al. 2013). About 70 percent of Finland's and 90 percent of Sweden's logging residues are chipped by roadside comminution, which is widely used ( Figure 2). ...
... To secure sustainable long-term supply of forest biomass and to accomplish successful use of biomass, development of technology for forest management system and biomass procurement must proceed with large investments in research organizations, forest and energy industries, and end users (Routa et al. 2013;Tolosana et al. 2014). Market demand for biomass, however, depends on season; high in winter and low in summer (Eliasson et al. 2017). ...
... The logistic chain of forest biomass is complex and there are many different options for transportation from the forest to end-users (Routa et al. 2013;Wolfsmayr and Rauch 2014). The forest biomass can be transported either directly to the end-user or via a terminal. ...
... This estimation is probably valid for RF and late thinnings, in current market conditions. However, the value could be significantly higher in early thinnings, where the energy wood harvest can be more profitable than the pulp wood harvest (Iwarson-Wide 2011; Routa et al. 2013;Karttunen et al. 2016). Depending on the minimum requirements for pulpwood, energy wood may represent a significant share of early thinning. ...
Establishment of biorefineries for processing forest biomass in the Nordic region is extremely costly due to the high investment, running, and procurement costs. Procurement costs could be reduced by allowing all actors to open access to all available terminals in an area (regardless of ownership) and allowing trucks with higher gross weight. These impacts of changes were evaluated for deliveries of logging residue and energy wood chips to a potential biorefinery, from two suppliers in northern Sweden. Open access to all terminals reduced the terminal-procurement costs by 2–6% and the terminal-to-biorefinery transportation costs by 7–9%. When 74 tonnes trucks were used instead of 60 tonnes, the terminal-to-biorefinery transportation costs were reduced by 4 and 3%, in the current situation and with open access to terminals, respectively. However, the largest effect of open access was that the fraction of short-distance transportation to terminals and train transportation from terminals increased significantly. This indicated that open access to terminals and relatively heavy trucks between terminals and the biorefinery are preferable from both environmental and economic perspectives. Furthermore, the estimated cost saving was adequate and should allow the deliverers to pay a reasonable fee for the use of terminal space.
... Consequently, the share of biofuel in energy production is projected to increase with a need to provide 100-150 EJ by 2050 [1]. In Sweden, most of the industrial residues are already utilized [2], and increased bioenergy demand requires additional biomass resources [3]. For instance, extending forest harvest to include previously unutilized biomass components such as stumps and slash may have the potential to meet some of the increased biomass demand in the future. ...
... However, the sustainability of stump and slash harvest practices have been questioned. Sustainability issues raised include its (1) potentially negative effects on site and stand productivity [4]; (2) carbon balance and thereby climate mitigation potential [5][6][7]; (3) contribution to soil acidification [8]; (4) impacts on biodiversity [9], and (5) impacts on water quality [10]. Although, all of these effects are important, this study focuses on impacts of slash and stump harvest in clearcut on stand volume production, site productivity, survival of planted seedlings and recruitment of seedlings through natural regeneration. ...
The renewable energy policies of the European Union rely on forest biomass in achieving climate mitigation targets. In Sweden, where secondary residues from the forest industries are fully utilized, primary residues following harvest such as stumps and slash offer a potential as an additional biomass source. Stump and slash harvest may, however, have adverse effects on site productivity due to increased nutrient loss from the site which could negatively impact the stand volume production of the subsequent stand. Stand volume production is also affected by seedling survival, seedling input from natural regeneration and management of the regenerated stand. In this study, we evaluate the effects of stump and slash harvest on stand volume production of the subsequent stand based on data from eight experimental sites across Sweden planted with Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) or Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) over period of 31–34 years after clearcut with (1) traditional stem-only harvest; (2) stem and stump harvest; (3) stem and slash harvest; and (4) stem, stump and slash harvest. With the goal to explain treatment differences in stand volume production, treatment effects on site productivity estimated through initial height growth (10–19 years after planting), seedling survival, and input of seedlings through natural regeneration were also analyzed. We found that stand volume production was higher following stump harvest as compared to slash harvest, but stand volume production for the more intense harvest treatments (2)–(4) did not differ from stem-only harvest (1). Initial height growth (i.e., site productivity) did not differ between treatments, but followed the trend in stand volume production with (2) > (4) > (3) > (1). Survival of planted seedlings was not affected by the treatments, whereas natural regeneration after 5 years was significantly increased after both treatments including slash harvest (3) and (4) in comparison to stem-only harvest. However, since most of that natural regeneration was removed in subsequent pre-commercial thinnings, this initial increase did not affect stand volume production. The absence of a significant interaction between treatment and species planted for all independent variables tested suggests that there were no species related response differences. Since the experimental design did not allow for site-level analyses, we cannot exclude the possibility that site-specific harvest treatment effects might have masked general effects across all sites. Thus, slash and stump harvest effects at the site level need to be further studied. These results suggest, at least over a 3-decade perspective, that logging residues like stumps and slash can provide an additional renewable energy source to help achieving climate change mitigation goals in the Nordic countries without depleting the future forest biomass resource.
... Similar cost structures can be found in e.g. Australia (Ghaffariyan et al. 2013) and Finland (Hakkila 2004;Routa et al. 2013), which is not surprising given the similarities in the supply chains (Diaz-Yanez et al. 2013). Efforts have been made to improve cost efficiency in supply systems (Ghaffariyan et al. 2017). ...
In 2017, 22% of the woody biomass harvested in EU28 was used for energy production,
and low-value forest biomass is seen as a key resource in mitigating climate change. The
use of logging residues and small trees from thinning is still far from its maximum
sustainable potential due to low supply chain profitability. The cost structure for the
biomass supply of these assortments is dominated by costs of comminution and road
transports, which are dependent on each other, and operational analyses to find efficient
supply systems are of the utmost importance. A prerequisite for these analyses is reliable
data on the performance of comminution equipment (chippers and grinders) and the
trucks used. Our aim was to provide functions for estimating productivity, fuel
consumption and energy efficiency for comminution equipment, based on equipment
type, feedstock and the type of chips produced. The results show general differences
between the machine types, given the same engine size. Disc chippers are more
productive and more fuel and energy efficient compared to drum chippers and
hammermills when chipping stemwood, but lose efficiency and produce low-quality chips
when chipping logging residues or small trees. Drum chippers are more versatile and
produce acceptable chips from all uncontaminated feedstocks, but fuel consumption is
slightly higher. Hammermills can handle all feedstocks, including stumps, but fuel
consumption is high. A comparison of drum chippers and hammermills indicates a
difference in the effect of engine power on productivity, which is logical.
https://www.skogforsk.se/cd_20240924141932/contentassets/fa6ef42b87d74139bf45fad5771349ac/arbetsrapport-1217-2024-productivity-and-fuel-consumption-for-mobile-comminution-equipment-when-chipping-forest-biomass.pdf
... Lacruz (2019) reported that harvesting residues are mostly produced during final cutting especially in the stands dominated by Norway spruce (Picea abies) (Routa et al., 2013). The integrated biomass recovery method is often applied to recover harvesting residues by forwarders equipped with special slash grapple to reduce the risk of soil contaminant introduction to the recovered biomass. ...
Tree felling and processing can create harvesting residues including leaves and twigs (needles), cones, barks, and branches. Collecting forest harvesting residues requires application of suitable machines and working methods. This article is aimed at reviewing the published reports to identify new harvesting machines and working methods for recovering harvesting residues and the current gaps. The scope of review included published research reports/articles from 2017 to 2022 (last five years). This global review results showed that popular methods for residue collection are chipping residues at roadside/landing and integrated biomass recovery. Forwarder, cable yarder and in-field chipper are predominantly applied within various recovery methods depending on ground and stand conditions. Harvesting residues are one of the promising sources for bioenergy production which requires developing efficient and low-cost harvesting systems. Latest research findings indicate that piling harvesting residues by a harvester-pro-cessor can improve the collecting productivity by the forwarder within cut-to-length harvesting opera-tions. Integrating residue biomass recovery with conventional timber supply can reduce the total supply chain cost by 2%. Researchers also recommend applying more climate-friendly technologies and focus-ing on developing new machines with lower fuel consumption and subsequent emissions. Future studies can focus on the following subjects; a) to determine the productivity and cost rates of various residue recovery systems, b) to develop and test technologies with lower fuel consumption rates and c) to find in-novative solutions to utilize thinning materials and best practices to store and process biomass materials.
... Lacruz (2019) reported that harvesting residues are mostly produced during final cutting especially in the stands dominated by Norway spruce (Picea abies) (Routa et al., 2013). The integrated biomass recovery method is often applied to recover harvesting residues by forwarders equipped with special slash grapple to reduce the risk of soil contaminant introduction to the recovered biomass. ...
Tree felling and processing can create harvesting residues including leaves and twigs (needles), cones, barks, and branches. Collecting forest harvesting residues requires application of suitable machines and working methods. This article is aimed at reviewing the published reports to identify new harvesting machines and working methods for recovering harvesting residues and the current gaps. The scope of review included published research reports/articles from 2017 to 2022 (last five years). This global review results showed that popular methods for residue collection are chipping residues at roadside/landing and integrated biomass recovery. Forwarder, cable yarder and in-field chipper are predominantly applied within various recovery methods depending on ground and stand conditions. Harvesting residues are one of the promising sources for bioenergy production which requires developing efficient and low-cost harvesting systems. Latest research findings indicate that piling harvesting residues by a harvester-processor can improve the collecting productivity by the forwarder within cut-to-length harvesting operations. Integrating residue biomass recovery with conventional timber supply can reduce the total supply chain cost by 2%. Researchers also recommend applying more climate-friendly technologies and focus-ing on developing new machines with lower fuel consumption and subsequent emissions. Future studies can focus on the following subjects; a) to determine the productivity and cost rates of various residue recovery systems, b) to develop and test technologies with lower fuel consumption rates and c) to find innovative solutions to utilize thinning materials and best practices to store and process biomass materials.
... Recent literature reviews have mapped the best practice examples and state-of-the-art supply chains or techniques in forest biomass supply. The main steps along the forest biomass supply chain include harvesting and forwarding, comminution and transportation (Ghaffariyan et al. 2017, Díaz-Yáñez et al. 2013, Wolfsmayr & Rauch 2014, Routa et al. 2013. Harvesting of industrial roundwood and energy wood can be done separately or as one operation (Figure 1). ...
... In Spain, 37% of land is covered by forests [3], which increases to 55% (based on 2019 data) if shrubland is included [4]. Across Finland, Sweden, Slovenia and Spain, large areas of small-diameter trees and dense stands are present within the forested areas [5][6][7][8][9], representing a currently underutilized biomass arising from young and dense forest stands that could boost the growing bioeconomy as a source of renewable energy and bio-based materials. Table 1. ...
