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How do leaders use emotional labor?
Abstract
Leaders use emotional labor to regulate their own emotions and to manage the moods, job attitudes, and performance of their followers. Researchers need to examine how emotional labor is related to (i) leadership styles, (ii) leader and subordinate stress and well-being, (iii) leader authenticity and character, and (iv) leader effectiveness. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
... The research on emotional labor originates from studies that have examined the emotional effort that workers in service industries have to exert as part of their jobs (Ashforth & Humphrey, 1993;Grandey, 2000;Grandey, 2003). Although the existing literature has extended beyond the service industry, studies have primarily focused on employees, and studies on leaders still pale in comparison (Humphrey, 2012;Liu, Liu & Zeng, 2011;Morris & Feldman, 1996). This current study focuses on the effect of engaging in two of the main approaches to emotional labor-deep and surface acting. ...
... This current study focuses on the effect of engaging in two of the main approaches to emotional labor-deep and surface acting. This present study proposes that leaders might engage in emotional labor to manage the requirements of their role (Humphrey, Pollack & Hawver, 2008;Humphrey, 2012;Wang & Seibert, 2015). The current study theorizes that engaging in emotional laborand the type of emotional labor a ...
... Leaders on the lower end of the authenticity spectrum might not be as self-aware or transparent astheir counterparts on the higher ends of the authenticity spectrum (Gardner et al., 2009;Weiss et al., 2018). Some leaders might have toact to foster positive follower impressions (Gardner et al., 2009;Humphrey, 2012). For example, in a crisis, a leader might act bravely or confidently for the benefit of their followers even though they might feel anxious or scared. ...
This conceptual examination delves into the effect of acting on leader wellbeing and its potential crossover impact on follower wellbeing. The study investigates the authenticity of leaders' behavior and its implications for their own well-being, as well as the well-being of those they lead. By exploring the psychological and emotional aspects of acting in a leadership role, this research seeks to uncover the potential consequences of leaders' authentic or inauthentic behavior on their own mental health and the well-being of their followers. The findings aim to shed light on the importance of authentic leadership in promoting overall well-being within organizations.
... Employees could perceive the display of genuine emotions as a trustworthy and transparent behavior in a crisis situation, as leaders share their inner and true feelings (Ilies et al., 2005). However, previous research assumes that a leader's authentic display of fear during crisis could trigger negative emotions and discouragement among employees, which could negatively impact employees' attitudes and behaviors (Humphrey, 2012), resulting in a negative emotional spiral within a firm (Barsade, 2002). ...
... sense of perceived authenticity (Hennig-Thurau et al., 2006), which will assure employees that the shown positive emotions are real, and which will act as a mechanism for employees to adopt these positive emotions. Moreover, employees will inferentially judge the leader's emotional display and interpret the authentic positive emotions as a signal for opportunity and hope and as an indicator that there is no need to worry (Humphrey, 2012;Nifadkar et al., 2012). Employees are also likely to appreciate the leader's effort to spread positive emotions (Levine & Wald, 2020), which signals employees that the leader values them (Moin, 2018). ...
... Regarding affective reactions, research indicated that only authentic positive emotional displays lead to an increase in observers' positive affect (Hennig-Thurau et al., 2006). We reassess this reasoning in our crisis context and expect that a leader's deep acting will increase employees' positive affect and decrease employees' negative affect in comparison to surface acting, because deep acting signals employees that the displayed positive emotions are honest (Humphrey, 2012) and hence make it likely that employees adopt these emotions. We therefore hypothesize: ...
During a crisis, leaders experiencing fear have to decide whether to reveal or regulate their emotions. Drawing on the emotions as social information (EASI) model and employing an experimental vignette study (n = 159) in the context of a young firm's crisis, we compare employee reactions (i.e., employee affect, job engagement, and affective commitment) to different leader emotional display strategies, namely, deep acting, surface acting, and genuine emotions. Compared with a leader's genuine emotions (i.e., display of fear), surface acting increased negative affect, whereas deep acting reduced negative affect. With regard to the total effects of our mediation model, surface acting negatively influenced employee job engagement and affective commitment, whereas deep acting surprisingly showed no differences to the display of genuine emotions. Our findings indicate that leaders who experience fear may consider revealing this genuine emotion during a crisis rather than engaging in potentially inauthentic emotion regulation strategies.
... Employees could perceive the display of genuine emotions as a trustworthy and transparent behavior in a crisis situation, as leaders share their inner and true feelings (Ilies et al., 2005). However, previous research assumes that a leader's authentic display of fear during crisis could trigger negative emotions and discouragement among employees, which could negatively impact employees' attitudes and behaviors (Humphrey, 2012), resulting in a negative emotional spiral within a firm (Barsade, 2002). ...
... sense of perceived authenticity (Hennig-Thurau et al., 2006), which will assure employees that the shown positive emotions are real, and which will act as a mechanism for employees to adopt these positive emotions. Moreover, employees will inferentially judge the leader's emotional display and interpret the authentic positive emotions as a signal for opportunity and hope and as an indicator that there is no need to worry (Humphrey, 2012;Nifadkar et al., 2012). Employees are also likely to appreciate the leader's effort to spread positive emotions (Levine & Wald, 2020), which signals employees that the leader values them (Moin, 2018). ...
... Regarding affective reactions, research indicated that only authentic positive emotional displays lead to an increase in observers' positive affect (Hennig-Thurau et al., 2006). We reassess this reasoning in our crisis context and expect that a leader's deep acting will increase employees' positive affect and decrease employees' negative affect in comparison to surface acting, because deep acting signals employees that the displayed positive emotions are honest (Humphrey, 2012) and hence make it likely that employees adopt these emotions. We therefore hypothesize: ...
... Numerous researchers have shown EI strategies are necessary and critical for an organization's success (Goleman et al., 2002;Humphrey, 2012;Humphrey, Ashforth, & Diefendorff, 2015;Humphrey et al., 2016;Miao et al., 2018aMiao et al., , 2018b. Some inconsistencies in research results have shown mixed results between EI and the use of mechanisms to control outcomes (Czarna, Leifeld, Śmieja, Dufner, & Salovey, 2016;Miao, Humphrey, Qian, & Pollack, 2019;Nagler, Reiter, Furtner, & Rauthmann, 2014). ...
... Business administration must maintain a sustainable competitive advantage in today's environments. Humphrey (2012); Humphrey et al. (2016);and Humphrey, Pollack, and Hawver (2008) collectively showed the need for merging emotions with leadership in business administration for successful outcomes. Senge (2006) provided a systems-thinking approach to business administration to achieve a sustainable competitive advantage for successful outcomes in organizational change management (OCM). ...
... Leaders who use EI may observe, analyze, and regulate emotions in themselves and others in the LMX (Mayer et al., 2016). Leaders who use EI in a holistic approach, to create business administration strategies within the ELP to recognize the transference of emotions and emotional contagions, are better equipped to accomplish desired outcomes (Groysberg et al., 2018;Humphrey, 2012;Humphrey et al., 2016;Humphrey et al., 2008). ...
There is minimal empirical evidence to show the cognitive perception and regulation of emotions are a fundamental prerequisite for successful outcomes in business administration. Furthermore, there is a lack of empirical evidence on what emotional strategies and factors lead to increased performance, effectiveness, and positive emotional contagions when implementing successful outcomes for policies and procedures in the leader-member exchange. This interpretative phenomenological analysis explored leaders' experiences in the leader-member exchange. The population was leaders who created policies and implemented procedures for business administration. Leaders were from small, medium, and large enterprises who had worked in the United States or had international experience. The qualitative interpretative phenomenological analysis framework focused on an emotional leadership paradigm to provide insight into leadership's use of emotional intelligence and emotional strategies and influences in facilitating successful business administration. The four themes of emotional intelligence, emotional leadership paradigm, authentic communication, and human capital management emerged as key attributes and factors regarding emotional strategies for implementing policies and procedures for successful business administration. Emotionally intelligent leaders who used emotional strategies with an emotional leadership paradigm approach created emotionally contagious policies and processes for successful outcomes.
... Communicating with project team members and stakeholders is vital to project success and always involves emotion (Butt et al. 2016;Stephens and Carmeli 2016), so CPMs must use emotional skills to communicate effectively and develop stakeholder relationships (Mersino 2013). In addition, CPMs need to regulate their emotions during interpersonal interactions in projects to manage team members' job attitudes and performance (Humphrey 2012), which can help them in dealing with "problem people" in projects and managing conflict (Mersino 2013;Sunindijo and Hadikusumo 2014). These soft job demands, which may also cause CPMs a great deal of stress, require CPMs to regulate their emotions and to display proper emotions during interpersonal interactions. ...
... Emotional labor occurs in interpersonal interactions during work (Hu and Shi 2015;Ozcelik 2013). Leaders who perform emotional labor could change their followers' psychological states, thereby affecting their performance and job attitudes (Humphrey 2012;Wang and Seibert 2015). However, the emotional labor of leaders may cause stress and lead to job burnout (Humphrey 2012). ...
