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Biological Effects of Myristica fragrans

Authors:
  • Govt. Degree College Sukrauli, Kushinagar (U.P.), India

Abstract

Jaiswal P, Kumar P, Singh VK, Singh DK. Biological Effects of Myristica fragrans. Annu Rev Biomed Sci 2009;11:21-29. Myristica fragrans is an evergreen tree that produces two spices, nutmeg and mace. Its medicinal uses in the aurvedic system of treatment are based on traditional experience inherited from one generation to other. Scientists from various disciplines are now directing their research towards investigat-ing the effects of M. fragrans on human health. The chemical constituents of M. fragrans have been investigated for hypolipidaemic and hypocholesterolemic effects, antimicrobial, antidepressant, aphrodi-siac, memory enhancing, antioxidant and hepatoprotective properties. Recent studies have revealed strong insecticidal and molluscicidal activities of M. fragrans. Despite some laboratory studies on the insecti-cidal / molluscicidal activity of M. fragrans, more field studies are recommended for effective control of pests. It is clearly evident from the literature review that M. fragrans deserves more attention by scientific community and public health specialists to explore its full range of benefits in the welfare of the society.
Biological Effects of Myristica fragrans
Preetee Jaiswal, Pradeep Kumar, Vinay K Singh, Dinesh K Singh*
Department of Zoology, DDU Gorakhpur University, INDIA
Received: 03 August 2009; accepted 09 December 2009
Online on 20 December 2009
Abstract
Jaiswal P, Kumar P, Singh VK, Singh DK. Biological Effects of Myristica fragrans. Annu Rev Biomed Sci
2009;11:21-29. Myristica fragrans is an evergreen tree that produces two spices, nutmeg and mace. Its
medicinal uses in the aurvedic system of treatment are based on traditional experience inherited from one
generation to other. Scientists from various disciplines are now directing their research towards investigat-
ing the effects of M. fragrans on human health. The chemical constituents of M. fragrans have been
investigated for hypolipidaemic and hypocholesterolemic effects, antimicrobial, antidepressant, aphrodi-
siac, memory enhancing, antioxidant and hepatoprotective properties. Recent studies have revealed strong
insecticidal and molluscicidal activities of M. fragrans. Despite some laboratory studies on the insecti-
cidal / molluscicidal activity of M. fragrans, more field studies are recommended for effective control of
pests. It is clearly evident from the literature review that M. fragrans deserves more attention by scientific
community and public health specialists to explore its full range of benefits in the welfare of the society.
© by São Paulo State University – ISSN 1806-8774
Keywords: Myristica fragrans, nutmeg, mace, antimicrobial, antioxidant, pesticidal
Table of Contents
1. Introduction
1.1. Distribution
1.2. Pharmacologically active parts of the plant
2. Chemical Composition
3. Biological Effects
3.1. Antimicrobial activity
3.2. Hypolipidaemic and hypocholesterolemic effect
3.3. Antidepressant activity
3.4. Antidiabetic activity
3.5. Aphrodisiac activity
3.6. Cytotoxicity
*Correspondence
Dinesh K Singh. Reader, Department of Zoology, DDU Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur-273 009, UP, India.