European forest stands of small-diameter trees can provide industries with biomass as an alternative to fossil use. Small-tree harvesting is costly using conventional methods but using accumulating felling heads (AFH) in combination with a novel boom-corridor thinning (BCT) technique can increase harvester productivity and supply cost efficiency. This method has great potential to reduce costs, but its environmental impact compared with selective thinning (ST) needs to be determined. The objectives of this study were therefore to quantify and compare tree and soil damage as well as air, water and soil emissions for both BCT and ST in various European small-diameter-tree forests. Trials were performed in 84 study units (42 replications per thinning technique) across four countries. Damaged trees (with a diameter at breast height ≥ 7 cm) were measured after thinning and after forwarding. Harvesting emissions were calculated from a life cycle assessment. The percentage of remaining trees that had been damaged by the harvesting processes was 13% and 19% for BCT and ST, respectively, and the difference was significant. BCT exhibited the lowest emissions in all environmental impact categories considered, in all countries. Greenhouse gas emissions were on average 17% lower for BCT. BCT in small-diameter-tree stands therefore reduces the environmental impact of thinning operations compared with conventional methods, and results in less damage to the remaining trees.
... Defect logs are a byproduct of ordinary logging operations, extracted at the same time as sawlogs and pulp wood without any need for extra equipment to get them to the landing, from which they are easily and cost-effectively transported to a terminal using ordinary timber trucks. At the terminal, logs are stored until there is a demand for fuel chips, when they are chipped and the chips delivered to the heat and power industry (Routa et al. 2013). In contrast, although a by-product of ordinary logging operations, logging residues are left in piles to dry on the harvesting site and require a suitably equipped forwarder for further transport to a roadside landing. ...
Sieving of chipped forest fuels has recently been suggested as a way to reduce dry matter losses during storage. Sieving provides a more homogeneous acceptable material with better storage properties, which reduces the risk of energy and dry matter losses and spontaneous ignition. Screened chips can be priced higher due to better quality, and both acceptable and reject fractions are more homogeneous, which improves combustion control. Sieving is costly and the reject fraction is not suitable for storage. Five sieving operations were studied, three involving vibrating screens and two involving starscreens. On average, starscreens were more productive than vibrating screens. In all operations, the sieving machine limited productivity, and the loader feeding the machine was not fully utilized. Sieving costs were under two euro per MWh of chips, which may be recovered through higher values and lower storage losses in the acceptable fraction. If sieving operations were used to increase storage of chips, it could increase the annual utilization of chippers and chip trucks in the supply chain, thereby reducing supply costs. Profitable sieving operations require demand for the fine fraction at a price close to that of residue chips.
... The raw material is composed of logging residues, stumps, and small-diameter trees from final felling and thinning operations, including those performed in young stands (e.g., Ahtikoski et al. 2008). This has enabled the creation of an entirely new energy wood procurement system (Routa et al. 2013), which (among other factors) helps the local forest users to cover the expenses entailed with the growth of the forest, as well support the socio-economic development of small cities and towns through the establishment of independent energy supply systems controlled by local cooperatives (e.g., Enonenergia 2020; Lehtinen et al. 2020). The utilisation of woody biomass for energy is also important from a silvicultural point of view, especially as it provides space and resources for the main crop and helps regeneration operations (Äijälä et al. 2014). ...
... Road network optimization. [39,79] 26. Utilizing advanced and modern technologies. ...
This research aimed to systematically review the development studies pertaining to forest biomass and bioenergy supply chain resilience (SCR). In this regard, a mixed procedure was implemented in order to explore and analyze the relevant publications, and to answer the research questions. First, the databases and journals working on forest biomass and bioenergy supply chains (SCs) were identified based on the indices of the review process and the indices of the barriers and enablers. Next, data refinement was employed to filter the publications into four levels and determine the semifinal cases. Moreover, the references of the semifinal publications were tracked in order to achieve the final cases. Consequently, 88 papers were determined as the final cases through which the barriers and enablers were explored and analyzed. Furthermore, in order to meet the research gap in this area and prove the connections of those barriers and enablers with the resilience capability, their relationships with the main resilience factors were investigated. According to the assessment, the findings of this research on the definition, barriers and enablers of forest biomass and bioenergy SCR can be applied as a basis for the comprehension and optimization of the structure of SCs in the forest biomass and bioenergy industries.
... Even though widely available in the northeastern United States, harvesting biomass has been found to come with high cost, primarily due to low operational productivity and economic value (Montgomery et al. 2016). In contrast, the long-term benefits include decreased stand management costs and increased stand productivity, as well as decreased risks of insects and forest fire (Hartsough et al. 1997;Han et al. 2004;Routa et al. 2013;Spinelli et al. 2019). Energy products from harvest residues such as wood chips, pellet wood, and briquettes have increasing demand in the global markets (Barrett et al. 2014;FAO 2018;Spinelli et al. 2019). ...
Harvesting woody biomass, often considered a by-product, poses a major challenge in terms of low operational productivity and revenue. However, woody biomass (branches, treetops, and small-diameter trees or SDT) is gaining global attention for its multifaceted uses in soil reclamation, renewable energy production, and carbon offsetting. The operational cost of harvesting woody biomass is a crucial factor influencing the economic feasibility of harvesting and can fluctuate substantially depending on the cost apportioning method used. The objectives of this study were 1) to estimate the cost of producing pulpwood chips from SDT; 2) to examine the factors influencing cost and productivity of whole-tree (WT) and hybrid cut-to-length (Hyb-CTL) treatments; and 3) to compare and estimate the cost of producing sawlog and chips from hardwood pulp with two cost apportioning methods. The total harvesting cost was 53% higher in Hyb-CTL (US 11.30 m −3). The cost of producing wood chips from hardwood pulp as a by-product (US 7.65 m −3). The cost of producing wood chips utilizing exclusive product allocation (US 11.23 m −3). This study provides working values that can enable timberland managers and operational foresters to evaluate the cost of harvesting woody biomass under different market conditions (i.e., demand for woody biomass). This study can also aid managerial decisions regarding silvicultural prescriptions and to help efficiently manage stands that have large proportions of SDT. ARTICLE HISTORY
... A more detailed description of the supply chain can be found in the review by Ref. [39] or the description of Swedish state of the art [40]. ...
The demand for wood biofuel for district heating plants and combined heat and power plants (CHPs) has increased, caused by an increase in both the number and size of CHPs. This places large demands on the logistics system supplying these plants with fuel, with a particular interest in the use of alternative modes of transport such as rail and sea. The aim of this paper is to identify the industry actors’ requirements, constraints, and preferences regarding the wood-biofuel supply chain and to identify the logistical challenges this entails, as well as how this impacts the opportunity for an increased use of alternative transport solutions. A survey was sent to all Swedish CHPs, combined with six interviews with transport companies, terminal operators, and forest companies. The study shows that the industry has a local focus that limits potential logistics and sourcing solutions. It is also challenged by urban sprawl, with expanding residential areas close to the CHPs putting further constraints on the operations. Significant variations in fuel demand, depending on unpredictable outside temperature and seasonal variation, is a further challenge. The low density of the fuel has a negative impact on transport costs and introduces a trade-off between chipping close to the forest to increase density versus more efficient chipping at the CHP. Intermodal transport only used by large plants, driven by a shortage of local fuel.
... Cutting represented 65-82% of the total harvesting costs ( Figure 5) and can be considered a bottleneck to achieving a high costefficiency in the supply chains of small-diameter trees. Downstream activities in the supply chain (comminution and transport) also affect overall profitability, but cutting represents the dominant cost in small-diameter tree supply chains (Routa et al. 2013). ...
Despite the large biomass potential, current management practices for roadside verges (ditch backslopes,foreslopes and bottoms, possible parking lots and other lateral land) consist of regularly cutting the vegetation manually with motorized brush saws or flail mowers and leaving it to rot in situ. Regular vegetation clearing is crucial for safety reasons and to maintain road functionality. This study considered the cost-efficiency of a mechanized harvesting system, using a harvester and a forwarder (as an alternative to current clearing practices), to maintain the verges of a forest road in northern Sweden. Cutting a 2.5-m wide swath on each verge removed between 32 and 112 dry t ha⁻¹ (16–56 dry t km⁻¹ of road) of biomass. Analyses showed that the use of forest machinery to cut and extract biomass from roadside verges can be cost-competitive compared with motor-manual clearing when the average tree height is above 7 m (~26-year-old trees), and profitable for average heights above 8 m (~29-year-old trees). As the overgrown biomass has to be cleared anyway, a mechanized harvest could partially or fully offset maintenance costs. When setting cutting intervals, a trade-off needs to be made between larger biomass production and maintaining a clear and safe road. Future research needs to investigate how size, density of vegetation and width of the cleared swath affects the long-term quality and safety of roads.
... The potential of primary forest fuels (byproducts from forest operations) that economically can be extracted from Swedish forestry is estimated to be 640 TWh. 2 In 2013, the total supply of primary forest fuels in Sweden was ∼30 TWh, which in 2017 decreased to ∼26 TWh. 3 Despite logistical challenges of low energy density and fuel composition, there is a great potential for increased usage of this biomass assortment. 4,5 Contrary to large-scale heating plants (>50 MW), smallscale district heating plants (<1 MW) represent a specific market sector that imposes tighter fuel quality specifications due to being more sensitive to fuel quality variation (moisture content, ash content, particle size, heating value, and extrinsic contaminations such as clay and sand minerals). ...
The effect of mechanical screening of severely contaminated forest fuel chips was investigated, focusing on main ash-forming elements and slagging tendency and other properties with relevance for thermal conversion. In this study, screening operations were performed according to practice on an industrial scale by combining a star screen and a supplementary windshifter in six different settings and combinations. Mechanical screening reduced the amount of ash and fine particles in the accept fraction. However, the mass losses for the different screening operations were substantial (20–50 wt %). Fuel analyses of the non-screened and the screened fuels showed that the most significant screening effect was a reduction of Si and Al, indicating an effective removal of sand and soil contaminations. However, the tested fuel’s main ash-forming element’s relative concentration did not indicate any improved combustion characteristics and ash-melting behavior. Samples of the accept fractions and non-screened material were combusted in a single-pellet thermogravimetric reactor, and the resulting ashes’ morphology and elemental composition were analyzed by scanning electron microscopy–energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry and the crystalline phases by powder X-ray diffraction. Results from both these analyses confirmed that screening operations had no, or minor, effects on the fuels’ ash chemistry and slagging tendencies, i.e., the fuels’ proneness to ash melting was not improved. However, the reduction of ash and fine particles can reduce slagging and other operational problems in smaller and more sensitive combustion units.
... LT and TT, as well as LR can be used as biofuels. For example, as fuel chips [8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16]. It follows that for harvesting and processing all biomass of the forest stand in different-age forests, a universal forest machine can be in demand that can effectively harvest BT for assortments, and process LT and TT, as well as LR, for fuel chips. ...
In this article, a universal tractor processor (UTP) is proposed. The UTP allows you to harvest all types of trees and process them into assortments and for fuel chips. The maximum productivity of the UTP for the output of assortments will be in the case of logging business trees with the production of chips (option 2). The total productivity of the UTP will be maximum when it is working by the option 3, when business and low quality non-commercial trees are harvested. In practice, if the goal is to maximize the output of business assortments, then the UTP work should be organized according to the option 1 or 2. If the time to clean up the logging residuals before the UTP is longer than the time to process the residuals into fuel chips, then option 2 will show the best results. In this case, in addition to the maximum output of assortments, additional products will be obtained – fuel chips. The maximum productivity of the UTP for the output of assortments is achieved if you exclude the harvesting of thin-sized trees (option 3).