... Leaders who perform emotional labor could change their followers' psychological states, thereby affecting their performance and job attitudes (Humphrey 2012;Wang and Seibert 2015). However, the emotional labor of leaders may cause stress and lead to job burnout (Humphrey 2012). The existing literature provides support for this study on the relationship between CPMs' emotional labor and job burnout. ...
... Chief Executive Officers (CEOs), in particular, are expected to influence people to achieve objectives, work to maintain cooperative relationships, enlist support from others, and have a broad and influential social network (yukl, 2012). The traits required to achieve these outcomes include possessing high self and social confidence, self and other awareness, and social adeptness (Humphrey, 2012;yukl, 2018). individuals in CEO positions are therefore typically highly interconnected in their social networks, and these networks are precisely what makes them powerful and influential. ...
... As a result, they have less time to cognitively process and regulate complex emotions such as loneliness (Kaplan et al., 2014). Another challenge for leaders is that they must perform more varied forms of emotion regulation than followers (Humphrey, 2012;vuori & Huy, 2020), including the emotion of loneliness. As leaders of their organizations, CEOs are tasked with influencing people to achieve specific goals and are responsible for coordinating others toward the pursuit and achievement of those goals. ...
... Rahim and Psenicka (1996) emphasised that leaders with regulation competencies can handle difficult situations with confidence and do not get upset with job stressors or quit. As argued by Haver et al. (2013), George (2000) and Humphrey (2012), emotion regulation is important for leaders as they have to cope with complex and unfavourable situations while facilitating performance and establishing leader-subordinate relations. Regulating one's emotions is considered to be a key competence that is associated with effective and good leadership (Haver et al., 2013). ...
... The regression analysis result further shows that SM and RM are predictors of ELB with both predicting 54% variance in ELB. These findings are aligned with the researches by Rahim and Psenicka (1996), Haver et al. (2013), George (2000) and Humphrey (2012), and Torrence and Connelly (2019) to name a few. This study also reports evidence of a difference between the impact of the two clusters of regulation competencies, namely, RM and SM, on ELB; which is a unique finding of this research. ...
This study investigates the relationship between regulation
competence (RC) and exemplary leadership behaviour (ELB), and
self-management (SM) and relationship management (RM) as predictors of ELB among middle-level managers. A survey was conducted among Indian
corporate employees during the COVID-19 pandemic; correlation and regression analysis techniques were applied to the data with SPSS version 24.
Results indicate that RC has a positive relationship with ELB and that RM and SM competences have a positive impact on ELB, with RM having a stronger influence than SM. The 12 RC competencies are positively correlated with
ELB. The results imply that since RM and SM are antecedents to ELB, and given their significance during disruptions, strategic investments are needed for embedding these competencies in the organisational climate and culture.
Studies on these constructs in the context of crisis-situations and among non-western setting are rare, thus making this study unique and thereby filling in the research gap.
... The primary benefit of surface acting is that it takes less time to perform than deep acting (Gross 2015b), and hence on occasion is an adaptive means of managing a surge in felt negative emotion that one does not wish to express. As a frequently-utilized-emotional-labor strategy, however, it tends to produce low-quality connections and relationships with other coworkers (Humphrey 2012). Hence, it seems that deep acting and genuine emotional labor, when skillfully performed, tend to produce high-quality workplace interactions, while surface acting tends to induce lower-quality interactions. ...
... Interestingly, when the confederate was placed in close proximity to the participant, the percentage of participants willing to deliver shocks up to the maximum 450 volts dropped by over 50% (Milgram 1965(Milgram , 1974. This finding suggests that copresence increases empathy, a critical ingredient of emotional labor, which involves expressing emotion based on the organizational actor's empathetic attunement to both the organizational display norms (Diefendorff et al. 2011) and the interaction partner (Humphrey 2012). Similarly, when in combat with an enemy they can see, it is not uncommon for soldiers to refuse to fire; such acts of civil disobedience are rare when soldiers are given kill orders with aircraft or more distant weapons (Myers 2010). ...
Teleworking experienced exponential growth worldwide during the Covid-19 lockdown. It is very likely that once the limitations for travelling and gathering are over, an important share of the work of organizational members will still be done remotely. We offer a new set of considerations for employees that communicate remotely via text-based technology-mediated communication (TMC) by focusing on the emotional labor challenges associated with TMC and how these challenges influence the connection quality of workplace relationships. We also delineate the mediating effects of two outcomes of TMC, decreased co-presence and informational and interactional demands, in this process. We build on previous literature, especially Walther’s (1996) triadic theory of impersonal/interpersonal/hyperpersonal TMC, to support our theoretical assertions. We develop specific propositions and a theoretical model related to the mediating effects of decreased co-presence, informational and interactional demands, and emotional labor on the link between text-based technology-mediated communication (TMC) and the connection quality of workplace relationships.
... Whereas, in its origins, the concept of emotional labor was focused on workers at lower hierarchical levels (Hochschild, 1983), those at the top of the hierarchy also practice emotional labor-identifying others' emotions and selfregulating their own in order to produce the kind of response that may best achieve their organizational goals. Indeed, emotional labor can be an important part of leadership (e.g., Gardner et al., 2009;Humphrey, 2012). This may be particularly the case for management roles embedded in occupational contexts that have a strong care orientation (e.g., healthcare, early education) in which communal attributes and the capacity to nurture others are viewed as more typical in leaders (Yoder, 2001;Cowgill and Vial, 2022). ...
... At the top of the hierarchy, emotional labor practices may translate into a leadership style that is more interpersonally oriented, one that draws less on dominance to influence others and, as a result, increases positive interpersonal behaviors among subordinates (Humphrey, 2012;Kakkar and Sivanathan, 2021). Emotional labor practices among managers and supervisors manifest in prosocial behaviors toward employees (e.g., helping and doing favors for subordinates), showing sensitivity to their views (e.g., not dominating a team interaction; listening and taking subordinates' concerns into account when making decisions), and seeking to foster a positive, friendly work environment that is psychologically safe (e.g., avoid expressing anger or being too critical or too dominant; showing empathy; promoting cooperative relationships with and among followers). ...
Women use power in more prosocial ways than men and they also engage in more emotional labor (i.e., self-regulate their emotions to respond and attend to the needs and emotions of other people in a way that advances organizational goals). However, these two constructs have not been previously connected. We propose that gendered emotional labor practices and pressures result in gender differences in the prosocial use of power. We integrate the literature on emotional labor with research on the psychology of power to articulate three routes through which this happens. First, women may be more adept than men at the intrapersonal and interpersonal processes entailed in emotional labor practices—a skill that they can apply at all hierarchical levels. Second, given women’s stronger internal motivation to perform emotional labor, they construe power in a more interdependent manner than men, which promotes a more prosocial use of power. As a result, female powerholders tend to behave in more prosocial ways. Third, when they have power, women encounter stronger external motivation to engage in emotional labor, which effectively constrains powerful women’s behaviors in a way that fosters a more prosocial use of power. We discuss how, by promoting prosocial behavior among powerholders, emotional labor can be beneficial for subordinates and organizations (e.g., increase employee well-being and organizational trust), while simultaneously creating costs for individual powerholders, which may reduce women’s likelihood of actually attaining and retaining power by (a) making high-power roles less appealing, (b) guiding women toward less prestigious and (c) more precarious leadership roles, (d) draining powerful women’s time and resources without equitable rewards, and (e) making it difficult for women to legitimize their power in the eyes of subordinates (especially men). Thus, emotional labor practices can help explain the underrepresentation of women in top leadership positions.
... On the other hand, Humphrey (2012) emphasizes the need to attend to an important, yet unaddressed question: whether leaders' emotional labor is detrimental or beneficial to the development of a work relationship? In reality, it is hard for leaders to continue using deep acting and genuine emotional labor tactics in order to regulate their negative and high arousal emotions. ...
... In reality, it is hard for leaders to continue using deep acting and genuine emotional labor tactics in order to regulate their negative and high arousal emotions. For instance, an exhausted leader may easily express negative emotions of anger and disappointment toward a subordinate because of behavioral issues (Humphrey, 2012). ...
The impetus for this Special Issue, which focuses on the role of affect in interpersonal work relationships, derives from recent concerns scholars have expressed about one model of interpersonal work relationships, namely, the leader-member exchange (LMX) perspective. In particular, scholars have noted that research on the role of affect in LMX is being impeded because of three factors: (1) limited theoretical frameworks, (2) insufficient research integrating both relationship parties, and (3) a scarcity of studies that adopt a multilevel perspective. In this introductory article, we begin by detailing our reasons for undertaking the Special Issue, and discuss why the three factors hamper research on affect, not only in LMX, but in understanding the nature of interpersonal work relationships in general. We next summarize the eight articles comprising this Special Issue and examine how each tackles the three issues by either considering alternative theoretical frameworks, incorporating all
... On the other hand, Humphrey (2012) emphasizes the need to attend to an important, yet unaddressed question: whether leaders' emotional labor is detrimental or beneficial to the development of a work relationship? In reality, it is hard for leaders to continue using deep acting and genuine emotional labor tactics in order to regulate their negative and high arousal emotions. ...