E-mail: dksingh_gpu@yahoo.co.in
ARBS Annual Review of Biomedical Sciences
pdf freely available at http://arbs.biblioteca.unesp.br
2009;11:21-29
doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.5016/1806-8774.2009v11p21
22 http://arbs.biblioteca.unesp.br ARBS Annu Rev Biomed Sci 2009;11:21-29
3.7. Memory enhancing activity
3.8. Antioxidant activity
3.9. Hepatoprotective activity
3.10. Pesticidal activity
3.10.1. Insecticidal
3.10.2. Molluscicidal
3.11. Clinical effects
4. Conclusion
5. References
1. Introduction
Myristica fragrans Houtt., commonly known as Jaiphal and Javitri in India, belongs to the
family Myristicaceae. It produces two spices, nutmeg and mace. Nutmeg is the seed kernel inside the
fruit and mace is the fleshy red, net like skin covering (aril) on the kernel. It is a spreading aromatic
evergreen tree usually growing to 5 to 13 metres high, occasionally 20 metres. The pointed dark green
leaves are arranged alternately along the branches and are borne on leaf stems about 1 cm long. Upper
leaf surfaces are shiny. Flowers are usually single sexed; occasionally male and female flowers are
found on the same tree. Female flowers arise in groups of 1 to 3; males in groups of 1 to 10. Flowers are
pale yellow, waxy, fleshy and bell-shaped. The fruits are fleshy, drooping, yellow, smooth, 6 to 9 cm
long with a longitudinal ridge. When ripe, the succulent yellow fruit coat splits into 2 valves revealing
a purplish-brown, shiny seed (nutmeg) surrounded by a red aril (mace). Seeds (nutmegs) are broadly
ovoid (2 to 3 cm long), firm, fleshy, whitish and transversed by red-brown veins. When fresh, the aril
(mace) is bright scarlet becoming more horny, brittle and a yellowish-brown colour when dried
(Purseglove, 1968). The trees do not give flowers until around 9 years old, but once start flowering they
continue to do so for further 75 years. The trees bear 2 to 3 crops a year. The seeds (nutmegs) need 3
to 6 weeks to dry before they are ready for use.
1.1. Distribution
Indigenous to the Moluccas and Banda Islands in the South Pacific, it is seldom found truly
wild. It is now cultivated in tropical regions, especially in Indonesia, Grenada in the West Indies and
Sri Lanka (Purseglove, 1968; Bown, 1995).
1.2. Pharmacologically active parts of the plant
The most important part of the plant in terms of its pharmacological activity and also in
commerce, is of course the dried kernel (seed), the nutmeg. Intoxication from the use of the aril of the
fruit (seed case), generally known as mace, has also been reported, but only rarely. The oil of nutmeg
has also been used for medicinal purposes and it is this fraction of the nutmeg which contains the
pharmacologically active components. It is used as a spice in various dishes, as components of tea and
soft drinks or mixed in milk and alcohol. In traditional medicine nutmeg is sometimes used as a stomachic,
stimulant, carminative as well as for intestinal catarrh and colic, to stimulate appetite, to control flatulence
and it has a reputation as an emmenagogue and abortifacient (Nadkarni, 1988). Mace is widely used as
a flavouring agent, a hair dye and a folk medicine. It also possesses antipapillomagenic, anticarcinogenic
(Hussain & Rao, 1991) and anti-inflammatory activities (Ozaki et al., 1989).
2. Chemical Composition
The main constituents of M. fragrans have been found to be alkyl benzene derivatives (myristicin,
elemicin, safrole etc.), terpenes, alpha-pinene, beta-pinene, myristic acid and trimyristin (Qiu et al.,
2004; Wang et al., 2004; Forrester, 2005; Yang et al., 2008). Nutmeg contains about 10% essential oil,
which is mostly composed of terpene hydrocarbons (sabinene and pinenes; furthermore camphene, p-
cymene, phellandrene, terpinene, limonene, myrcene, together 60 to 80%), terpene derivatives (linalool,
Jaiswal P et al. - Biological Effects of Myristica fragrans 23
geraniol, terpineol, together 5 to 15%) and phenylpropanoids (myristicin, elemicin, safrole, eugenol
and eugenol derivatives, together 15 to 20%). Of the latter group, myristicin (methoxy-safrole, typically
4%) is responsible for the hallucinogenic effect of nutmeg. Oil of mace (up to 12% in the spice) contains
the same aroma components but the total fraction of terpenoids is increased to almost 90%. Both nutmeg
and mace contain about 2% of lignans (diarylpropanoids), which are non volatile dimers of
phenylpropanoid constituents of the essential oil, e.g. dehydrodiisoeugenol (Anonymous, 1995). The
main glycoside is trimyristin having anxiogenic activity (Sonavane et al., 2002).