... In 2016, 47.6 terra watt-hours (TWh) of forest fuels were produced in Sweden, consisting of 43% primary forest fuels and 57% secondary products, mainly sawmill by-products (Swedish Energy Agency 2017). Primary forest fuels, direct from the forest, mostly consist of energy wood (logs not suitable for timber or pulp) and logging residues (branches and tops) from regeneration felling, but stumps and small diameter trees from thinnings can also be harvested if the market prices are high enough (Routa et al. 2013). ...
Swedish legislation stipulates the precision required for estimates of parameters used to determine the
value of various forest fuels. The net energy value of fuel, as it is received, is often used to set the trade
price. The estimate of energy content is based on the moisture content of samples taken from each
truckload and the weight of the biomass; the ash content and net calorific value are measured a few times
each year. Hence, it is necessary to know the variation in moisture content to ensure that a sufficient
number of samples are taken, a number based on the allowed variation and precision of estimates, as
defined in the legalization. In this study, the variation in moisture content was measured by taking
samples from 18 truckloads of comminuted forest fuels during the winter. The results showed that the
current sampling regime, i.e., manually taking four samples from each truckload, is sufficient for deliveries
with 10 truckloads for logging residue chips and 4 for stem wood chips. The number of samples should be
increased to 12–43, 8–21, and, 17–82 depending on assortment for what the measuring act defines as
large deliveries (>=50 tonnes; >=3 truckloads), medium-sized deliveries (<50 – >25 tonnes; 2 truckloads)
and single truck deliveries (<= 25 tonnes; 1 truckload), respectively. Current research into fast online
sampling and analysis methods could resolve this issue for small deliveries.
... Equations (6) and (7) are connected to the demand of evenness in woody biofuel extraction. Finally, Equations (8) and (9) ensure that all plots are assigned in total one treatment schedule. ...
Bioenergy is expected to contribute to mitigating climate change. One major source for bioenergy is woody biomass from forests, including logging residues, stumps, and whole trees from young dense stands. However, at increased extraction rates of woody biomass, the forest ecosystem, its biodiversity, and its ability to contribute to fundamental ecosystem services will be affected. We used simulation and optimization techniques to assess the impact of different management strategies on the supply of bioenergy and the trade-offs between wood fuel harvesting, biodiversity, and three other ecosystem services—reindeer husbandry, carbon storage, and recreation. The projections covered 100 years and a forest area of 3 million ha in northern Sweden. We found that the development of novel and cost-effective management systems for biomass outtake from young dense stands may provide options for a significant supply of bioenergy to the emerging bioeconomy, while at the same time securing biodiversity and important ecosystem values in future stand developments. In addition, there is potential to increase the extraction of harvest residues and stumps while simultaneously improving conditions for biodiversity and the amount of carbon stored in forest ecosystems compared to current levels. However, the projected continuing trend of increased forest density (in terms of basal area) has a negative impact on the potential for reindeer husbandry and recreation, which calls for researching new management strategies on landscape levels.
... After clear cutting and thinning, wood material unsuitable for industrial use is either left on site or harvested as bioenergy. The annual gross potential of forest residues in Finland and Sweden is N100 million solid m 3 , while the realistically achievable amount is around 40 million solid m 3 (Routa et al., 2013). From the perspective of C sequestration, forest residue decomposes relatively quickly when left on site. ...
Short-term agronomic and environmental benefits are fundamental factors in encouraging farmers to use biochar on a broad scale. The short-term impacts of forest residue biochar (BC) on the productivity and carbon (C) storage of arable boreal clay soil were studied in a field experiment. In addition, rain simulations and aggregate stability tests were carried out to investigate the potential of BC to reduce nutrient export to surface waters. A BC addition of 30 t ha⁻¹ increased soil test phosphorus and decreased bulk density in the surface soil but did not significantly change pH or water retention properties, and most importantly, did not increase the yield. There were no changes in the bacterial or fungal communities, or biomasses. Soil basal respiration was higher in BC-amended plots in the spring, but no differences in respiration rates were detected in the fall two years after the application. Rain simulation experiments did not support the use of BC in reducing erosion or the export of nutrients from the field. Of the C added, on average 80% was discovered in the 0–45 cm soil layer one year after the application. Amendment of boreal clay soil with a high rate of BC characterized by a moderately alkaline pH, low surface functionalities, and a recalcitrant nature, did not induce such positive impacts that would unambiguously motivate farmers to invest in BC. BC use seems unviable from the farmer's perspective but could play a role in climate change mitigation, as it will likely serve as long-term C storage.
... The increasing production of new lignocellulose-based products such as textiles, plastics and green chemicals in biorefineries (BRs) [4] will further increase the demand for forest biomass [5]. Large quantities of residual biomass could potentially be harvested sustainably in Sweden [6][7][8][9][10]. Notable sources of such biomass include logging residues (LR; tops and branches) originating primarily from clear-fellings and small-Therefore, the main aim of this study was to analyse the supply cost of chipped LR and ST, from chipping at forest storage sites to delivery to the end-user. ...
Research Highlights: The use of terminals can increase supply costs by 5–11% (when compared to direct supply), but terminals help secure supply during peak demand and cope with operational problems in the supply fleet in cases where direct supply chains would be unable to meet demand on time. Background and Objectives: This work analyses the supply cost of chipped logging residues and small-diameter trees, from chipping at roadside storages to delivery to the end-user. Factors considered include demand curves (based on the requirements of a theoretical combined heat and power plant or biorefinery); demand volume; and mode of supply (direct or combined via terminal). The impact of longer trucking distances from the sites, and supply integration between forest and other land (varying relocation distances) was also assessed. Materials and Methods: The operational environment and work of a theoretical chip supplier in northern Sweden were modelled and simulated in ExtendSim®. Results: The mean supply cost of chips was 9% higher on average for combined chains than for direct chains. Given a high demand, 8% of the annual demand could not be delivered on time without using a terminal. High supply integration of forest and other land reduced supply costs by 2%. Contractors’ annual workloads were evened out by direct supply to the biorefinery (which has a relatively steady demand) or supply via-terminal independently of the end-user. Keeping distinct chips from different sites (implying that trucks were not always fully loaded) instead of mixing chips from different sites until the trucks were fully loaded increased supply costs by 12%. Conclusions: Terminals increase supply costs, but can enable demand to be met on time when direct supply chains alone might fail. Integrated supply planning could reduce supply costs by increasing the utilization of residual biomass from other land.
... After 1999 the hourly meter requirement was put an end to normal meters and after that time domestic customers switched to new energy suppliers rapidly (Bird et al., 2002). There are more than 50 energy suppliers in Sweden providing green energy to their customers (Routa et al., 2013;Stigka et al., 2014). Most of these suppliers produce their own green energy but about one third of such companies acquires green energy from other energy producers and resells it to their customers. ...
Purpose: The paper assesses the differentiation in the satisfaction of the faculty with respect to appreciation and satisfaction. The argument is built in the perspective that both of the above mentioned hold importance to overall job retention; these include faculty appreciation and faculty satisfaction.
Design/Methodology: A self-administered questionnaire was projected to a sample of 250 respondents in the region of Rawalpindi, Islamabad and Wah Cantt. Famous universities were selected for the study. Simple random sampling technique was applied in order to scrutinize the respondents. Statistical Package of Social Sciences (SPSS) was used to analyze the data set.
Findings: The results indicate that the satisfaction level of the faculty acts major impact on the job retention of the university faculty. The appreciation policies and packages also showed a positively significant relationship with job retention.
Implications: This paper posits an implication for the executives of the university to make attractive faculty appreciation packages and policies in order to retain their good staff. Additionally, they need to give keen attention towards elevating the satisfaction level of their academic staff as the highly satisfied faculty member would possibly retain its current position.
Keywords: Faculty appreciation, Job retention, Job satisfaction
... For longer distances road transport can be followed by rail or waterway transport. Generally, supply chains can be characterized by the location of chipping or crushing phase (stand, road-side, terminal or plant) 3 . ...
Resource efficient biomass feedstock supply is essential to sustain current capacities and facilitate market development for advanced bioenergy and biofuel technological pathways. The aim of the working paper is to: synthesize recent research targeting European biomass feedstock for bioenergy; identify opportunities and challenges and provide research and policy relevant recommendations for 2030 and beyond.
Four research areas are analysed: improving practices for forest biomass supply and logistics; biofuels from marginal land; biomass supply and cost supply assessments and certification & standardization.
... The main source of forest biomass varies over different parts of the world. European countries utilize wood from thinning operations as well as harvesting residues from clear-cuts [21]. From an economic perspective, biomass recovery from thinning is more costly than residue utilization because thinning operations bear the entire operating cost, while clear-cut residue carries only the chipping and secondary transportation costs [22]. ...
As a part of the renewable energy cycle, forest biomass resources are considered to be important renewable materials and energy sources in many countries. It is evident from international and local research into forest biomass utilization that several challenges must be addressed to ensure logging waste can be transformed into material of commercial value. Several logistical and supply chain challenges have already been identified, including uncertainty about the nature, amount, and quality of forest residues. In this context, this paper presents a summary review of estimation methods and techniques for managing forest and woody residue along the timber supply chain. The review examines both the opportunities and the challenges evident in the international forest residue estimation methods within each supply chain for primary and secondary forest resources. The review also discusses techniques for supply chain and management planning and highlights the limitations of existing information and communication technology (ICT) implemented for forest biomass research.
... For example, with moisture content of 50%, the effective calorific value is 16 MJ/kg compared with 19 MJ/kg for dry fuel [13]. Forest fuel raw materials are usually stored and seasoned at the landing near the logging site before comminution and transportation to an energy plant [14,15]. The storage time varies from a few months to over a year. ...
Sustainable biomass resources are limited and their utilization therefore needs to be more efficient. In addition, there is an urgent need for low-cost energy storage, particularly for solar energy. Drying considerably increases the calorific value of woody biomass, and the resulting dried biomass provides easy seasonal energy storage. The drying both improves the quality of the biomass and extends its storage life. To investigate the technology and feasibility of solar-enhanced drying, several drying experiments were conducted on wood chips in VTT’s 12 kWpeak convective dryer in Jyväskylä, Finland. Drying times varied from 3.5 to 27 h and the final moistures from 12 to 32 w-%. VTT’s experiments show that solar heat can be successfully applied to thermal drying of biomass. The moderate drying temperatures used (typically 20–50 °C) are advantageous for ensuring homogenous drying of wood particles and for preventing changes to the physical structure of the biomass and loss of volatiles. Due to the low efficiency of the system, still in its prototype phase, the calculated payback times were not highly attractive to the entrepreneur. In the experiments, best profitability was achieved by drying seasoned wood, for which a payback time of 12–17 years was estimated for a large scale system such as a biomass terminal. Based on the assumptions that technical improvements are made, the best drying efficiency reached in our experiments is achieved, and some investment subsidy is secured; scale-up is feasible. With these criteria met, the payback time of such a dryer could be brought below 10 years. This requires, however, that drying increases the selling price of wood chips.
... The generation of energy from biomass has a key role in current international strategies to mitigate climate change and enhance energy security. The target of European Union (EU) was to produce 20% of their energy from renewable sources, including bioenergy, by 2020 (Routa et al., 2013). Australia's target for 2030 is 20% while USA has recently announced same target for 2030. ...