... In reality, it is hard for leaders to continue using deep acting and genuine emotional labor tactics in order to regulate their negative and high arousal emotions. For instance, an exhausted leader may easily express negative emotions of anger and disappointment toward a subordinate because of behavioral issues (Humphrey, 2012). Using deep acting instead of surface acting tactics in this situation might negatively affect the leader's psychological well-being but, at the same time, lead to a more accurate follower perception of leader's emotional management. ...
The impetus for this special issue, which focuses on the role of affect in interpersonal work relationships, derives from recent concerns scholars have expressed about one model of interpersonal work relationships, namely, the leader–member exchange (LMX) perspective. In particular, scholars have noted that research on the role of affect in LMX is being impeded because of three factors: (1) limited theoretical frameworks, (2) insufficient research integrating both relationship parties, and (3) a scarcity of studies that adopt a multilevel perspective. In this introductory article, we begin by detailing our reasons for undertaking the special issue and discuss why the three factors hamper research on affect, not only in LMX, but in understanding the nature of interpersonal work relationships in general. We next summarize the eight articles comprising this special issue and examine how each tackles the three issues by either considering alternative theoretical frameworks, incorporating all relational parties, and/or by taking a multilevel approach. Finally, we discuss new perspectives and promising directions for future research endeavors on this topic. It is our intention that this special issue should stimulate further research to explore the dynamic role affect plays in shaping interpersonal work relationships at multiple levels of organizational analysis.
... Infatti, i membri di un gruppo di lavoro sono spesso esposti ad una varietà di eventi emozionalmente sfidanti: conflitti interpersonali, eventi imprevisti, intensi ritmi lavorativi, incidenti e così via (Humphrey, 2012). ...
... Occorre però precisare che la funzione di leadership ha un ruolo molto importante nella gestione delle emozioni del gruppo. Seguendo il contributo di Humphrey (2012), di fronte ad eventi carichi dal punto di vista emotivo (ad esempio, ostacoli, situazioni di ambiguità o incertezza), i leader diventano prontamente i modelli che i collaboratori osservano per poter apprendere e mettere in atto la risposta emozionale appropriata. Inoltre, il leader può attivamente e consapevolmente ricorrere al lavoro emotivo per manifestare l'emozione appropriata, contagiando i propri collaboratori e "allineandoli" su una risposta condivisa alla situazione. ...
... The research participants alluded to the necessity of leading through emotions. Leading through emotions refers to the ability of a leader to use his or her emotions to lead more authentically and effectively (Humphrey, 2012). Managing one's emotions is crucial for the participants. ...
Orientation: In the workplace, emotional labour is said to be disproportionately performed by women. Research also seems to suggest that women in leadership roles practise emotional labour.Research purpose: This study aimed to determine what work-related situations gave rise to experiences of emotional labour of women in leadership roles. Furthermore, to gain insight into the experiences of the emotional labour of women in leadership roles across industries within the South African context.Motivation for the study: Within the South African workplace context, little is known about the workplace situations that give rise to specific emotional labour experiences among women in leadership roles.Research approach/design and method: A qualitative approach was adopted, focusing on a phenomenological strategy, utilising the purposive and snowball sampling technique to acquire participants. Data saturation was reached at 12 participants and thematic analysis was utilised to analyse the raw data from the interviews.Main findings: Themes identified from the data were leading through emotions, suppressing emotions to get work done, demonstrating emotional intelligence, avoiding emotional stereotyping and navigating the work-home emotional spillover.Practical/managerial implications: Industrial psychologists are encouraged to create a culture where open conversations are encouraged and are a norm as a way for employees to engage constructively.Contribution/value-add: This study adds to the literature on situations that give rise to experiences of emotional labour for women in leadership positions in South Africa and has important implications for organisations and women in leadership.
... According to AASI, inauthenticity may give cues to an observer that the other party is hiding something, thereby creating doubt in the minds of the observers/judges. Inauthenticity in emotional expression has been found to be detrimental across a variety of different settings to a number of outcomes such as relationship formation, observer emotional state, interaction satisfaction, and observer trust (Butler et al., 2003;Gardner et al., 2009;Grandey et al., 2005;Hennig-Thurau et al., 2006;Humphrey, 2012; Authentic passion matters Van Dijk et al., 2011). Since emotional labor (both surface and/or deep acting) can lead to feelings of inauthenticity, and observers can perceive this inauthenticity, the authors believe that higher levels of emotional labor will negatively influence investor confidence, while lower levels of emotional labor will be perceived more positively, thereby leading to enhanced investor confidence in the presenter. ...
Purpose
Drawing from affect as social information (AASI) theory, this study examines how the relationship between perceived passion, quality of the presenter and investment intention is influenced by emotional labor engaged in by the presenter. This study clarifies and deepens the understanding of how passion influences entrepreneurial success by studying the role of emotional labor in the relationship between passion and investment decisions.
Design/methodology/approach
This study tested the moderated mediation effects between perceived presenter passion and investor intention to invest using data from 62 presenters' and 169 judges' responses from the 31 judges during a business plan (or “pitch”) competition.
Findings
Results confirmed a positive indirect effect of perceived passion on intention to invest, as mediated by the investor's evaluation of the quality of the presenter. Emotional labor moderated the relationship such that low levels of emotional labor engaged in by the presenters strengthened the mediated relationship between perceived passion, quality of the presenter and intention to invest.
Originality/value
The findings suggest that the authenticity of passion (as measured by the degree of emotional labor engaged in by the presenter) influences this dynamic, such that displays of passion that are perceived as being authentic are more likely to lead to an investment decision. Using AASI, this study conceptualized and tested quality of the presenter as an important intervening variable that can help explain the lack of coherent findings. The results supported this conceptualization, providing empirical evidence for the oft-quoted adage “invest in people, not ideas.”
... deep acting and surface acting (Hochschild 1983). Deep acting is an attempt to actually experience the emotion, which would lead to a more natural demonstration of the appropriate visible behavior (Humphrey 2012). Surface acting, on the other hand, is more about pretending than feeling, and is psychologically less demanding (Ashforth and Humphrey, 1993). ...
Sustainability has become a consideration for every firm operating in today’s business landscape. Scholars are tasked with uncovering bridges and barriers to successfully implement sustainability strategies, and the academic community has largely responded. However, while sustainability research has proliferated across business disciplines, it is conspicuously missing from professional selling and sales management. This is partly due to conceptual ambiguity, but also because sustainability generally involves firm-level policies and programs, and therefore domains like
consumer behavior, marketing strategy, and supply chain management have occupied the space.
This is problematic because while executives develop sustainability strategies, the sales force is
responsible for conveying those priorities to external stakeholders. Therefore, the goals of our manuscript are to: 1) organize and refine the definition of sustainability in a professional selling context, 2) review relevant literature that examines sustainability in that context, 3) explore emergent themes from this review that 4) reveal gaps in our understanding, and 5) present a research agenda for sales scholars to bridge these gaps and advance our understanding of the role of sustainability in sales and vice versa.
https://doi.org/10.1080/08853134.2023.2244675
... performance evaluations, patient/customer retention and myriad others). Individuals are commonly thought to perform emotional labor in two ways: surface acting, in which they display emotions they are not experiencing and are not attempting to feel while suppressing the display of felt emotions, and deep acting, in which they deliberately strive to summon the target emotion and then allow that felt emotion to guide outward expression (Hochschild, 1983;Humphrey, 2012). ...
Purpose
This paper aims to investigate the relationship between emotional labor and workplace violence based on the social exchange theory. Drawing on the social exchange theory, this paper aims to investigate the relationship between emotional labor and workplace violence. Specifically, the authors take a relational approach by introducing positive patient treatment as the mediator. The moderating role of organizational support in the relationship between emotional labor and workplace violence is also considered.
Design/methodology/approach
The data of this study encompasses 536 nurses from 10 university hospitals in Turkey. Hierarchical multiple regression analysis was conducted to test the proposed model.
Findings
The findings of this study support the negative effect of emotional labor on workplace violence and the mediating effect of patient-positive treatment. Moreover, when organizational support is low, the relationship between emotional labor and workplace violence is strong. In contrast, the effect is weak when organizational support is high.
Practical implications
The findings of this study suggest that health-care administrators should offer more training to nurses to help them manage their emotions while interacting with their patients. This leads to positive interpersonal relationships, which, in turn, lowers workplace violence. Moreover, health-care administrators should pay more attention to the buffering role of perceived organizational support for those subordinates with low emotional labor and higher workplace violence.
Originality/value
The study provides new insights into emotional labor’s influence on workplace violence and the moderating role of organizational support in the link between emotional labor and workplace violence. The paper also offers practical assistance to nurses in the health-care industry interested in building positive patient treatment and trust with their patients and minimizing workplace violence.