3. Biological Effects
In India, spices have been traditionally used since ancient times, for the preservation of food
products as they have been reported to have antiseptic and disinfectant properties (De et al., 1999). In
the traditional Indian medical science of Ayurveda, nutmeg is said to possess antidiarrhoeal activity.
Both nutmeg and mace are used as condiment and in medicine (Nadkarni, 1988). Nutmeg is stimulant,
carminative, astringent and aphrodisiac; it is used in tonics and electuaries and forms a constituent of
preparations prescribed for dysentery, stomach ache, flatulence, nausea, vomiting, malaria, rheumatism,
sciatica and early stages of leprosy. Excessive doses have a narcotic effect; symptoms of delirium and
epileptic convulsions appear after 1-6 hours (Anonymous, 1995; Hang & Yang, 2007). It is widely
believed that myristicin is the major component responsible for intoxications (Hallstrom & Thuvander,
1997). Myristicin is toxic when ingested in large amounts, and it is liable to cause fatty degeneration of
the liver (Anonymous, 1995; Beyer et al., 2006). Lee et al. (2005) have reported that myristicin (1-
allyl-3,4-methylenedioxy-5-methoxybenzene), a naturally occurring allylbenzene found in nutmeg
induces cytotoxicity in human neuroblastoma SK-N-SH cells by an apoptotic mechanism. Trimyristin
shows anxiogenic activity (Sonavane et al., 2002). Trimyristin and myristicin isolated from M. fragrans
seeds exhibit good antibacterial activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria (Narasimhan
& Dhake, 2006).
Grover et al. (2002) have studied the pharmacological effects of nutmeg and found that the
extracts of nutmeg show a good antidiarrhoeal effect, with a significant sedative property. The extracts
also possess a weak analgesic effect, with no harmful effects on blood pressure and ECG. Jan et al.
(2005) have evaluated the effects of extract of M. fragrans and verapamil on the volume and acidity of
carbachol induced gastric secretion in fasting rabbits. It has been found that the extract from M. fragrans
which contains documented natural calcium channel blocker reduces the volume, free and total acidity
of gastric secretion. Verapamil also has the same effects. Thus, the effect of M. fragrans is similar to
verapamil and therefore it can be effectively used in the treatment of peptic ulcer and all other conditions
that require calcium channel blockers for the treatment of these disorders.
3.1. Antimicrobial activity
M. fragrans (nutmeg and mace) is known to exhibit strong antimicrobial activity against animal
and plant pathogens, food poisoning and spoilage bacteria including Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli,
Saccharomyces cerevisiae, multi-drug resistant Salmonella typhi and Helicobacter pylori (Orabi et al.,
1991; De et al., 1999; Dorman & Deans, 2000; Rani & Khullar, 2004; Mahady et al., 2005; O’Mahony
et al., 2005). Alcoholic extracts of nutmeg show anti-bacterial activity against Micrococcus pyogens
var. aureus (Anonymous, 1995). Essential oil of nutmeg caused a significant inhibition of growth and
survival of Yersinia enterocolitica and Listeria monocytogenes in broth culture and in Iranian barbecued
chicken (Firouzi et al., 2007).
Takikawa et al. (2002) have reported the antimicrobial activity of nutmeg (seeds of M. fragrans)
extract against Escherichia coli O157. When the E. coli strains are incubated with spice extract at
concentrations of 0.01% and 0.1%, a noteworthy difference has been observed between the O157 E.
coli and non-pathogenic E. coli strains to their tolerance to nutmeg. The populations of the non-pathogenic
strains can not be reduced, but those of the O157 strains are remarkably reduced. Antibacterial activity
of nutmeg extract was also found against the enteropathogenic E. coli O111, but not against
enterotoxigenic (O6 and O148) and enteroinvasive (O29 and O124) E. coli. When they have examined
24 http://arbs.biblioteca.unesp.br ARBS Annu Rev Biomed Sci 2009;11:21-29
the antibacterial effect of volatile oils of nutmeg on the O157 and non-pathogenic E. coli strains, all
O157 strains tested were found to be more sensitive to beta-pinene than non-pathogenic E. coli strains.