The article includes a summary of five research projects on different biomass harvesting systems in Australian plantations. The first trial assessed the productivity and cost of slash-bundling the harvesting residues in clear felled area using Pinox slash-bundler in Eucalypt plantation in Tasmania. Second project investigated the efficiency of a European mobile chipper to collect pine harvesting residues Green Triangle (Victoria) while in the third project a conventional forwarder was studied to recover the pine residues logs (called Fibre plus material) as an integrated biomass operation in Western Australia. The product quality and fuel consumption of the biomass harvesting systems were also assessed within the trials. Whole tree biomass harvesting (including feller-buncher, grapple skidder and chipper) was another trial carried out in low-productivity Eucalypt stands in Western Australia to produce biomass chips for bioenergy purposes. Where bioenergy markets are strong, thinning materials (e.g. large branches) may also be utilised as a source for bioenergy. The operating costs and environmental impacts (including remaining residues assessment to sustain soil quality in biomass recovery operations) of different technologies were compared/discussed in this article.
... The generation of energy from biomass has a key role in current international strategies to mitigate climate change and enhance energy security. The target of European Union (EU) was to produce 20% of their energy from renewable sources, including bioenergy, by 2020 (Routa et al., 2013). Australia's target for 2030 is 20% while USA has recently announced same target for 2030. ...
The article presents a summary of five research projects on different biomass harvesting systems in Australian plantations. The first trial assessed the productivity and cost of slash-bundling the harvesting residues in clear felled area using Pinox slash-bundler in Eucalypt plantation in Tasmania. Second project investigated the efficiency of a European mobile chipper to collect pine harvesting residues Green Triangle (Victoria) while in the third project a conventional forwarder was studied to recover pine residues logs (called Fibre plus material) as an integrated biomass operation in Western Australia. The product quality and fuel consumption of the biomass harvesting systems were also assessed within the trials. Whole tree biomass harvesting (including feller-buncher, grapple skidder and chipper) was another trial carried out in low-productivity Eucalypt stands in Western Australia to produce biomass chips for bioenergy purposes. Where bioenergy markets are strong, thinning materials (e.g. large branches) may also be utilised as a source for bioenergy. The operating costs and environmental impacts (including remaining residues assessment to sustain soil quality in biomass recovery operations) of different technologies were compared/discussed in this article.
... Recent years have seen many publications concerning the utilization of forest biomass for energy purposes. Researchers have described possibilities of enhancing wood chips production efficiency [14], the effects of biomass characteristics on wood chipping productivity [24,25], storage-related problems [26], technological solutions facilitating forest energy procurement [27] and improving the quality of wood chips by reducing their moisture content [28]. Issues related to biomass storage, comminution, transport, as well as the economic impact of technology and work methods in the biomass supply chain have been addressed by Erber and Kühmaier [8,9]. ...
Wood chips from logging residues are a renewable solid fuel that has become widely used in the energy sector. The current work presents a review of European papers on various aspects of wood chips production published in the years 2005-2018. The effects of the comminution method on the quality and energy parameters of the resulting wood chips were analysed. Most authors identified terrain and roadside chipping as the optimum technologies from the energy viewpoint. Furthermore, seasonal changes in the moisture content of wood chips have implications for their ash content and calorific value and determine the annual patterns of supplies to energy plants. In general, logging residues should be chipped approximately five to seven months after harvesting and delivered over economically feasible distances, which have increased in recent years due to the large dispersion of forest areas and energy plants. In a number of cases, logging residue chips did not meet the quality specifications contained in the relevant ISO standards, which may result in technological problems with their burning, especially in small to medium energy plants.
... 2) There is growing demand for the production of energy from renewable sources, including bioenergy. This has led to increased extraction of stumps and slash from harvested sites (Routa et al., 2013;. Abstaining from the collection of stumps and slash for bioenergy is crucial for the maintenance of their function in forest ecosystem. ...
... In general, forest energy supply chains can be divided to chains based on Roadside comminution, Terminal comminution or Comminution at the plant. Comminution on the cutover has ceased in Sweden and Finland due to logistical challenges and the fact that it is not a cost-effective system (WIREs Energy Environ. 2013; Routa et al. 2013 The main data sources for indicators calculations were scientific articles and reports, especially Asikainen et al. (2012), listing productivities and fuel costs for the majority of felling, hauling, comminuting and Transport processes in Finland. In addition, a survey was sent to forest energy experts asking relevant cost factors related to forest harvesting operations. ...
The strength of this report is the details about current European supply chains((for details see Chapter 2) and
how they vary throughout Europe in terms of mechanisation, systems, employment, wages, accidents,
production costs, productivity, fuel use, energy use and greenhouse gas emissions (for details see Chapter 0).
Innovation potentials have been highlighted and quantified for NARVA multi‐stem felling head, MAMA multistem
felling head and connected forwarding, increase use of harvester in CTL systems to replace motormanual
fellings, Pezzolato chipper, two stage grinding and sieving of stumps. Further identified innovations are Kesla
hybrid chipper, Antti Ranta truck and megaliner 90t truck. Results for the later will only be obtained later and
thus included in D5.5. Exemplarily the effects and incentive of increased biomass supply for forest owners was
calculated for Kronoberg region in Sweden, in more detail at a regional scale.
Fulfilment of INFRES goals to increase forest biomass supply, to increase turnover from feedstock supply, to
reduce fuel consumption and to increase employment in Europe was overall successful and discussed
comprehensively in Chapter 4. As discussed there the spreading, uptake and implementation of solutions
provided by INFRES will need some additional effort, support to manufacturers and training of forest owners
and of entrepreneurs.
... Thinning has been a common practice and is usually carried out two or three times over a forest rotation to maximize the forest crop (Kärhä et al. 2004;Mäkinen and Isomäki 2004). A sufficiently dense forest road network is important for accessibility that has a major economic impact on wood harvesting and logistics but also on the utilization of wood-based energy (Routa et al. 2013). The raw material for energy wood is composed of logging residues, stumps, and small-diameter trees from final felling and thinning operations. ...
In this study, the prospects for future forest management in Republic of Karelia, Russia were analyzed. Forestry has an important role in the economy of Karelia. However, productivity and profitability in the forestry sector are extremely low, forest stand structure and quality are weak, the commercial forest land of coniferous species has declined and the wood processing industry struggles with a deficit of raw materials. The situation is typical to many forest regions in Russia with extensive forest management cited as one reason for the current situation. In contrast, the Nordic countries have significant experience in intensive and sustainable forest management and the results have been to a large extent positive. The transfer of Nordic intensive forest management solutions (NIFMS) could improve forestry in Karelia. SWOT analysis, combined with the multi-criteria decision support (MCDS) method was used to identify local operational environments and to assign priorities. Major threats included unprepared regulations, poor road infrastructure, insecure investments, low forestry productivity, forest degradation, high investment costs and a negative attitude to intensive forestry. The main opportunities are high forest resource potential in Karelia, favorable authority development programs, proven Nordic expertise, wood-based energy development and availability of new technology. Results also showed that the main weaknesses that might influence the NIFMS in Karelia are slow return on investments, low market demand for energy wood, high costs associated with young forest thinnings, high demand for skilled specialists and a lack of investment in research and development.
... Comminution usually takes place at the roadside to improve transport efficiency (Brunberg 2016), and to some extent also at a terminal or plant (Díaz-Yáñez et al. 2013). Roadside chipping is currently the dominant chipping system in several European countries and primarily drum and disk chippers are used (Junginger et al. 2005;Stampfer and Kanzian 2006;Kärhä 2011;Eriksson et al. 2013;Holzleitner et al. 2013;Rottensteiner et al. 2013;Routa et al. 2013;Wolfsmayr and Rauch 2014;Eliasson et al. 2015). Comminution productivity and energy use are determined by various factors at the machine level including the available raw material, particle size requirements, cutting tools, speed of rotation, feeding rate, engine power and conversion efficiency (Eriksson et al. 2013). ...
The objectives of this study were to examine the new hybrid technology chipper, Kesla C 860 H in comparison to two conventionally diesel-powered chippers, when chipping conifer pulpwood and logging residues. Productivity, fuel consumption and quality of the chips were measured and analyzed. During the time studies, both the chipper and hybrid system were working well. Chip quality was good and met the demands of small-scale residential boiler users. The average chipping productivity of the hybrid chipper unit was 13.1 oven dry metric tonnes (odt) per effective hour (E0h) when chipping logging residues and 11.3 odt E0h⁻¹ when chipping pulpwood. This was lower than for the conventional chippers which produced 20.1 odt E0h⁻¹ when chipping logging residues and 31.2 odt E0h⁻¹ and 14.0 odt E0h⁻¹ when chipping pulpwood. Fuel consumption of the hybrid chipper was 2.9 litres per odt for logging residues and 3.1 litres per odt when chipping conifer pulpwood, which was slightly lower than for the conventional chippers. Compared to conventional chippers, the hybrid chipper was more energy efficient and consequently produced the least amount of emissions per odt of chips. The productivity results of this study must be considered with care as the chipper and especially the hybrid system are under continuous development, and follow-up studies are needed to determine long-term productivity, fuel consumption and operating costs.
... Initiatives in heavily-forested European Union (EU) countries, like Finland and Sweden [4] provide a model for bioenergy supply and climate change mitigation potential. By 2020, EU forests are projected to supply 200-400 million m 3 wood-based biomass for energy per year, providing as much as 5% of the total energy production [5]. Forest products converted to bioenergy include wood residues for the production of biogas by anaerobic digestion [6,7] and production of bioethanol through simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF) methods [8]. ...
Forests provide a range of ecosystem services, including bioenergy supply and carbon sequestration, both contributing to significant climate change mitigation. Oleaginous trees have potential to provide bioenergy supplies through biodiesel-producing seed yield as well as contributing to carbon sequestration. This paper aims to show the provisions of bioenergy and carbon savings through forest rotation management and it will investigate the potential of oleaginous forest management in China. We use the land expectation value (LEV) model to calculate the optimal joint values of timber, seed and total carbon savings, including carbon sequestration from forest and carbon reductions through energy substitutions. The results indicate that combining both values of seeds and carbon savings increase the LEV and rotation age (167,611 Yuan/ha, 78 years) compared to sole timber value (26,053 Yuan/ha, 55 years). The optimization of the LEVs and the resulting optimal rotation ages are significantly sensitive to the discounting rate. Annual biodiesel potential production from Pistacia chinensis can take up 1.7% of the national diesel consumption in China. We conclude that China can use improved forest rotation management as an effective means for achieving goals in its low-carbon energy strategy.
Environmental sustainability has become important worldwide. To fully realize its importance, the impact of human capital should not be overlooked. This concept encompasses critical indicators such as education, cultural development, competence, skills, and health investments. Therefore, it becomes necessary to investigate the role of human capital in the development of environmental awareness. The sense of responsibility towards future generations underlines the necessity of instilling environmental awareness at an early age. Developed countries provide instructive examples in this regard. The aim of the study is to examine education and environmental awareness in the Nordic and Baltic countries. By comparing environmental policies, public attitudes, and the role of environmental education in these regions, it investigates how human capital promotes sustainability and awareness of environmental protection.