... that signals a way out of a crisis and a demeanor that exudes calmness and confidence in their leadership ability to respond to a crisis. On the other hand, leaders expressing genuine emotions that are nonconforming to societal expectations may be seen as authentic, despite garnering unfavorable impressions (Humphrey, 2012). This challenges leaders to deliver emotions that are appropriate and authentic to cultivate favorable follower impressions, and subsequently, trust (Burke et al., 2007;Gardner et al., 2009). ...
... Similarly, at the end of the third decade scholars had started to ask whether leaders and managers use emotion regulation with subordinates (e.g., Fisk & Friesen, 2012;Gardner et al., 2009;Humphrey, 2012). In the current decade, this work became more nuanced. ...
The past four decades of scholarship on emotional labor—the regulation of feelings and expressions performed to fulfill interpersonal work role expectations—has transformed our understanding of the purpose and outcomes of managing emotions at work. In last decade's comprehensive review by Grandey and Gabriel (2015), emotional labor research was described as stalled, with a need for detours around roadblocks related to three areas: (1) conceptualization and measurement of emotional labor; (2) more attention to the why and when emotional labor occurs; and (3) a wider set of performance and well‐being criteria. In our focused review of the most recent decade, we highlight how scholars navigated around the roadblocks, pointing out the remaining speedbumps and calling attention to the ways that research in Personnel Psychology contributed to these new directions. We conclude with a map pointing scholars toward the intersection of emotional labor with three grand challenges for the future of work: employee mental health, diversity and inclusion, and remote/virtual work and novel work arrangements—three topics that are needed extensions of where emotional labor scholarship has previously been. As such, our review builds an open road for the acceleration of emotional labor scholarship. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
... These meta-analyses show promising benefits of EI for individuals and organizations. Although the relationship between EI and leadership has been questioned (Antonakis, 2003(Antonakis, , 2004Locke, 2005), there are practical (Goleman, 1995(Goleman, , 1998 and theoretical (Zaccaro et al., 1991(Zaccaro et al., , 2018 arguments for its importance to leadership (Ashkanasy & Humphrey, 2011;Ashkanasy et al., 2017;Humphrey, 2002Humphrey, , 2012. ...
We build on the adaptive leadership framework to include reasoning (i.e., a cognitive ability) and emotional intelligence (EI) (i.e., social ability) factors in predicting potential leader adaptability. We incorporate adaptive and situational leadership theories along with trait process models to examine two types of reasoning abilities, inductive and deductive along with the direct and moderating effect of EI on potential leader adaptability. Using a three wave panel design, we found that inductive reasoning and EI predicted adaptive leadership; we further showed that EI moderated the inductive-adaptive leadership relationship where higher levels of EI and inductive reasoning abilities predicted potential leader adaptability. We discuss the implications of the study findings to theory and practice while offering directions for future research.
... Descriptive statistics were computed with IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, version 25 (IBM Corp., 2017). The hypotheses were tested using Mplus, version 7.2 (Muthén & Muthén, 1998-2012. Descriptive statistics are presented in Table 1. ...
Experiential avoidance is defined as a process involving excessive negative evaluations of difficult or unwanted feelings, thoughts, and sensations, an unwillingness to remain in contact with and express these experiences, and habitual attempts to avoid or control them. Experiential avoidance is closely associated with maladaptive functioning. Although the ability to connect with internal experiences has been considered an important element of effective leadership, this assumption has not yet been empirically tested. On the basis of the Acceptance and Commitment Therapy model of experiential avoidance and the propositions of leadership models (e.g., transformational and authentic leadership) that characterize leadership as an emotion-related process, we examined the relationship between leaders’ experiential avoidance and their followers’ well-being in a sample of leader-follower triads. Well-being outcomes were subjective happiness, purpose in life, and job satisfaction. We also tested the mediating roles of followers’ basic psychological need satisfaction and need frustration in this relationship. Multilevel mediation model analyses suggested that followers’ psychological need frustration but not need satisfaction mediated the relationship between leaders’ experiential avoidance and followers’ well-being outcomes. Thus, a rigid attitude toward one’s internal experiences as a leader is a risk factor for followers’ well-being because leaders with such attitudes may pay little attention to their followers and give rise to need frustration in their followers. Organizational efforts to increase leaders’ flexibility in dealing with negative experiences can help foster well-being among both leaders and their followers.
... Without adequate research on leaders' emotion regulation in the particular context of workplace transgressions, its impact on employees remains undetermined. Situations where employees, particularly in service occupations, are required to display emotions that differ from the emotions they may actually feel (Hochschild, 2012) • Given the nature of service work, employees must become skilled at projecting one emotion while feeling another (Hochschild, 2012) • Displays of positive emotion by service clerks result in higher service ratings (Pugh, 2001) • Emotional matching, or contagion, important in customer retention and service settings (Verbeke, 1997) • Emotional labor is strongly related to job stress and distress (Pugliesi, 1999) • On some occasions, leaders use emotional labor to regulate their emotions and manage followers (Humphrey, 2012) • Emotional labor is strongly related with job dissatisfaction (Lee & Chelladurai, 2018) • Faked displays of emotion on behalf of leaders result in emotional exhaustion via emotional labor (Lee et al., 2021) • Emotion work increases psychological depletion, such that employees are committed more out of fear or obligation than intrinsic motivation at more severe rates (Akanji et al., 2015) Emotional intelligence (EI) ...
In the current U.S. socio-political climate, leaders are expected to be adept at confronting prejudice and stepping up as allies for marginalized groups. Leaders' emotions and social considerations can be critical in motivating or hindering allyship enactment. To explore this nascent area, this chapter offers a selective review of the research on emotion management in organizations and the role of emotions in leader-employee relationships, particularly when leaders serve as allies to marginalized group employees. Next, qualitative findings are presented from a secondary data analysis of an interview study conducted with exceptional leader-allies that explore: 1) negative emotions experienced by leader-allies in a prejudice context, 2) leader-allies' self-presentation concerns when expressing emotions in public versus private, 3) leader-allies' relational concerns about the consequences of confrontation, and 4) their plans for future emotion regulation. Finally, implications of the role of emotion and social regulation among leader-allies in prejudice confrontation are discussed.
... By focusing on these issues, this study makes three major contributions. First, the literature on emotion regulation in interactions between leaders and employees has generally focused on leaders' management of their own emotional experiences and expressions in interactions with employees and the impact of leaders' emotion regulation on employees (see, e.g., Ashkanasy & Humphrey, 2011;Côté et al., 2013;Haver et al., 2013;Humphrey, 2012;Humphrey et al., 2015). Although the aforementioned research is invaluable with respect to the emotional nature of leading others (Humphrey et al., 2016), much less is known about employees' emotion regulation in interactions with leaders. ...
Due to its influence on important workplace outcomes, surface acting has drawn increasing attention from researchers in recent years. Most of the research in this area has focused on employees’ interactions with individuals external to the organization, such as customers and clients. With the current study, we contribute to and extend the literature by focusing on employees’ leader-directed surface acting and examining how leader-directed surface acting (i.e., faking positive emotions and suppressing negative emotions in interactions with one’s leader) relates to leader ratings of employee task performance. Data collected from 414 employees and 103 leaders showed that employees’ faking positive emotions in interactions with leaders was positively associated with employee withdrawal, but withdrawal was not significantly related to leader-rated task performance. In addition, male employees’ suppressing negative emotions in interactions with leaders was positively associated with leaders’ communication satisfaction, which was, in turn, positively related to leader-rated task performance. Yet, similar effects were not found for female employees. Theoretical and practical study implications are discussed.
... Leaders are generally responsible for resource allocation and performance evaluation [27], and they play an important role in followers' work-related experiences [28]. According to Arnold et al. [29] and Humphrey [30], leaders and followers routinely regulate their emotions, and we anticipate numerous instances in which followers must manage their feelings toward leaders as a result of the leaders' influence on them . ...
Employees’ emotional exhaustion caused by their leaders has significant consequences for both individuals and organizations. Identifying the roles of intra-organizational emotional labor is important to prevent employees’ emotional exhaustion. This study examined the relationships between ethical leadership, followers’ emotional labor toward leaders, and emotional exhaustion using Hobfoll’s conservation of resources theory. Data collected from 259 employees working in South Korea were analyzed using regression and SEM. The results indicate that ethical leadership was negatively related to followers’ emotional exhaustion. It is demonstrated that ethical leadership has a significant indirect relationship with followers’ emotional exhaustion through three types of emotional labor strategies; genuine display, faked display, and suppressed display. Through genuine display and suppressed display, ethical leadership had an indirect and negative relationship with followers’ emotional exhaustion, whereas ethical leadership and followers’ emotional exhaustion showed a positive indirect relationship through faked display. We discuss the implications and limitations of this research and future research directions.
... Leaders' ability to manoeuvre efficiently between numerous roles and deal with complex relationships is important and requires regulating emotions wisely (Ashkanasy & Humphrey, 2011;Humphrey, 2012). Specifically, this is the case in work environments (such as the hospitality industry) where there are increased expectations from different stakeholders to meet evergrowing and changing demands (Crick & Spencer, 2011;Tourish, 2020). ...