Aqueous extract of nutmeg has bactericidal activity against Helicobacter pylori (O’Mahony et al.,
2005). H. pylori infections are associated with the development of gastritis, dyspepsia, peptic ulcer
disease, gastric carcinoma and primary gastric B-cell lymphoma. Mahady et al. (2005) have studied the
in vitro susceptibility of 15 H. pylori strains to botanical extracts. It has been found that methanol
extract of M. fragrans (seed), having a MIC of 12.5 µg/ml against H. pylori strains, is highly effective
in the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders. Rani and Khullar (2004) have reported strong antibacterial
activity of methanol extract of M. fragrans against multi-drug resistant Salmonella typhi. Nutmeg has
potent antimicrobial activity against Bacillus subtilis (ATCC 6633), Escherichia coli (ATCC 10536)
and Saccharomyces cerevisiae (ATCC 9763) (De et al., 1999). The volatile oils of M. fragrans exhibit
considerable inhibitory effects against different genera of bacteria including animal and plant pathogens,
food poisoning and spoilage bacteria (Dorman & Deans, 2000). At 35°C, food-borne pathogen, Listeria
monocytogenes is extremely sensitive to the oil of nutmeg (Smith-Palmer et al., 1998). The two
antimicrobial resorcinols malabaricone B [1] and malabaricone C [2] isolated from mace have been
reported to exhibit strong antifungal and antibacterial activities (Orabi et al., 1991). Malabaricone C
isolated from M. fragrans (nutmeg) irreversibly inhibits Arg-gingipain by 50% at a concentration of 0.7
µg/ml and selectively suppressed Porphyromomas gingivalis growth (Shinohara et al., 1999). Macelignan
isolated from M. fragrans is a potent natural anti-biofilm agent against oral primary colonizers
Streptococcus sanguis and Actinomyces viscosus. These colonizers initially attached to the pellicle-
coated tooth surface to form a biofilm. Treatment with 10µg/ml of macelignan caused 30% reduction in
growth of these colonies within 5 minute (Yanti et al., 2008). Cho et al. (2007) have isolated three
lignans erythro-austrobailignan-6, meso-dihydroguaiaretic acid and nectandrin-B from M. fragrans seeds.
These lignans were effective against Alternaria alternata, Colletotrichum coccodes, C. gloeosporioides,
Magnaporthe grisea, Agrobacterium tumefaciens, Acidovorax konjaci and Burkholderia glumae in in
vivo and in vitro conditions.
Rotaviruses have been recognized as the major agents of diarrhoea in infants and young children
in developed as well as developing countries. Goncalves et al. (2005) have studied in vitro anti-rotavirus
activity of some medicinal plants used in Brazil against diarrhoea. It was found that the extracts from
M. fragrans seeds inhibited human rotavirus (90% inhibition) at concentration of 160 µg/ml. Thus M.
fragrans can be useful in the treatment of human diarrhea, if the etiologic agent is a rotavirus.
3.2. Hypolipidaemic and hypocholesterolemic effect
The ethanolic extract of M. fragrans (nutmeg) shows hypolipidaemic effect on experimentally
induced hyperlipidaemia in albino rabbits. Ram et al. (1996) have reported that an oral administration
of nutmeg extract at the dose of 500 mg/kg body weight to hyperlipidaemic albino rabbits for 60 days
significantly reduced the lipoprotein lipids level. Sharma et al. (1995) have reported that administration
of M. fragrans seed extract to hypercholesterolemic rabbits reduced serum cholesterol and LDL
cholesterol by 69.1 and 76.3%, respectively and also lowered cholesterol/phospholipid ratio by 31.2%
and elevated the decreased HDL-ratio significantly. It is also known to prevent the accumulation of
cholesterol, phospholipids and triglycerides in liver, heart and aorta and dissolves atheromatous plaques
of aorta by 70.9-76.5%. Removal of cholesterol and phospholipids in fecal matter is significantly increased
in rabbits fed with seed extract of M. fragrans.