This paper applies an innovative optimization methodology to the supply chain of biomethanol production starting from forestry residues in Sweden. The model accounts for the collection of the biomass, the transport to the biorefinery including intermediate storages and the biodiesel plant. Particular attention is devoted to the characterization from economic and environmental point of view of the transport by truck and trains, the impact of the drying process as well as the size of the biorefinery plant. Results show that the forestry residues collection is limited by the size of the biodiesel plants. The calculated cost of the fuel is around 525 €/t being the biorefinery the major cost. The equivalent CO2 emissions are around 10.4 gCO2/MJMeOH thanks to the low carbon intensity of the Swedish electricity. A sensitivity analysis showed that the supply chain does not vary significantly assuming higher prices of biomethanol.
In-forest drying of roundwood and biomass (residues) can result in more efficient transport operations from an economical and environmental perspective. On the negative side, in-forest drying may result in dry matter losses (DML), impacting the quantity and quality of residues delivered to energy plants. This paper investigated the impact of roundwood and residues in-forest drying and DML on supply chain costs and Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions. For the assessment, a short-term optimization planning tool was applied to a supply chain located in Asturias, Spain, consisting of fourteen supply points and two demand points: A pulp mill (demanding roundwood) and a power plant (demanding residues). Four scenarios were included in the analysis comprising different combinations of DML for roundwood and residues resulting from in-forest drying. Our results indicate that in scenarios that include in-forest drying and DML, the negative economic effects are offset by the substantial reductions in transport costs and GHG emissions. In-forest drying of roundwood and residues without DML can result in a 6.5% reduction in supply chain costs, 14.9% fewer truckloads to destination points, and 18.1% less fuel consumption and GHG emissions.
We combine previously separate models of Northern European power markets, local district heating and cooling (DHC¹) systems, and biomass supply in a single modelling framework to study local and system level impacts of bioenergy technologies in phasing out fossil fuels from a DHC system of the Finnish capital. We model multiple future scenarios and assess the impacts on energy security, flexibility provision, economic performance, and emissions. In the case of Helsinki, heat only boiler is a robust solution from economic and climate perspective, but reduces local electricity self-sufficiency. Combined heat and power solution is more valuable investment for the system than for the city indicating a conflict of interest and biased results in system level models. Bringing a biorefinery near the city to utilize excess heat would reduce emissions and increase investment’s profitability, but biomass availability might be a bigger limiting factor. Our results show that the availability of domestic biomass resources constrains bio-based technologies in Southern Finland and further highlights the importance of considering both local and system level impacts. Novel option to boost biorefinery’s production with hydrogen from excess electricity is beneficial with increasing shares of wind power.
Forest resource information and real-time order-supply service are significant in wood fuel procurement. Section 1 defines the data sources of solid wood fuel procurement for regional power plants and their material supply chain. Section 2 presents an architecture for the order-supply process of wood fuel, and Section 3 creates an application for managing the supply chain and reporting. The system creates and uses data from different sources: a forest resource information system, wood material webstores, and enterprise resource planning (ERP). The data model, which follows the entity-attribute-value approach, is based on the annual processes of wood fuel procurement. These include wood fuel procurement planning in plants, processing of wood materials, ordering of wood fuel, and reporting. There is the view of the characteristics of PC and mobile services used by the enterprises of solid wood fuels. Reporting includes real-time information for suppliers, effectiveness of transportation and megawatt production, and spatial marking of forest nature reserves and carbon sinks.
In this article, an innovating multi-operational forest machine with a bundling device (MOFMB) is proposed. MOFMB is based on the tractor processor (TP) and it is planned for felling trees, delimbing-bucking operations and making bundles from logging residuals. Two technologies of the MOFMB operation are considered. The first technology provides for sequential operation of the MOFMB mechanisms without combining the operations of felling and processing trees. The second technology provides for parallel operation of the MOFMB mechanisms with a combination of felling and tree processing operations. As a result of simulation experiments, it was found that the tractor achieves the highest productivity in the case of parallel operation of its mechanisms with a combination of operations of felling and processing of trees. At this case, the utilization of the manipulator on the tree felling and the processor on the tree processing and logging residuals packaging will be maximum.
In this article, an innovating multi-operational forest machine (MOFM) is proposed. MOFM is based on the tractor processor (TP) and it is planned for bucking trees and making bundles from waste wood. The article presents the results of digital simulation experiments with MOFM compared with TP. The article gives the results of modelling of forests with a reserve of 150 m ³ /ha and with an average volume of tree trunk volume 0.40 M ³ . In the article, the length of the winch rope is assumed from 10 to 30 m. Experiments were performed for different technology options. When working in parallel operations of the MOFM and winch, productivity increases with increasing skidding distance. Productivity increases until the skidding cycle time is less than the MOFM cycle time. After that, MOFM productivity decreases. For our case, the optimal skidding distance is close to 25 m. The length of the queue of trees to MOFM is increased as the skidding distance increases. The queue length stops growing when the skidding distance is 25-30 m. Digital simulation models were realized as computer programs. These models allow you to choose rational MOFM parameters for different forest characteristics.
The paper discusses alternatives for biofuel-based district heating using simulation analysis in a real-life case example. First, the paper illustrates the current supply chain structure of forest chips from harvest to the heat energy plant. Usually the chips are naturally dried, chipped on the roadside and transported to the heating plant based on the orders. Second, the study demonstrates how a regional bioenergy system could be developed with the help of a simulation model for evaluating the feasibility of different wood fuel supply chain options. The model mimics a real-life example of an industrial area in a small Finnish municipality planning to invest in a CHP plant. The results show that the investment in a CHP plant and use of artificially dried wood fuel can be profitable in the circumstances where local demand exists for heat energy. The simulation-based vision can be compared with the presently dominant concept of highly decentralized supply chains for wood chips that is widely used among energy suppliers. However, to optimize the transportation costs and the moisture content of the chips changes are needed in the supply chain processes and structure. The results of this study are useable for practical decision-making and offer useful ideas for continuing research on alternative ways to produce energy wood biomass in the future.
Purpose of Review
This paper aims to provide a comprehensive but concise review of the various quantitative methods, in particular, optimization techniques, for the efficient management and control of complex forest biomass supply chains. The review is structured around a top-down hierarchical planning approach that includes strategic, tactical, and operational decisions. At each planning level, the review presents and analyses the problem to be solved, the solution (optimization) methods, and the various aspects to take into consideration for the successful implementation and use of these methods by biomass supply chain planners.
Recent Findings
Forest biomass constitutes one of the various sources of renewable energy with the potential to reduce the consumption of fossil fuels and greenhouse gas emissions. Fo rest biomass supply chains are systems with complex network designs consisting of many supply, demand, and intermediate points where the biomass is collected, stored, processed, and transported. The complexity of these supply chains as well as various factors impact the effective supply of forest-based biomass. For example, the biomass characteristics (e.g., energy content or quality), the variability in the market and economic conditions, and processing of the biomass are the main factors. The complexity requires a good understanding of the methods that exist to manage and optimize forest biomass supply chains.
Summary
Although substantial research has been done around forest biomass supply chain management and optimization, future research should focus on developing integrated frameworks that allow the optimization of biomass supply chains at the strategic, tactical, and operational level. These studies should also explore and propose approaches for the successful implementation of the proposed optimization methods.
Legislative changes have increased the allowable dimensions and weight for heavy transport vehicles in Finland, and this has been essential for the efficiency of wood chip transportation. In a typical forest, the supply of chips from roadside landings to the end-using facilities, such as combined heat and power plants, the balance of production capacities between chippers and the transportation of the chips by truck-trailer combinations substantially influence the performance of the system. The aim of this study was to investigate how new innovative chipper and vehicle types with increased chip carrying capacity would affect the cost and energy efficiency of the entire supply system. A method involving discrete-event simulation was used to investigate efficient solutions for the forest chip supply chain. By running several case scenarios, the aim was to examine the supply costs and efficiencies of new supply systems, and to investigate the difference at supply level between logging residues and small-diameter trees as raw materials.
The study confirmed that new vehicle types with an increased chip load capacity can improve the cost, fuel economy and efficiency of forest chip supply. The results indicate that for most scenarios and transportation distances, the use of larger, 69-tonne truck-trailers with electronic trailer steering systems in combination with a highly productive traditional chipper unit was the set-up with the lowest cost per megawatt hour. However,
smaller, 52-tonne semitrailer alternative vehicles also increased their competitiveness in cases where the material being transported had a higher moisture content or higher bulk-weight density.
The development of mobile systems for the decentralized pelletizing of forest-based residual biomass is currently underway. However, there is a lack of knowledge regarding the environmental impacts of such systems that needs to be developed for correct judgements on the most sustainable developing paths. The objective of this study was to quantify and compare the environmental impacts of a decentralized mobile production system for pelletizing logging residues in Northern Sweden operating at either the forest landing or forest terminal from a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) perspective. The results showed that the landing- and terminal-based scenarios showed similar environmental profiles. The pelleting, transportation and drying stages of both scenarios were identified as environmental hotspots. These production stages accounted for 62%, 14% and 14% of the total greenhouse gas emissions, respectively. Key factors influencing the system were the use of electricity at terminals, the increase in pelletizer capacity, and long transportation distances. The use of a Swedish electricity mix instead of diesel based electricity in the terminal-based scenario reduced all of the environmental impacts by between 68% and 83%, with the exception of fresh water eutrophication potential, which increased by 26%. In conclusion, our findings indicate that an electrified mobile pellet production system with high operational efficiency and situated at a terminal close to the harvesting sites could, from an LCA point of view, be an interesting option for pelletizing Nordic logging residues, especially in regions with long transportation distances to industry.
The concept of integration is understood as a means for more cost effective solutions in the harvesting and transport of forest products. Harvesting of several as-sortments simultaneously or accomplishing several tasks at the same time and/or with a single machine are assumed to increase overall productivity. Integration of industrial roundwood and energy wood harvesting is an example, where a multitude of solutions based on integration have been proposed, introduced and tested. In some cases in-tegration has given clear cost savings and simplified op-erations. There are, however, a large number of experi-ments, where integration has led to complex and expen-sive technological solutions, imbalance between machine elements or stages of the harvesting system and overall increase of expenses. In this paper, the concept of integra-tion in wood harvesting in general and in thinnings, in particular, is described and discussed. A number of suc-cessful and unsuccessful integration cases are analysed. Finally, features of successful integration concepts are sketched.
The productivity of cutting and bundling whole trees using the first prototype of a bundle-harvester comprised of a harwarder as the base machine, an accumulating felling head, and a compacting device was studied in three young stands in order to facilitate the further development of the concept. In addition, the removal and its composition were studied as a means of laying the foundations for developing methods for work rating and measurement on delivery. Bundling enables in-depth integration of pulpwood and energy wood procurement. Both energy wood (crown biomass) and pulpwood can be incorporated into the same bundles, and the subsequent separation of these fractions takes place at the debarking phase at the pulpmill. Bundle-harvesting productivities were relatively low (2.8-3.7 m3/E0-h) when compared to current harvesting technology. Improving working techniques, machine structure, and components showed great potential for increasing the efficiency of the concept. The bundles were dimensionally uniform. Their solid volume varied between 0.350 m3 and 0.513 m3, depending on the bundle assortment and stand properties. Integrating energy wood harvesting with pulpwood harvesting increased removal even by 59 per cent.