Maintaining good mental well-being is important for leaders, but little attention has been given to how leaders facilitate their own well-being or how leaders evaluate emotions associated with certain events (cognitive reappraisal). This study investigates how mental well-being might influence the relationship between Emotional Intelligence (EI) and cognitive reappraisal in leaders and whether this relationship differs by gender. Data from 246 hotel managers in Sweden were collected, with a response rate of 69%. Our findings show that the four EI dimensions play a significant role in cognitive reappraisal, including Self-Emotion Appraisal, a core dimension of EI. The analyses showed that the effect of mental well-being on the relationship between two of the EI dimensions and cognitive reappraisal differed significantly by gender. We recommend the use of tailored training programs such as simulation-based training with real life cases. This type of training can support leaders in using broader strategies to regulate emotions, as well as helping them become more mindful about the consequences of their own and others’ choice of emotion regulation. Copyright: © 2021 The Author(s). This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC-BY 4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. See http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
... Deep acting refers to a leader displaying a more natural and genuine affect, while surface acting means the leader is concealing the true affect and expressing a fake Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org affect (Humphrey et al., 2008;Humphrey, 2012;Grandey et al., 2013). Therefore, if a member perceives the leader's positive affective display as deep acting, it will be considered affective support for the members and used as a social resource to build motivation and accomplish tasks (Gardner et al., 2009;Fisk and Friesen, 2012). ...
Although researchers have argued that a leader’s positive affective display effectively induces work motivation among members, it has not always resulted in desirable outcomes. This research addresses these critical issues and explains why individuals react differently, by considering the three-way interaction of the characteristics of expression, the positive affect of the members, and quality of leader-member exchange (LMX). To verify our hypotheses, 698days from 47 leaders and 146 members were collected through the Experience Sampling Method. The analysis was conducted using HLM, and the results showed that, for members with high quality LMX, the positive effect of perceived deep acting on work engagement was strengthened when positive affect was high, and the negative effect of perceived surface acting was weakened when positive affect was high. On the other hand, members with low-quality LMX showed a stronger positive effect of perceived deep acting on work engagement when positive affect was high, and the negative effect of perceived deep acting was mitigated when positive affect was low. These results demonstrate that quality of LMX serves as a context of the affective display between leaders and members, and the effect of displaying positive affect relies on members’ perception of the characteristics of the expression and the affective state.
... However, despite its direct effect, Trait EI has no significant influence on the affect-LMX slopes. The extant EI literature either addresses LMX as an antecedent (e.g., Clarke & Mahadi, 2011) or focuses on the leader's EI (e.g., Humphrey, 2012). Therefore, the current study's findings serve as a platform and a call for future research to enlighten the role of followers' EI on the affect-LMX association. ...
Background and purpose : Although the critical role of affect in the leader-member relationship has been widely accepted, few studies investigated the impact of within-person affect variations in daily leader-member exchange (LMX) or addressed potential cross-level and intra-individual moderators of this relationship. This study examines the effects of followers’ positive and negative affect on their daily LMX in public health care organizations. The moderator roles of emotional labor and trait emotional intelligence were also investigated.
Methodology : A multilevel research design was conducted where daily measures were nested in individuals. Seventy participants working in a government health organization operating in Istanbul responded to daily surveys for five consecutive workdays (350 day-level responses) and a general survey one week after the daily data collection period (70 person-level responses). Hypotheses were tested using Hierarchical Linear Modeling (HLM).
Results: Both positive affect and negative affect were positively related with LMX (day-level), but negative affect had a negative association with LMX on the inter-personal level (when daily scores were averaged across days). Although trait emotional intelligence showed a positive cross-level effect, none of the proposed moderations was significant.
Conclusion: The role of affect in LMX development is critical and has a complex structure. Findings emphasize the importance of multilevel research for understanding the affect-LMX relationship as they demonstrate different pictures in day-level and person-level analysis.
... This "acting" is done to regulate the emotional cues of c/s/x/m so they model a desirable leadership image; whilst upholding an image of (neuro)prototypicality. Nevertheless, surface acting and portraying inauthentic, superficial emotions could be performed to the detriment of the mad leader's health because of the immense "emotional dissonance" and shame experienced (Humphrey, 2012). Surface acting depletes one's ability to take on self-regulation (Wagner et al., 2014). ...
A Mad Studies/social model of mental distress lens was used to critique authentic leadership. We deconstructed the dilemma of authenticity and leadership by exploring how authentic leadership (dis)allows the inclusion of people with mental illness. We found that their minds are treated as disruptive and rarely ever read as authentic. For followers to view “mentally ill” leaders as authentic requires candidness, disability disclosure, and emulating norms typical to their ingroup membership. We conclude this paper by challenging HRD to rethink its stance on disruptive leadership as symptomatic of mental illness. Employees with mental health marginality can develop an authentic identity in the workplace through authenticity building experiences such as connecting mad leaders to peer-support training, offering specialized leadership development, and co-producing a mental health awareness curriculum that challenges unhealthy workplace discourses that stigmatize mad leaders and workers.
... However, the ways leaders use emotions to enact change is relatively underexplored. Humphrey (2012) noted that researchers have extensively examined the emotional labor of service workers, but not leaders' emotional regulation or use of emotions to boost morale and performance. Literature regarding the emotions of leaders specific to how leaders utilize self-awareness, emotional regulation, and emotional impact on followers is important to examine how a leader employs emotions as meaning-making mechanism during a period of organizational change. ...
Emotions influence the cognition, motivation, and behavior of an individual. However, the role of leaders’ emotions in navigating organizational change remains relatively underexplored. This study examines the role of emotions in educational leadership during a period of organizational crisis through a case study analysis of an assistant superintendent who successfully used emotional awareness to confront challenges and facilitate positive change. The findings, which reveal the effective use of emotional responses to promote positive organizational change, provide guidance for educational leadership preparatory programs which must cultivate future leaders’ emotional regulation skills. This study addresses a notable gap in the literature by examining a leader’s effective employment of self-awareness, emotional management, and emotional impact for meaning-making in order to navigate organizational change.
... Por exemplo, para inspirarem a equipa, podem expressar paixão por um objetivo de longo-prazo que, de facto, não perfilham. Em situações de crise ou dificuldades económico-financeiras, e perante obstáculos e riscos de fracasso, os líderes podem esconder dúvidas e hesitações, de modo a manterem os liderados focados e empenhados (Humphrey, 2012). Noutros momentos, podem esconder a paixão perseverante por um objetivo de longoprazo, por temerem que as mudanças necessárias para prosseguir esse objetivo suscitem resistências. ...
A garra (termo aqui traduzido de grit) tem sido encarada como crucial para o sucesso dos indivíduos e a eficácia dos líderes, embora alguns autores não sustentem essa tese. A investigação empírica é escassa e pouco conclusiva. Um possível caminho para melhor compreender este construto passa por considerar condições moderadoras. Aqui discutimos três dessas condições: (1) garra veiculada pelo líder versus garra autoatribuída; (2) humildade expressa pelo líder; (3) apoio social expresso pelo líder. O modelo concetual argumenta que o líder que veicula mais garra perante os liderados desenvolve o capital psicológico destes, mas esse efeito é mitigado, ou mesmo anulado, se o líder for desprovido de humildade e não facultar apoio social aos liderados. Distintamente, o líder estimula o capital psicológico dos liderados se, além de veicular garra, também expressar humildade e apoio social aos liderados.
... An emotionally intelligent volunteer has personal competence (how we manage ourselves) and social competence (how we manage relationships) skills. Leaders who manage their emotions effectively and address their followers concerns with greater proficiency, establish more caring interpersonal relations (Humphrey, 2012).It is important to note that an organization consists of human beings and when people are involved, emotions automatically come into play, and a church is no different.It would be unwise to assume that a church is all objective, no-emotion only performance kind of a packed room where hormones have no scope to creep in. However, the fact is that emotions alone are the biggest motivator or de-motivator of a worker. ...