3.3. Antidepressant activity
Dhingra and Sharma (2006) determined the antidepressant activity of n-hexane extract of M.
fragrans seeds in mice using the forced swim test (FST) and the tail suspension test (TST) at three dose
level 5, 10, and 20 mg/kg body weight. The 10 mg/kg dose was found to be most potent, as indicated by
the highest decrease in the immobility period compared with the control. Furthermore, this dose of the
extract was found to have comparable potency to imipramine (15 mg/kg) and fluoxetine (20 mg/kg).
Thus, the extract of M. fragrans is capable to elicit a significant antidepressant-like effect in mice,
when assessed by both TST and FST. The antidepressant-like effect of the extract seems to be mediated
by interaction with the adrenergic, dopaminergic and serotonergic systems.
Jaiswal P et al. - Biological Effects of Myristica fragrans 25
3.4. Antidiabetic activity
Macelignan is a natural compound isolated from M. fragrans. It enhanced the insulin sensitivity
and improved lipid metabolic disorders by activating peroxisome proliferator receptor (PPAR, á) and
attenuating endoplasmic reticulum stress, suggesting that it is an antidiabetic agent for the treatment of
type 2 diabetes (Han et al., 2008).
3.5. Aphrodisiac activity
In Unani medicine, M. fragrans (nutmeg) has been mentioned to be of value in the management
of male sexual disorders. In an experimental study, Tajuddin et al. (2005) have found that the oral
administration of 50% ethanolic extract of nutmeg at 500 mg/kg body weight produces a significant and
sustained increase in the sexual activity of normal male rats without any conspicuous adverse effects,
which might be attributed to its nerve stimulating property.
3.6. Cytotoxicity
Lee et al. (2005) have reported that myristicin (1-allyl-3,4-methylenedioxy-5-methoxybenzene),
a naturally occurring alkyl benzene derivative found in nutmeg induces cytotoxicity in human
neuroblastoma SK-N-SH cells by an apoptotic mechanism. It was observed that a dose-dependent
reduction in cell viability occurred at myristicin concentration > or =0.5 mM in SK-N-SH cells. The
apoptosis triggered by myristicin was accompanied by an accumulation of cytochrome-c and by the
activation of caspase-3. Chirathaworn et al. (2007) observed that the methanolic extract of M. fragrans,
even 10 µg/ml, induces apoptosis of Jurkat leukemia T cell line through SIRT1 mRNA down regulation.
3.7. Memory enhancing activity
Parle et al. (2004) have investigated the effect of M. fragrans seeds on learning capabilities and
memory level in mice. The learning and memory parameters were assessed using elevated plus-maze
and passive-avoidance apparatus. Administration of the n-hexane extract of M. fragrans at the lowest
dose of 5 mg/kg body weight for 3 successive days significantly improved the learning and memory
level of young and aged mice. The extract also reversed scopolamine and diazepam-induced impairment
in learning and memory of young mice. The observed memory enhancing effect of M. fragrans may be
attributed to a variety of properties (individually or in combination) such as antioxidant, anti-
inflammatory, or perhaps procholinergic activity.
3.8. Antioxidant activity
Murcia et al. (2004) have evaluated the antioxidant properties of some spices and compared
with those of the common food antioxidants butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) (E-320), butylated
hydroxytoluene (BHT) (E-321) and propyl gallate (E-310). Nutmeg, anise and licorice showed the
strongest protection in the deoxyribose assay. Nutmeg, propyl gallate, ginger and licorice improved the
stability of oils (sunflower, corn, and olive) and fats (butter and margarine) against oxidation (110°C).
When the Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC) assay was used to provide a ranking order of
antioxidant activity, the antioxidant capacity of nutmeg was found to be higher than BHT. Murcia et al.
(2004) reported that phenylpropanoid compound extracts from nutmeg possessed antioxidant activity.
Recently Checker et al. (2008) observed that lignans present in aqueous extract of fresh nutmeg mace
possess antioxidant, radioprotective and immunomodulatory effects in mammalian cells. High antioxidant
activity has been reported in monoterpenoid rich extracts such as terpinene-4-ol, alpha-terpineol and 4-
allyl-2,6-dimethoxyphenol in nutmeg seed (Maeda et al., 2008).