This study compared harvesting alternatives, accumulation and procurement costs of smalldiameter
thinning wood chips for fuel, when trees were harvested either as delimbed stemwood
or whole trees. The calculation was made for a hypothetical plant located in Central
Finland and the radius of the procurement area was 100 km via the existing road network.
Cutting was done with conventional harvester head equipped with multi-tree-handling (MTH)
accessories, with the logged trees being chipped at the roadside storage. The cost of delimbed
stemwood chips at heating plant was 24% higher compared to the cost of whole tree chips.
The availability analysis attested that delimbing lowered the regional cutting removal by
42% compared to the whole tree harvesting, when the minimum accumulation for the fuel
fraction at the stand was set at 25 m³/ha. Delimbing diminishes the recovery rate at the site,
resulting in a diminishing number of potential recovery sites meeting the threshold volume.
However, the study showed that the forest energy potential is increased and procurement costs
are reduced, if delimbed stemwood is harvested from stands where the whole tree harvesting
is not acceptable due to nutrient loss or for other ecological reasons. Intelligent selection of
cutting methods for different stands enables minimization of transport distance and control
of procurement cost.
Tutkimuksen tavoitteena oli: 1) Selvittää kuormaus- ja purkuajat, ajankäytön rakenne sekä kuormakoko rangan ja kokopuun autokuljetuksessa. 2) Verrata rangan ja kokopuun haketustuottavuutta terminaaliolosuhteissa. 3) Tehdä vertailulaskelmat rangan, kokopuun ja kokopuupaalauksen korjuu- ja toimituskustannuksista eri kuljetus- ja haketustavoilla, kaukokuljetusmatkoilla ja hakkuupoistuman rinnankorkeusläpimitoilla.
The productivity of harvesting stump and root wood was studied in Norway spruce (Picea abies) stands. The objective was to create productivity models (m3/E0h) for stump wood ex- traction, stump wood forwarding, and site preparation, in addi- tion to identifying work phases and improvement opportuni- ties in the extraction and forwarding chain. Productivity mod- els were based on time studies with professional operators. The independent variables in stump wood extraction were stump diameter (cm) and the number of stumps per hectare. For for- warding, the independent variables were volume of stump wood removed (m3/ha) and forwarding distance (m). When re- moving 350 stumps per ha with an average diameter of 40 cm, productivity was estimated at 7.9 m3/E0h. Increasing the num- ber of stumps removed from 350 to 800 stumps per ha, in- creased productivity to 10.8 m3/E0h. Forwarding productivity was 7.8 m3/E0 hw ith af orwarding distance of 250 ma nd al oad size of 7.0 m3 when removing 60 m3 of stumps per ha.
T. 2007. Simulation of geometric thinning systems and their time requirements for young forests. Silva Fennica 41(1): 137–147. In Fennoscandia, large areas that have not been subjected to pre-commercial thinning (PCT), and thus support dense stands, are becoming suitable for harvesting biomass. However, effi-cient systems for harvesting biomass from young stands have not yet been developed. In order to optimise biomass harvesting it is here hypothesized that the handling unit should not be a single tree but a corridor area, i.e., all trees in a specific area should be harvested in the same crane movement cycle. Three types of corridor harvesting approaches (using accumulating felling heads for geometric harvesting in two different patterns) were compared in terms of time required to fell a corridor of standardised size. Corridors are defined as strips of harvested areas between conventional strip-roads. Harvests were simulated in two types of stands, first thinning (FT) and delayed PCT stands, in which the spatial positions of the trees had been mapped. The differences in simulated time consumption per corridor were minor when the only variable changed was the corridor pattern. However, there were ca. 2-fold and 3-fold differences in simulated time consumption per corridor between the harvesting approaches for the FT stand and the PCT-stand, respectively. Furthermore, area handling (felling head accumulating all trees corridor-wise, with no restrictions on the accumulated number of trees except for a certain load limit) was found to give up to 2.4-fold increases in productivity compared to a single-tree (reference) approach for the FT stand. In conclusion, the simulation results clearly show the benefits of applying area-harvesting systems in young, dense stands.
This study compared and analyzed the procurement cost of whole tree chips when using supply chains based on comminution at the roadside landing or at the terminal. It also identified the bottlenecks of the most common logging systems used in Finland. The study was done by using existing and published productivity parameters and models. The procurement cost calculations were made for a stand where the forwarding distance was 200 metres, removal of whole trees was 60 m3 per hectare and the area of the stand was 2.0 hectares. The average size of the removed whole trees was 30 litres. The direct transport distance from the stand to the terminal or to the end use facility was 40 km while the secondary distance from the terminal to the end use facility was 10 km. A stumpage price for the harvested raw material was not included in this study. According to the study the cost of whole trees chips were 31.9-41.6 €/m3 at the plant, or 14.9-19.4 €/MWh when the moisture content of chips was estimated to be 40%. The two-machine system was found to be the most cost competitive logging system in precommercial thinnings thanks to both efficient cutting and, especially, forwarding work. In the manual worker based logging, the costs of felling bunching were the same as the mechanised system, whereas in forwarding the costs were almost double. Using the harwarder system the logging costs were found to be the highest, but in the larger tree volumes and removals the costs were almost equal to the manual worker based logging. The supply chain based on chipping at the roadside landing was more cost efficient compared to the chipping at the terminal system. The lower comminution cost at the terminal was not enough to cover the higher transportation cost of unprocessed material to the terminal, handling cost of chips at the terminal or the delivery cost to the end use facility.
The efficiencies of wood supply systems based on cut-to-length (CTL) harvesting, the harvesting of loose whole trees, and whole-tree bundling were compared using the relative wood paying capabilities (WPC) of a kraft pulp mill as decisive criteria. The WPCs from mill to stump were calculated for three first-thinning stands of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) with mean breast-height diameter of the removal of 6, 8, and 12 cm. Pulp price had a strong effect on the WPC, and the CTL system resulted in the highest WPC per m 3 at stump. The savings in procurement costs and gains in energy generation from additional raw mate-rial acquired with the harvesting of loose whole trees did not compensate the losses in pulp production. Considering removal per hectare, loose whole trees gave the highest WPCs at stump in the two stands with the smallest trees and the highest proportion of additional raw material. Decrease in pulp price and increase in energy price improved the competitiveness of the whole-tree systems. In the case of whole-tree bundling, savings in transportation costs did not balance the high cutting and compaction costs, and the bundling system was the least competitive alternative.
VTT Tiedotteita - Research Notes 2564 Työn tavoitteena oli luoda katsaus metsähakkeen käyttö- ja korjuumahdollisuuksiin vuonna 2020 ja selvittää asiantuntijakyselyn avulla metsähakkeen hankinta- ja toimituslogistiikan kehittämistarpeet, jotta metsähakkeen 13,5 milj. m3:n käyttötavoite voidaan saavuttaa vuonna 2020. Lisäksi perehdyttiin metsähakkeen nykyisiin korjuuketjuihin ja metsähakkeen hankinnan kustannusrakenteeseen, viljellyn energiapuun korjuuteknologiaan ja talouteen sekä pellettien ja torrefioidun puun tuotantoteknologiaan ja -kustannuksiin. Metsähakkeen korjuumahdollisuudet vuonna 2020 ovat 40,4 TWh eli 20,2 milj.m3, kun ainespuun korjuumäärä ja hakkuupoistuman rakenne ovat samat kuin vuosien 2004-2008 hakkuissa keskimäärin. Skenaariotarkastelun tuloksia tarkastellessa pitää muistaa, että käytännössä puunostajat ja metsänomistajat ratkaisevat puumarkkinoilla, miten metsiä vuonna 2020 hakataan ja hoidetaan. Metsähakkeelle asetettu 25 TWh:n suuruinen käyttötavoite voidaan saavuttaa yhdistetyssä sähkön- ja lämmöntuotannossa sekä erillisessä lämmöntuotannossa. Eniten metsähakkeen käyttöä voidaan lisätä yhdyskuntien CHP-laitoksissa (5,8 TWh) ja kivihiiltä käyttävissä CHP-laitoksissa (4,1 TWh). Lisäksi Suomeen on suunnitteilla kolme biojalostamoa, joiden kokonaistuotantokapasiteetti on noin 7 TWh liikenteen biopolttoainetta. Biopolttoaineiden tuotannossa syntyy paljon lämpöenergiaa, jota voidaan hyödyntää biojalostamoon integroituneen teollisuuden prosesseissa ja parantaa biopolttoaineiden tuotannon hyötysuhdetta. Asiantuntijakyselyn mukaan metsähakkeen hankinnan tärkeimmät kehitystarpeet liittyvät harvennuspuulla korjuukustannusten alentamiseen, kuljettajien ammattitaidon edistämiseen, ammattitaitoisen työvoiman saatavuuden turvaamiseen ja korjuun integrointiin. Kannoilla tärkeimmät kehitystarpeet liittyvät kantomurskeen laadun ja käytettävyyden parantamiseen ja kaukokuljetustehokkuuden lisäämiseen. Metsänomistajien aktivoiminen energiapuukauppaan, samoin kuin kestävyys ja seurannaisvaikutusten huomioiminen energiapuun korjuussa, nousi korostetusti esille kaikilla metsähakelajeilla. Pitkän kuljetusmatkan kuljetusmuotoja, samoin kuin yhdistettyjä kuljetusmuotoja, on kehitettävä ja metsähakkeen puutteellista toimitusvarmuutta ja laatua on parannettava.
Young dense stands could be thinned and the cut trees could be sold for bioenergy purposes, thus generating an income at an early stage of rotations. However, to make the utilization of young stands competitive, the costs of harvesting must be reduced while the value of the remaining stands is maintained at high levels. A possibility could be to develop a strip road and boom-corridor system for thinning young stands with high biomass, as an alternative to conventional pre-commercial thinning. The objectives of the studies underlying this thesis were to evaluate the effects of using new methods and techniques intended to promote efficient felling, bunching and compression of trees in boom-corridor thinning systems. As shown by simulations, combining boom-corridor thinning methods with conventional accumulating felling heads (AFHs), improved AFHs for multiple felling (AFH-2m2) and new techniques for continuous felling boom-corridor-wise (AFH-corr) would provide higher productivity in the order AFH-corr > AFH-2m2 > AFH (the AFH-corr system gave about two-fold higher productivity compared to the AFH system) (I). In field studies, boom-corridor thinning using a conventional AFH gave a significant, 16%, increase in productivity compared to a standard thinning from below treatment (II). The potential utility of a prototype felling head designed for continuous felling in boom-corridors in the field was also studied (III). The results show that felling speeds of about 1.3 m×s-1 can be achieved if cranes that allow higher movement speeds are used. Further, the performance of a prototype compression processing device was investigated in field studies, and the results show that the density of fresh Scots pine bunches could be increased by up to 160%, while reducing their ash contents (and hence nutrient losses) by 50% (IV). It was also found that load compression techniques can raise payloads (IV). In conclusion, if new techniques especially designed for boom-corridor thinning are developed and used in appropriate harvesting systems the productivity, cost-efficiency and profitability of the operation can be greatly increased.