Volunteer leaders’ competence is emerging as one of the changes that both profit and non-profit organizations have to accommodate especially as more people look for opportunities to serve, learn, gain new organization experiences and derive personal fulfillment. The success or failure of any profit or non-profit organization largely depends on the efficiency of its human capital. Most non-profit organizations including churches depend on volunteer workers to take the position of leadership and management because of their limited resources. In this regard, this research aimed at assessing the influence of volunteer leader’s competence on church performance. The study sought to determine the influence of volunteer leaders’ commitment, emotional intelligence, personal attributes and leadership styles on church performance. The general objective of this study was to access the influence of volunteer leaders’ competence on church performance: evidence from the Presbyterian Church of East Africa Nakuru East Presbytery, Kenya and was
anchored on the Social Exchange Theory of Volunteerism and the Contingency Theory of Leadership that try to show how church performance relates to volunteer leaders’ competence. This study adopted a descriptive survey research design and the design was deemed appropriate to the study because the research was seeking to establish a cause-effect relationship between volunteer leaders’ competence and church performance. The
target population of the study was 750 church leaders composed of 288 Church Elders and 462 Group Leaders. Nassiuma formula was used to obtain a sample size of 88 respondents after which Neyman allocation formula was used to proportionally allocate the sample size across the categories of the respondents giving a sample size of 33 elders and 55 group leaders. Volunteer leaders in all the eleven parishes were randomly selected. Primary data was collected using a questionnaire which was pretested to
ensure content validity and also reliability at the recommended Cronbach alpha of 0.7. Collected data was analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistics with the help of the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS). Multiple linear regression was used to determine the relative effectives of the volunteer leaders’ competence on church performance. Findings were presented in graphs and tables. The study revealed significant influence of volunteer leaders’ commitment(t=4.356, p=0.00), emotional intelligence (t=3.012, p=0.003), personal attributes (t=4.654, p=0.00) and leadership styles (t=4.654, p=0.00) on performance of PCEA Nakuru East Presbytery. The study concluded that volunteer leaders’ commitment, emotional intelligence, personal attributes and leadership styles contributed to a large extent to church performance. The researcher recommends that the church should acknowledge the great role volunteer leaders play and come up with strategies to motivate and inspire them so that they can continue volunteering and also increase their effectiveness and performance. The researcher further recommends that a study be undertaken on the strategies to enhance volunteer leaders’ competence to increase church performance.
The main purpose of this study is to investigate the moderating impact psychological capital (PsyCap) on the relationship between leaders' emotional labor strategies and workplace behavior-related outcomes. This research was conducted by collecting data from the Nurses of the Public health sector, Pakistan A self-monitored questionnaire survey was conducted and collected in 4-months from respondents. Almost 800 questionnaires were distributed to targeted respondents, 585 filled returned, 450 filled questionnaires were fit for analysis and adopted by applying a simple random sampling technique. The findings of the study revealed a positive relationship of surface acting (SA), deep level acting (DLA), and displaying genuine emotion (DGE) with organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). Likewise, the study also confirms the negative relationships of deep acting and DGE with counterproductive workplace behavior (CWB). In addition, the study findings also sanction the moderating effect of psychological capital on the relationships SA, DA, and DGE with OCB and DA and DGE with CWB. The implications of the study extensively focus on human resource practice, Nurses of the health sector of Pakistan. Theoretical opinion to the significant role of emotional labor strategies and workplace-behavior-related outcomes such as OCB and CWB underpinnings of Job-Resource Model and COR theory. The study employed a cross-sectional correlational design, Caution should also be taken when generalizing the findings of the present study made use of Nurses as respondents from the public health sector of Punjab, Pakistan which is just a fraction. Furthermore, the study employed a quota and convenient sampling techniques 1 that affect the current study's generalizability. Nevertheless, this study is one of a mono quantitative methods kind and, therefore, opens the door for further studies on the in this context and future mixed method quantitative and qualitative longitudinal studies should also be conducted in other sectors. The existing literature is comparatively quiet. This is an emerging study in the area on the relationship between different types of emotional labor strategies and workplace behavior-related outcomes under the support of conservation resource theory and job-demand resource model in the Pakistani health sector setting.
With the effects of the ever-changing nature of socio-cultural and political sphere that we live in, the notion of work has gained much attention in a variety of fields of studies. The different concepts and expectations of and about work have influenced the way in which one conceives of the world of work. However, the concept of work in the field of ‘education’ is rather blurred in terms of what constitutes the contents of work. Hence, identifying what is meant by work for the educators, more specifically, work for special educators, has been recognised as vital to be explored. In this context, the main purpose of this study is to explore how the work is perceived by special educators and how they perform and manage emotional labour with regard to the work they engage in. This research uses a qualitative approach by adopting the case study method as the strategy of inquiry. One of the leading special education institutions in Sri Lanka was selected as the case site of the study. Data was generated via conducting semi structured interviews with ten (10) special educators in the said organisation. Besides, non-participant observations and photographs were incorporated to generate more rich data. The findings have revealed that there are different ways in which work is being perceived by the special educators. It comprises of economic, intrinsically motivated and obligatory orientations. In broader terms, most special educators perceive work as something meaningful while some of them perceive it as an unpleasant chore. Moving further, the study has found that special educators perform emotional work and emotional labour which involve positive and negative emotions in their day-to-day roles, and it is necessary to develop particular qualities that are needed to work with students with special needs. Ultimately, by incorporating the voice of the participants, the researcher has conceptualised work, as perceived by special educators, as the spine that structures the way they live through monetary terms, as how they make contact with social reality through comforting and inspiring others with no boundaries in space or time, as the way they believe as noble, as meaningful but with a sub-domain of unpleasant and as the way they achieve personal fulfilment and satisfaction. Accordingly, the findings of the research will assist policy makers to identify and execute different strategies to reduce the complexity and tediousness of the ‘work’ perceived by special educators and to enhance their emotional wellbeing while overcoming the negative outcomes of the emotions they experience in their jobs. It also provides many managerial implications for special educational institutions in managing the challenging work and powerful emotional demands. Keywords: Special Educators, Notion of Work, Emotional Labour
In this study, we examine how leaders' emotional labour strategies (surface acting and deep acting) deplete leaders' self-control resources to predict abusive supervision, in addition to the moderating role of leader mindfulness. Integrating ego-depletion theory and emotion regulation theory, we hypothesise that deep acting and surface acting predict higher levels of abusive supervision, which is mediated by reduced self-control. Furthermore, we predict that leaders' trait mindfulness moderates the relationship between emotional labour and self-control on abusive supervision. Results from a three-wave study of leader-follower dyads supported mediation hypotheses; both deep and surface acting predicted abusive supervision, which is mediated by reduced self-control. Our moderated mediation hypotheses were supported for deep acting but not surface acting. This research contributes to the literature by demonstrating the depleting nature of emotional labour in leadership and the importance of leader mindfulness as a boundary condition that can make deep acting less harmful for leader behaviour.
The COVID-19 epidemic has harmed staff performance and productivity in general. Organizational Citizenship Behavior is defined as an interpretation of employee performance that is necessary to contribute more to the operations and success of the business. As a result, understanding the variables influencing employees' organizational citizenship behaviour is critical to increasing organizational performance and achieving organizational goals. This paper is aim to investigate the relationship between dimensions of transformational leadership (TransL) and OCB in public universities of Pakistan. This study also aims to identify the mediating role of employee motivation between the relationship of TransL and OCB. According to this literature review paper, TransL qualities are linked to corporate citizenship behaviour, and this link is mediated by employee motivation. Intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation, on the other hand, have a direct beneficial relationship on organizational citizenship behaviour. This research in the second stage will be performed empirically, so that both theoretical and practical consequences can be presented, to give a complete framework for better understanding of the elements that influence workers' OCB.
Low morale studies verify the low-morale experience as one caused by repeated, long-term exposure to workplace abuse and neglect, and that the experience has negative and long-term mental health and physical health outcomes for impacted individuals. This qualitative study centers the low-morale experiences of leaders working in libraries of all types. Data confirm the development and outcomes of low morale, validate impact factors that perpetuate workplace abuse and neglect, and reveal impact factors that manifest in low-morale experiences faced by library employees with formal (organizationally conferred) administrative, managerial, or supervisory duties.
There is a dearth of research on leadership experiences in postgraduate medical education (PME). This work examined the lived experience and performance of a leader (director) in PME in a large London teaching hospital. The objective was to improve training and gain generalizable insights to assist others in PME leadership roles. Uniquely, the study followed a self-study (SS) paradigm, not used previously in healthcare education. There were three distinct research components. The first a continuous autoethnographic appraisal of the researcher’s leadership performance in PME. The second a collaborative action research (CAR) project with two Trust education leads (TELs) and the third a further CAR project that emerged during the first COVID-19 pandemic surge in 2020 and involved a sizeable and diverse group of hospital colleagues and trainees. In line with SS and CAR methodology, a variety of mainly qualitative tools were employed to generate data for iterative analysis and cyclical action. These included diaries, recorded and transcribed research meetings, action logs, recalled meetings and encounters, e-mails, some artefacts and frequent timed stream of consciousness writings (termed ‘free writing’ FW) that served to tap into subconscious thoughts related to the DME role. The findings revealed previously hidden gaps between the author’s aspirations and practice and evidenced the effect of changes enacted. Considerable tensions around operational pragmatism, control, relationships, acting as the conduit between education policy makers and those at the coalface, were evidenced and considered. Further, the emotional capital of PME leadership was exposed and critiqued. When faced with the COVID-19 crisis, lessons from the first CAR study enabled the enactment of a flat, collaborative, compassionate and effective leadership style purposefully harnessing trainee intellectual potential and ‘local’ knowledge to solve new and complex problems. This leadership strategy proved successful and impacted positively on many areas of hospital function during the crisis. Crucially, placing trust in younger colleagues was highly effective and valued by the trainees. The model has potential to transfer to other circumstances. The study identified four key interconnected themes: context, tensions and emotions, complex relationships, and self-actualization as a leader, as important in the evolution of the authors DME journey from dissatisfied struggling leader through to mobilizing collaborative actions to enacting a new leadership style during the COVID pandemic. After-action reflections make the case for reimagining the DME role and how the key themes could be used as a starting framework. The unique contribution of this study is the use and value of SS in medical education, the novel exploration of the lived experience of a DME and the demonstration that ‘collaborative’ leadership in PME was effective during crisis and non-crisis times. It exposes the invidious position DMEs, and trainees are placed in and concludes that increased trust and autonomy with decreased bureaucracy will enable better trainee experience and so could impact on retention.
Purpose:
Coronavirus (COVID) has had a massive impact on the health systems of many nations including Australia. Nurse leaders have, as part of their leadership and management roles, had to manage the emotional responses of the people around nurse leaders . The purpose of this study was to explore the experiences of nurse leaders who have held management roles during the health services crisis that has resulted from the COVID pandemic and to look at the emotional work nurse leaders have engaged in and the impact emotional work has had on nurse leaders' emotional well-being.
Design/methodology/approach:
The study adopted a social constructionist approach and employed unstructured interviews to generate data.
Findings:
The findings demonstrate that the nurse leaders were experiencing increased emotional exhaustion, which could be construed as a breach of psychological safety, as nurse leaders engaged in more surface acting. This has negatively impacted their lives outside of work. The study recommends that nurse leaders receive support through counselling and reflective practice activities. Consideration also should be given to renumerating nurse leaders appropriately for the emotional work nurse leaders perform.
Research limitations/implications:
The structural issues endemic in the industry need to be addressed. Human resource management professionals, senior managers and hospital boards are charged with ensuring that the organisations are safe and healthy workplaces. This includes addressing issues that impact psychological health. If nurse leaders must undertake work that impacts negatively on nurse leaders' mental well-being and personal lives, then appropriate safeguards need to be put in place. The scope of the study was small, as the study is limited by the number of interviewees, the number of study sites and the sites' geographical location. Consequently, limited claims are made about the generalisability of the findings or the findings' transferability to other contexts.
Practical implications:
The findings overwhelmingly support the contention that we need to support nurse leaders in the vital role they play through engaging in surface acting in the workplace. The role needs to be recognised and valued as a critical part of the nurse leader role. The contribution the role makes to the welfare of others in the organisation needs to be acknowledged. Given the emotional and personal price that nurse leaders play for surface acting, organisations need to provide genuine support in the form of counselling and the introduction of opportunities for reflective practice.
Social implications:
The study suggests that nurse leaders need to be paid for emotional labour (EL) generally and surface acting in particular. The recognition of the value of caring work must go beyond symbols such as the Year of the Nurse and be rewarded financially.
Originality/value:
The experience of nurse leaders using surface acting has received little attention and this is the first study to look at this particular phenomenon during COVID.
Emotional labor is an important but overlooked leadership function. In the present research, we draw from the self‐determination theory perspective and take a leader‐centric approach to examine how different leader emotional labor strategies affect leaders’ own creativity. Using data collected from 118 leaders and 352 team members at three time points, we found that leader surface acting harmed leader creativity by reducing fulfillment of leader autonomy, while leader deep acting boosted leader creativity by increasing fulfillment of leader autonomy. Neither did leader surface acting nor deep acting influence leader creativity through competence or relatedness fulfillment. We discuss the theoretical and practical implications of the present research.
Leadership and emotions : the power of emotional skills
This article aims to better understand the relationship between emotional competencies and adherence to the leader’s vision. In order to explore this dynamic, we mobilized Mikolajczak and his colleagues’ (2014) research on emotional competencies and George’s (2000) findings on leadership effectiveness. Thus, our questions will focus on the role of leaders’ emotional competencies in enhancing commitment and adherence to the leader’s vision. How do leaders’ emotional competencies contribute to better employee adherence ? To answer our research question, we used a qualitative methodology. To this end, we conducted 30 semi-structured interviews with business leaders. Our findings underline the major role of leaders’ emotional competencies not only in the process of building their vision, but also in its sharing and in the involvement of employees around it. These results also allowed us to identify ten key action levers for effective leadership as they help to ensure that employees adhere to the leader’s vision.
Numerous safety studies suggest that stress complacency related accidents in manufacturing industries continue to cause injuries or fatalities because of the absence of emotional resources for leaders, who are unable to prevent accidents when these conditions exist. Leaders of the manufactory industries may not have the appropriate emotional measures which are significant to recognize employees' underlying complacent behavior. The purpose of this quantitative correlational study was to evaluate the relationship between leaders' emotional intelligence resources and their ability to recognize stressful employees thus, prevent injuries and fatalities in the workplace. The research questions address key traits of emotional intelligence regarding emotional perceptions and control which are needed to make the leaders more effective at recognizing and responding to stress complacency related incidents. Specifically, this study includes a method of inquiry in the form of a survey designed to measure 140 leaders' emotional intelligence competencies in 3 Western Virginia food and beverage manufactories. Structural equation modeling was used to determine the multivariate relationships among leaders' skills and safety prevention. Leaders' emotional intelligence results indicated a negative effect on stress identification in either upper or middle leadership groups preventing them from exercising safe prevention error with their employees. Promoting leaders' emotional intelligence engagement may potentially contribute to social change helping the food and beverage organizations to protect their employees from getting hurt, promoting strong safety cultures, maintaining a positive impact on families and workers and thereby, increasing community resilience.
To date, most research on emotion and leadership in organizations has emphasized only one dimension of emotion, valence; and, only some research has mentioned the emotion dimension of arousal. An organizing framework for making sense of the effects of leader emotions vis‐à‐vis the direction in which those emotions are targeted, however, has yet to be developed. To address this shortcoming in the literature, we present a new theoretical framework to explore the impact of the target of leader emotion within leader‐member dyads – when the emotion is targeting either the follower or the leader themselves. We theorize that leader emotions have disparate effects on followers in high‐ and low‐quality leader‐member relationships, depending on whether the emotions are directed externally toward followers or self‐directed toward the leader. Together, the valence, arousal, and target of the leaders’ emotional expressions are signals that shape followers’ emotions, and in turn, the subsequent quality of their leader‐member exchange relationships.
This article examines the hotel managers' opinions and experiences with emotional labor. Relying on the phenomenological approach, the data collected via face-to-face interviews with hotel managers. The analysis provided six themes explicating the experiences of the managers. The findings indicate that the managers have developed techniques or certain behaviors that allowed them to face the negative consequences caused by emotional labor.
Understanding the attributes of effective military advisers is crucial when military operations are focussed on advising, training and accompanying foreign national security forces. The purpose of this research was to clearly categorize the behaviour that advisers identify as necessary and sufficient to broker effective positive relationships with their foreign counterparts. Positive relationships are an operational imperative to gain trust, build rapport and elicit task motivation. Failure to achieve a positive relationship can result in poor outcomes, task failure, and potentially a security threat to the adviser. Existing research provides evidence that emotional intelligence (EI) correlates with interpersonal effectiveness. Individuals with high emotional intelligence more effectively understand and evaluate their own behaviour in order to guide their decision-making and cope with environmental demands. They are better at regulating emotions, including inhibiting anger. They readily detect emotional reactions in others to help determine appropriate actions. This research extends extant emotional intelligence research to the military domain where the context differs in culture, daily demands, stress and risk level. In a concurrent mixed-methods approach, qualitative in-depth interviews with advisers who have deployed in Train-Advise-Assist roles in Afghanistan, Iraq and other Australian Defence Force missions formed an explanatory description of advising behaviours. Interviews with foreign counterparts who had been mentored by Australian Defence Force personnel supplemented the data from the perspective of an advisee. In addition to fifty participant interviews, advisers rated the importance of behaviours they considered desirable in military advisers for selection. The data were coded and examined using interpretative phenomenological analysis. Overall, participants who were advisers, supervisors and strategic commanders described EI attributes such as relationship-building, adaptability and self-awareness as essential for effective advising behaviour over and above non-EI attributes such as technical expertise. Moreover, foreign counterpart participants also rated EI attributes as indispensable. Furthermore, EI attributes were viewed as essential characteristics when recruiting advisers and were highlighted as beneficial skills and knowledge for training and professional education. These findings form the basis of recommendations for how current advising selection processes could be improved to identify personnel with optimal attributes for advisory roles or those which heavily depend on interpersonal relationships. Additionally, suggestions are provided for how training can be enhanced in a manner that could develop and augment adviser emotional intelligence. It is suggested that a better understanding of adviser's EI levels and the capability of training programmes to increase adviser EI may serve to produce military personnel who are better equipped to meet the future requirements of today's uncertain, dynamic and complex operating environment.