Machines with lower investment and operating costs can be one solution in solving the harvesting costs problem of first thinnings. The long-term productivity of thinning harvesters and harvester-forwarders was investigated in a joint project between Finnish research institutions. In the follow-up study, three harvester-forwarders and five thinning harvesters were studied. The total harvested volume was almost 30000 m³.
The work performed by harvester-forwarders includes both cutting and forwarding. The average productivity of a harvester-forwarder varied from 3.81 m³/E15 hours in first thinnings to 7.87 m³/E15 hours in regeneration cuttings. The productivity was calculated for a 250 m forwarding distance. Average stem size of the stand, removal per hectare, and number of timber assortments were the factors affecting productivity when the forwarding distance was standardized. The productivity of thinning harvesters varied from an average of 6.92 m³/E15 hours in first thinnings to 16.18 m³/E15 hours in clear cuttings. Some of the harvesters were well capable in small dimensioned clear cuttings, the smallest machines being solely designed for thinnings.
Harvesting costs were compared at the harvesting system level. The costs of a medium–sized forwarder were added to the costs of harvesters. Cost data for the widely used medium–sized harvester system were added to the comparisons made for the forwarding distance of 250 metres. The thinning harvester system had the lowest costs for both two and five timber assortments. In the case of five assortments, which is the typical number in thinnings in Finland, the medium–sized harvester system had lower costs than the harvester–forwarder above a stem size of 60 dm³. At an average stem size of 200 dm³ the difference between the harvester systems was minimal. In the case of two assortments, the competitiveness of the harvester–forwarder was better, and below a stem size of 100 dm³ its costs were lower and between 100–200 dm³ at the same level as for the medium-sized harvester system. The thinning harvester system was still the cheapest alternative.
Thinning harvesters and harvester-forwarders are interesting alternatives for thinnings. The high capacity and all the properties of medium-sized harvesters cannot be fully exploited in thinnings. Thus machinery with lower capital costs and reasonable productivity can be competitive. Some of the studied machines can be used effectively in clear cuttings with a reasonable stem size. The harvester-forwarder is an interesting type of machine that is currently undergoing rapid development. The harvester-forwarder is most competitive in small stands with a short forwarding distance.
During the last decade, the interest for a combined harvester forwarder (Harwarder) has increased and a quite rapid machine development has taken place in the Nordic countries. In 2000 a new prototype equipped with a rotatable and tiltable load carrier was built in order to enhance the possibilities for processing logs directly into the load carrier. A time study was done to test the hypotheses that 1) the rotatable and tiltable load carrier decreases total time consumption, and thus increases productivity, compared to a fixed load carrier, and that 2) the difference in time consumption between the two harwarder configurations is larger in final felling than in thinning. Results showed that harwarder productivity was increased by 6 per cent in final felling and 20 per cent in thinning by the introduction of a rotatable load carrier. In final felling with the fixed load carrier, the operator changed work method in order to process as many trees directly into the load carrier. It is suggested that this explains why the difference between machine configurations was lower for final felling than for thinning. Calculated harvesting costs for the harwarder were higher than the expected harvesting costs for a harvester and a forwarder in the studied stands. However, there is a large potential to increase harwarder productivity by both further development of the machine and the work methods used.
Neglecting precommercial thinning can result in a too dense stand with an uneconomic removal structure for industrial wood harvesting. In these stands energy wood thinning directing all thinning removal to energy use can be a reasonable alternative. The annual biomass potential of energy wood thinnings in Finland is 4 million m 3 , of which 3 million m 3 is stem biomass and the rest is crown biomass (incl. e.g. branches). Majority of the energy wood thinning stands are dominated by pine. Harvesting costs of energy wood thinnings are high due to the high number and small size of removed trees. Thus state subsidies play an important role in the economy of harvesting energy wood from young stands. Possibilities to include energy wood thinning for a systematic part of forest management has been studied in Finnish Forest Research Institute with the help of Motti stand simulator. Results presented in this paper concern pine dominated stands. When energy wood thinning is a systematic part of forest management, precommercial thinning is not neglected, but a denser stand is left growing. Silvicultural recommendations of today advice to leave 2000 remaining trees after precommercial thinning. In energy wood thinning alternatives 3000 or 4000 trees per hectare were left growing after precom-mercial thinning. In energy wood alternative thinning from below with whole tree har-vesting was carried out at dominant height of 10 or 12 metres and 1300 trees per hectare were left growing. These alternatives were compared with the practice of today aiming only industrial wood production, in which thinning from below and leaving 1000 trees per hectare was carried out at the dominant height of 11–13 metres. With combined production of energy and industrial wood a remark-able amount of energy wood can be produced without compromising the industrial wood production. The first industrial wood thinning is not nec-essarily replaced by energy wood thinning, as is mainly the case in stands where tending practices have been neglected. However, in first industrial wood thinning the harvesting conditions, highly influencing the harvesting productivity and costs, are better in the combined production alternative. This new practice gives us possibilities to produce energy wood and promote the energy and climate strategies of the state. Also other advantages like better quality of saw timber and employment possibilities can be reached.
Harvesting very small trees one by one has always been comparatively unproductive. Multiple-tree handling creates opportunities to reduce time per tree and thereby make it profitable to harvest small trees instead of thinning to waste. Multiple tree-handling is achieved by felling more than one tree in one cut or by felling one tree per cut and accumulating trees on the felling head, thereby handling several trees during one crane cycle.
The effect of accumulating trees depends on how much faster each additional tree can be felled (positioning head and cutting off) compared with the previous tree and how much time (per tree) is saved when moving several trees during crane-in (bunching). Felling several trees in one cut reduces time per tree substantially, but is often of limited relevance due to spacing between trees.
Field studies showed significantly lower time consumption when accumulating smaller tree sizes. Reduction of time consumption for crane work was approximately 40 % for the smallest trees. The difference decreased as tree size increased. Time consumption for the first “crane to tree” was a little higher than for the following crane movements to trees to be cut. Time for “crane-in” only slightly increased with the number of trees in the felling head. The time required to fell two or more trees in one cut was not significantly different than for a single tree, giving a substantial reduction in time per tree.
In Finland, two mechanized harvesting systems are used for small-diameter (d 1.3 <10 cm) thinning wood: 1) the traditional two-machine (harvester and forwarder) system, and 2) the harwarder system (i.e. the same machine performs both cutting and forest haulage to the roadside). There are currently more than 20 energy wood harwarders in use in Finland. However, there have been no comprehensive studies carried out on energy wood har-warders. Metsäteho Oy undertook a study on the two mechanized harvesting systems for small-sized thinning wood. Time study and follow-up study material was collected for the study from whole-tree harvesting using energy wood harwarders and two-machine harvesting systems. The productivity and cost levels of the two main harvesting systems were determined, and the whole-tree harvesting costs for harwarders were compared with those of the conventional two-machine system. The results gave a clear indication of what kind of machine resources can be most profitably allocated to different whole-tree harvesting sites. The energy wood harwarders should be directed towards harvesting sites where the forwarding distances are short (<150 m), the whole trees to be harvested are relatively small (<20 dm 3), and the total volume of whole trees removed is relatively low (<55 solid m 3 /ha, <100 solid m 3 /stand). Respectively, when the stem size removed in young stands is relatively large (>20 dm 3), the whole-tree removal is higher than average (>55 solid m 3 /ha), the stand size is over 2 hectares, and the forwarding distance is more than 150 m, then the traditional two-machine system is more competitive.
Integrating the planning and implementation of wood-based fuel production with the procurement of industrial roundwood in conventional forestry is considered to be a feasible undertaking. When doing so, the logging sites potentially serving as sources of biomass residues to be salvaged for fuel need to be chosen on the basis of harvesting costs. It is essential to take carefully into account site-based cost factors such as the total volume of wood to be obtained from the site, site conditions, available equipment and operating technologies, off-road haulage and truck transportation distances, storage, and quality control. In addition, ecological sustainability, possibilities to concentrate operations, seasonal variation in consumption, and the wishes of land-owners also affect the choice of harvesting sites. An important factor is the scale of operation. Harvesting machinery is expensive and thus the annual output considerably affects the costs. In addition, the greater the share of the potential fuel supply recovered, the higher the cost of procurement. This is due to longer transport distances and the need to operate on less favourable sites. As regards deliveries of different wood fuels or fuel mixtures, the quality of the fuel and the demands of energy-generation plants should be also considered. The present situation in Finland and Sweden is such that the wood fuel delivered directly from the forest to users is recovered almost solely from final cuttings in the form of logging residues. Wood fuel obtained from thinning operations is of minor importance.
The felling and bunching of small diameter trees in Finland is still largely carried out manually using a chain saw and clearing saw. The felling of small diameter trees has been developed and mechanized. In addition to the high felling costs of small trees, the move towards mechanized harvesting is also caused by a shortage of professional lumberjacks, the possibility of all-year-round mechanized energy wood harvesting, and an increasing demand for energy wood.
The research investigated the productivity, costs and silvicultural result of the guillotine blade equipped, multi-tree-processing Naarva-Grip 1600–40, for small diameter energy wood harvesting. Work-studies were carried out in six young stands at the first thinning stage.
In mechanized energy wood harvesting with the Naarva-Grip 1600–40, an average of 73% of the trees felled were multi-tree-processed. The multi-tree-processed proportion increased to 96% in dense Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) sites with small trees. One bunch consisted of approximately 3.2 trees. The average density and volume of removal had the greatest effect on the productivity of the felling-bunching work. Felling-bunching was carried out on the sites at a rate of 106–422 trees per effective hour (E0, excluding delay times). Productivity on the different sites varied from 3.0 to 7.2 m³/E0, giving an average of 4.7 m³/E0 (weighted by felling volume) with an average tree size on the site of 32 dm³.
When the size of the felled trees was under 20 dm³, the felling-bunching costs were over 20 US/m³ level. During the research, the Naarva-Grip 1600–40 proved to be competitive compared to the other multi-tree-processing, energy wood felling heads on the market. In order to keep the felling-bunching costs at a reasonable level, mechanized harvesting should be targeted at sites where the average size of the trees removed is over 30 dm³, and the energy wood volume at felling over 30 m³/ha.
In order to increase the harvesting volumes of energy wood and pulpwood from first thinnings, harvesting costs have to be reduced significantly. Metsäteho Oy studied the integrated harvesting of pulpwood and energy wood based on a two-pile method, where industrial roundwood (pulpwood) and energy wood fractions are stacked into two separate piles when cutting a first-thinning stand. The productivity and cost levels of the integrated, two-pile cutting method were determined, and the harvesting costs of the two-pile method were compared with those of conventional separate wood harvesting methods.In the time studies, when the size of removal was 50 dm3, the productivity in conventional whole-tree cutting was 6% higher than in integrated cutting. With a stem size of 100 dm3, the productivity of whole-tree cutting was 7% higher than in integrated cutting. The results indicated, however, that integrated harvesting based on the two-pile cutting method enables harvesting costs to be decreased to below the current cost level of separate pulpwood harvesting in first-thinning stands. The greatest cost-saving potential lies in small-sized (d1.3 = 7–11 cm) first thinnings. The costs of forest haulage after integrated pulpwood and energy wood cutting were higher than those of separate wood harvesting because of lower removals in integrated harvesting. The results showed that when integrated wood harvesting is based on the two-pile cutting method, the removals of both energy wood and pulpwood should be more than 20–25 m3 ha−1 at the integrated harvesting sites in order to achieve economically viable integrated procurement.
The integration of logging residue extraction, along with the establishment of a new stand and soil preparation is a new idea. A dual-purpose machine has been developed in Finland. It can be used as both a scarifier and a slash forwarder without the need for time-consuming conversion work. According to research results, the machine has proved to be rather competitive. In average conditions, the integration decreases the cost of scarification and residue recovery by about 10%, when compared to separate operations with two machines. Slash forwarder–scarifier is ideally suited for use in small regeneration areas, where the costs of moving two separate machines between sites would constitute a large share of the total costs. By the slash forwarder–scarifier operators exposure to the whole body vibration during the work decreases due to slower driving speed, the machine's greater weight and the position of scarifying plates in the middle of the machine body.
The Metsäteho study investigated how logging residue chips, stump wood chips, and chips from small-sized thinning wood and large-sized (rotten) roundwood used by heating and power plants were produced in Finland in 2008. Almost all the major forest chip suppliers in Finland were involved in the study. The total volume of forest chips supplied in 2008 by these suppliers was 6.5 TWh. The study was implemented by conducting an e-mail questionnaire survey and telephone interviews. Research data was collected in March-May 2009. The majority of the logging residue chips and chips from small-sized thinning wood were produced using the roadside chipping supply chain in Finland in 2008. The chipping at plant supply chain was also significant in the production of logging residue chips. 70% of all stump wood chips consumed were comminuted at the plant and 29% at terminals. The role of the terminal chipping supply chain was also significant in the production of chips from logging residues and small-sized wood chips. When producing chips from large-sized (rotten) roundwood, nearly a half of chips were comminuted at plants and more than 40% at terminals.
To increase the volume of energy wood and pulpwood harvested from early thinnings, their procurement costs will have to be significantly reduced. This can be done through the integration of pulpwood and energy wood procurement applying a newly-developed supply chain based on whole-tree bundling. In 2007, the first prototype of the bundle harvester capable of incorporating compaction into the cutting phase was launched. Cost savings, especially in primary and secondary transportation, can be achieved by increasing the load sizes by replacing undelimbed whole trees with bundles. The bundles can be hauled by a standard forwarder to the roadside storage area, from where they are transported by a standard timber truck to the pulp mill. Batches of bundles are then fed into a wood flow consisting of conventional delimbed pulpwood. Separation of the bundles into pulpwood and energy wood fractions does not take place until the wood reaches the debarking drum.In this feasibility study, the required productivity level of bundle harvesting (i.e., cutting and bundling) in Scots pine-dominated stands was assessed by comparing the total supply chain costs based on whole-tree bundling with those of the other pulpwood and energy wood supply chains by means of system analysis. The cost calculations indicated that whole-tree bundling enables the procurement costs to be reduced to below the current cost level of separate pulpwood and energy wood procurement in early thinnings. The greatest cost-saving potential lies in small-diameter (d1.3=7–10cm) first-thinning stands, which are currently unprofitable for conventional pulpwood procurement.
Secondary transportation from the forest to the utilisation facility is the simplest of the handling phases in transferring fuelwood from its point-of-origin to ultimate processing point, both in its objectives and application. In spite of this simplicity secondary transport is typically responsible for between 20 and 40% of the delivered fuel cost. Truck transportation is in an advanced state of development as the technology employed comes from a very large scale industry that dominates the transport of industrial products in most developed countries. To achieve a full payload within maximum allowable load dimension restrictions the material transported must have a minimum bulk density of about 250 to 280 kg/m3. While conventional forest products generally exceed this limit, fuelwood in an unprocessed form may have a bulk density of only 120 to 150 kg/m3. To offset this problem fuelwood material can be compacted before loading, or compacted in the trailer, but, more frequently, it is comminuted before transport. Processing of fuelwood to a chip allows the use of standard transport systems designed for the transport of wood chips for the pulp sector. Major technological gains to improve the transport efficiencies of fuelwood are unlikely in the immediate future. The most important improvements are likely to come from efforts to improve carrying efficiencies in pulp chip transport because of the much greater volume and value of this material carried annually. Any developments will be rapidly adopted by those engaged in fuelwood chip transport.
The relative performance of two integrated machine concepts (combined harvesting / forwarding capabilities)
was assessed against a conventional harvester / forwarder CTL system in a simulated thinning regime. Multiple- regression based on the simulation output was used in deriving time-consumption functions at the systems and machine level. Descriptive stand variables could be reduced to; harvest volume (m3/ha), stem volume (m3), lead distance (m) and object volume (m3/ stand) while maintaining acceptable statistical rigour (R2 > 0.95). The ability of one of the integrated machines to process logs directly onto the bunk provided it with an advantage that more than compensated for its reduced harvesting efficiency. Both integrated machine systems show a competitive advantage in forest structures with low object volumes and long or frequent relocations. Factors negatively affecting forwarding productivity (e.g. long lead distances) favour the conventional twomachine system. A break-even economic analysis showed that integrated machines could present a feasible alternative to contemporary mechanised CTL systems.
The interest in using stump biomass as a biofuel has recently increased in Sweden. The uneven consumption of wood fuel during the year creates a need for storage. This study examined the properties of stump biomass and how they vary at two sites in Sweden depending on harvesting technique, storage method and storage period. Norway spruce stumps, extracted using three different stump harvesting heads (Pallari, Rotary Cutter and Aalto), were stored in windrows or heaps. After 3 months, stumps stored in heaps were gathered into windrows. The fuel quality parameters moisture content (MC), ash content (AC) and calorific value (CV) were evaluated on five occasions in the period May 2008-September 2009. After 16 months of storage, the MC in all treatments had decreased to Keywords: Ash content; calorific value; moisture content; stump wood; wood fuel quality Document Type: Research Article DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02827581.2011.561807 Affiliations: Department of Energy and Technology, Swedish University of Agricultural Science, Uppsala, Sweden Publication date: June 1, 2011 More about this publication? Editorial Board Information for Authors Subscribe to this Title ingentaconnect is not responsible for the content or availability of external websites (document).ready(function() { var shortdescription = (".originaldescription").text().replace(/\\&/g, '&').replace(/\\, '<').replace(/\\>/g, '>').replace(/\\t/g, ' ').replace(/\\n/g, ''); if (shortdescription.length > 350){ shortdescription = "" + shortdescription.substring(0,250) + "... more"; } (".shortdescription a").click(function() { (".originaldescription").slideDown(); return false; }); }); Related content In this: publication By this: publisher In this Subject: Forestry By this author: Anerud, Erik ; Jirjis, Raida GA_googleFillSlot("Horizontal_banner_bottom");
In recent years the transportation of uncomminuted energy wood raw materials has been on the increase in Finland. As a result of the low bulk density of unprocessed raw material, the size of the load is usually limited by volume rather than mass capacity. In this study, the profitability of transporting uncomminuted raw materials is evaluated. A follow-up study was done to gather time consumption and load size data. In this study, we piloted a monitoring system installed in computers of trucks combined with GPS. In the beginning of the year 2004, the average load size of loose residues was 52 MWh and the moisture content 47%, with stumps 67 MWh (37%), with bundles 73 MWh (50%) and with forest chips 85 MWh (46%). The average total weight of loads was kept under the maximum weight limit, 60 tonnes, for all uncomminuted raw material types. There was some 10 tonnes of potential load capacity left. The most likely improvements in the transportation of the loose raw materials will involve increasing the load size and decreasing of the terminal times. Especially the truck–trailer combinations with extended trailers are becoming more common in Finland.
Metsäteho Oy surveyed the industrial supply chains used in the production of forest chips in 2006 in Finland. The Metsäteho study also conducted a survey of the production machinery of forest chips used by energy plants in 2007, and provided an estimate of industrial supply chains and future machinery requirements for forest chip production in Finland.The majority of the logging residue chips and chips from small-sized thinning wood were produced using the roadside chipping supply chain in 2006. The chipping at plant supply chain was also significant in the production of logging residue chips. The majority of all stump wood chips consumed were comminuted at the plant, and with only around one fifth comminuted at terminals. The role of the terminal chipping supply chain was also significant in the production of chips from logging residues and small-sized wood chips. It was predicted that the roles of both terminal chipping of logging residues and chipping at the plant will increase by the year 2010. Regarding the production of chips from small-diameter wood, it was estimated that the role of chipping at the plant will also increase in coming years. The proportion of roadside chipping in the production of small-sized wood chips and logging residue chips is expected to decrease.The study estimated that a total of 1100 machine and truck units were employed in the production of forest chips for energy plants in 2007. Increasing forest chip consumption will create considerable demand for additional forest chip production resources in the future.
Forests are important for providing wood for products and energy and the demand for wood is expected to increase. Our aim was to estimate the potential supply of woody biomass for all uses from the forests in the European Union (EU), while considering multiple environmental, technical and social constraints. The potential woody biomass supply was estimated for the period 2010–2030 for stemwood, residues (branches and harvest losses), stumps and other biomass (woody biomass from early thinnings in young forests). We estimated the theoretical biomass potential from recent, detailed forest inventory data using the EFISCEN model. Constraints reducing the availability of woody biomass were defined and quantified for three mobilisation scenarios (high, medium, low). Finally, the theoretical potentials from EFISCEN were combined with the constraints to assess the realisable potential from EU forests. The realisable potential from stemwood, residues, stumps and other biomass was estimated at 744 million m 3 yr −1 overbark in 2010 and could range from 623 to 895 million m 3 yr −1 overbark in 2030, depending on the mobilisation scenario. These potentials represented 50–71% of the theoretical potential. Constraints thus significantly reduced the biomass potentials that could be mobilised. Soil productivity appeared to be an important environmental factor when considering the increased use of biomass from forests. Also the attitude of private forest owners towards increased use of forest biomass can have an important effect, although quantifying this is still rather difficult. The analysis showed that it is possible to increase the availability of forest biomass significantly beyond the current level of resource utilisation. Implementing these ambitious scenarios would imply quite drastic changes in forest resource management across Europe.
To increase the production of wood chips for energy from small-diameter (d1.3Â <Â 10Â cm) stems in thinnings from young forest stands, Finland's Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry provides financial incentives for the production of wood chips through the Sustainable Silviculture Foundation Law (Kemera). As of Autumn 2010, the Kemera incentive system provides subsidies for wood chips derived from small-sized stems of young stands, 16-19Â [euro]/m3 (8.0-9.5Â [euro]/MWh) maximum in typical harvesting conditions (average stem size of removal 30-60Â dm3, and whole-tree chip removal 40-70Â m3/ha). Total production costs of small-diameter thinning of wood chips with and without the Kemera subsidies were researched. The effects of the Kemera incentives on the profitability of whole-tree chip production were presented and discussed. Results gave a clear indication that wood chips from small-diameter stems cannot currently be produced without the Kemera subsidies from young stands with typical harvesting conditions at the current price level of small-diameter wood chips (17-18Â [euro]/MWh). If operating without the Kemera subsidies at a higher price level of small-diameter wood chips, such as 20Â [euro]/MWh, the average stem size of whole trees harvested must be greater than 60-70Â dm3 with short road transportation distances between 20 and 40Â km to be economically profitable in Finland.