Z Çalışmada, Konya'da bir kamu hastanesinde hastalarla doğrudan iletişimde bulunulan birimlerde (dahili, cerrahi ve özel birimlerde) hizmet veren tıbbi sekreterlerin duygusal emek ve kişilerarası iletişim becerilerinin nitel olarak değerlendirilmesi amaçlanmıştır. Araştırma nitel veri toplama yöntemlerinden derinlemesine görüşme tekniği kullanılarak yürütülmüştür. Çalışmanın amacına uygun olarak araştırmacılar tarafından soru formu hazırlanmıştır. Katılımcılara kendilerini tanıtıcı bilgiler, duygusal emek davranışları ile ilgili görüşleri ve iletişim becerilerini içeren sorular yöneltilmiştir. Araştırmanın çalışma grubunu, kartopu örneklem yöntemi ile seçilen bir kamu hastanesinde hizmet veren 14 tıbbi sekreter oluşturmaktadır. Yapılan analizler sonucunda; katılımcıların duygusal emek gösterim sürecindeki davranış türlerinin zamana, duruma ve yerine göre değiştiği bulunmuştur. Ayrıca katılımcıların birçoğunun kişilerarası iletişimde dikkat edilmesi gerekenler hususunda bilgi sahibi oldukları ve çoğunlukla bu durumlara dikkat etmeye çalıştıkları, ancak zaman zaman şartlar neticesiyle uygulamakta zorlandıkları görülmektedir. ABSTRACT Aim of this study is to evaluate emotional labor and interpersonal communication skills of medical secretaries in their serving units (internal, surgical and private units) where considered to communicate directly with patients a public hospital in Konya. The research was conducted using in-depth interview techniques from qualitative data collection techniques. A questionnaire was prepared by the researchers in accordance with the purpose of the study. Participants were inquired questions that included self-introducing variables and their views about communication skills and emotional labor behaviors. The sample of the research consists of 14 medical secretaries serving at a public hospital selected by snowball sampling method. As a result, it was found that behavioral patterns of the participants in emotional labor display process had changed according to time,
Emotional labor is the display of expected emotions by service agents during service encounters. It is performed through surface acting, deep acting, or the expression of genuine emotion. Emotional labor may facilitate task effectiveness and self-expression, but it also may prime customer expectations that cannot be met and may trigger emotive dissonance and self-alienation. However, following social identity theory, we argue that some effects of emotional labor are moderated by one's social and personal identities and that emotional labor stimulates pressures for the person to identify with the service role. Research implications for the micro, meso, and macro levels of organizations are discussed.
Emotional labor is the display of expected emotions by service agents during service encounters. It is performed through surface acting, deep acting, or the expression of genuine emotion. Emotional labor may facilitate task effectiveness and self-expression, but it also may prime customer expectations that cannot be met and may trigger emotive dissonance and self-alienation. However, following social identity theory, we argue that some effects of emotional labor are moderated by one's social and personal identities and that emotional labor stimulates pressures for the person to identify with the service role. Research implications for the micro, meso, and macro levels of organizations are discussed.
Purpose
This paper seeks to argue that leaders perform emotional labor whenever they display emotions in an attempt to influence their subordinates' moods and motivations.
Design/methodology/approach
This is a conceptual paper that integrates the literature on leadership with the research on emotional labor.
Findings
This paper develops 15 propositions that distinguish emotional labor performed by leaders from that performed by front‐line service workers.
Research limitations/implications
The paper suggests that leading with emotional labor is a fruitful research topic, and that considerable research could be done in this area.
Practical implications
Instead of conducting business in a non‐emotional, “business‐like manner”, leaders would benefit by expressing their emotions in the workplace. Emotionally expressive leaders are more charismatic and are better motivators.
Originality/value
This is the first paper to develop a theoretical model that describes how leaders perform emotional labor; thus the propositions are original.
"In private life, we try to induce or suppress love, envy, and anger through deep acting or "emotion work," just as we manage our outer expressions of feeling through surface acting. In trying to bridge a gap between what we feel and what we "ought" to feel, we take guidance from "feeling rules" about what is owing to others in a given situation. Based on our private mutual understandings of feeling rules, we make a "gift exchange" of acts of emotion management. We bow to each other not simply from the waist, but from the heart. But what occurs when emotion work, feeling rules, and the gift of exchange are introduced into the public world of work? In search of the answer, Arlie Russell Hochschild closely examines two groups of public-contact workers: flight attendants and bill collectors. The flight attendant's job is to deliver a service and create further demand for it, to enhance the status of the customer and be "nicer than natural." The bill collector's job is to collect on the service, and if necessary, to deflate the status of the customer by being "nastier than natural." Between these extremes, roughly one-third of American men and one-half of American women hold jobs that call for substantial emotional labor. In many of these jobs, they are trained to accept feeling rules and techniques of emotion management that serve the company's commercial purpose. Just as we have seldom recognized or understood emotional labor, we have not appreciated its cost to those who do it for a living. Like a physical laborer who becomes estranged from what he or she makes, an emotional laborer, such as a flight attendant, can become estranged not only from her own expressions of feeling (her smile is not "her" smile), but also from what she actually feels (her managed friendliness). This estrangement, though a valuable defense against stress, is also an important occupational hazard, because it is through our feelings that we are connected with those around us. On the basis of this book, Hochschild was featured in Key Sociological Thinkers, edited by Rob Stones. This book was also the winner of the Charles Cooley Award in 1983, awarded by the American Sociological Association and received an honorable mention for the C. Wright Mills Award. © 1983, 2003, 2012 by The Regents of the University of California.
The study of character is a legitimate and essential topic for the analysis of leadership in organizations. We undertake three key objectives in this article to stimulate meaningful dialogue. First, a brief historical overview of the extant body of literature on character is provided. Second, working definitions of character and character-based leadership are introduced. Third, new directions for organizational scholars interested in examining the role of character-based leadership in both their research and teaching domains are suggested.
Building on the emotional labor and authentic leadership literatures, we advance a conceptual model of leader emotional displays. Three categories of leader emotional displays are identified: surface acting, deep acting and genuine emotions. The consistency of expressed leader emotions with affective display rules, together with the type of display chosen, combines to impact the leader's felt authenticity, the favorability of follower impressions, and the perceived authenticity of the leader by the followers. Emotional intelligence, self-monitoring ability, and political skill are proposed as individual differences that moderate leader emotional display responses to affective events. We also look at followers' trust in the leader and leader well-being as key outcomes. Finally, we explore the influence on leader emotional labor of contextual dimensions of the environment, including the omnibus (national and organizational culture, industry and occupation, organizational structure, time) and discrete (situational) context. Directions for future research are discussed.
Although it has often been presumed that jobs involving “people work” (e.g., nurses, service workers) are emotionally taxing (Maslach & Jackson, 1982), seldom is the emotional component of these jobs explicitly studied. The current study compared two perspectives of emotional labor as predictors of burnout beyond the effects of negative affectivity: job-focused emotional labor (work demands regarding emotion expression) and employee-focused emotional labor (regulation of feelings and emotional expression). Significant differences existed in the emotional demands reported by five occupational groupings. The use of surface-level emotional labor, or faking, predicted depersonalization beyond the work demands. Perceiving the demand to display positive emotions and using deep-level regulation were associated with a heightened sense of personal accomplishment, suggesting positive benefits to this aspect of work. These findings suggest new antecedents of employee burnout and clarify the emotional labor literature by comparing different conceptualizations of this concept.
This investigation had two purposes. The first was to determine whether the display of naturally felt emotions is distinct from surface acting and deep acting as a method of displaying organizationally desired emotions. The second purpose was to examine dispositional and situational antecedents of surface acting, deep acting, and the expression of naturally felt emotions. Results supported a three-dimensional structure separating deep acting, surface acting, and the expression of naturally felt emotions. In addition, the dispositional and situational variables exhibited theoretically consistent and distinct patterns of relationships with the three emotional labor strategies. Overall, the results of this study expand the nomological network of surface acting and deep acting and suggest that the expression of naturally felt emotions is a distinct strategy for displaying emotions at work and should be included in research on emotional labor.
A multi-level view of leadership and emotions: Leading with emotional labor Toward understanding emotional management at work: A quantitative review of emotional labor research Emotional labor and burnout: Comparing two perspectives of
- N M Ashkanasy
- R H Humphrey
- J E Bono
- M A Vey
Ashkanasy, N. M., & Humphrey, R. H. (2011). A multi-level view of leadership and emotions: Leading with emotional labor. In A. Bryman, D. Collinson, K. Grint, B. Jackson, & M. Uhl-Bien (Eds.), Sage handbook of leadership (pp. 363–377). London: Sage Publications. Bono, J. E., & Vey, M. A. (2005). Toward understanding emotional management at work: A quantitative review of emotional labor research. In C. E. J. Härtel, W. J. Zerbe, & N. M. Ashkanasy (Eds.), Emotions in organizational behavior (pp. 213–233). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Brotheridge, C. M., & Grandey, A. A. (2002). Emotional labor and burnout: Comparing two perspectives of " People Work ". Journal of Vocational Behavior, 60, 17–39.
- R H Humphrey
- Copyright
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R. H. HUMPHREY
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
J. Organiz. Behav. 33, 740–744 (2012)
DOI: 10.1002/job