Yadav and Bhatnagar (2007) reported that aril part of M. fragrans have significant antioxidant
activity due to its ability to inhibit lipid peroxidation and superoxide radical scavenging activity in rat.
Pretreatment with M. fragrans effectively protects the mice against radiation-induced biochemical
alterations as evident by decrease in lipid peroxidation level and acid phosphatase activity and
simultaneous increase in hepatic glutathione and alkaline phosphatase activity (Sharma & Kumar, 2007).
26 http://arbs.biblioteca.unesp.br ARBS Annu Rev Biomed Sci 2009;11:21-29
3.9. Hepatoprotective activity
Morita et al. (2003) have reported that myristicin from M. fragrans (nutmeg) possessed most
potent hepatoprotective activity to rats with liver damage induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) plus
D-galactosamine (D-GalN). It was also found that myristicin markedly suppressed LPS/D-GalN-induced
enhancement of serum TNF-alpha concentrations and hepatic DNA fragmentation in mice. These
findings suggest that the hepatoprotective activity of myristicin may be, at least in part, due to the
inhibition of TNF-alpha release from macrophages. Sohn et al. (2008) observed that the hepatoprotective
effects of macelignan, isolated from M. fragrans is related to activation of the mitogen activated
protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway, especially JNK and c-Jun.
3.10. Pesticidal activity
3.10.1. Insecticidal
Jung et al. (2007) have reported the insecticidal properties of M. fragrans seed compounds
against adult females of Blattella germanica (Dictyoptera: Blattellidae). Myristicin present in the kernel
may be employed as an additive to pyrethrum to enhance the toxicity of the latter to houseflies, although
myristicin itself is inactive (Anonymous, 1995). The aqueous decoctions of M. fragrans have been
found to be toxic to cockroaches (Anonymous, 1995). Essential oil of M. fragrans has insecticidal
activity against larvae of Lycoriella ingenua (Park et al., 2008) and Callosobruchus chinensis (Chaubey,
2008).
3.10.2. Molluscicidal
Jaiswal and Singh (2009) reported that M. fragrans seed and aril i.e., nutmeg and mace are
potential source of botanical molluscicides against Lymnaea acuminata. These snails are the intermediate
host of liver fluke Fasciola hepatica and F. gigantica, which causes 94% fascioliasis in the buffalo’s
population of northern India (Singh & Agarwal, 1981; Singh & Agarwal, 1983). The active molluscicidal
components of nutmeg and mace are soluble in chloroform, acetone and ethanol but the molluscicidal
components in nutmeg are insoluble in carbon tetrachloride and ether. Usually toxicity of mace powder
against L. acuminata is higher than that of nutmeg powder. Jaiswal and Singh (2009) characterized that
trimyristin and myristicin are the main molluscicidal components of nutmeg and mace. The toxicity of
myristicin was found to be 43.81 times higher than trimyristin after 96h.
LC50 (96h) of column purified fraction of nutmeg (3.98 mg/l) and mace (2.77 mg/l) against L.
acuminata are lower than the LC50 (96h) values of synthetic molluscicides- carbaryl (4.40 mg/l), phorate
(15.0 mg/l), formothion (8.56 mg/l) (Singh & Agarwal, 1983) and aldicarb (11.50 mg/l) (Singh & Agarwal,
1981). 96h LC50 of crude powder of nutmeg (36.95 mg/l) and mace (28.61 mg/l) against L. acuminata
are lower than the crude powder of common spices, Allium sativum bulb (271.06 mg/l), Zingiber officinale
rhizome (273.80 mg/l), Trachyspermum ammi (97.59 mg/l), Allium cepa bulb (253.27 mg/l),
Cinnamomum tamala leaf (830.90 mg/l), Ferula asafoetida dried latex powder (82.71 mg/l) and Syzygium
aromaticum flower bud (51.98 mg/l) (Singh & Singh, 1995; Singh et al., 1997; Srivastava & Singh,
2005; Kumar & Singh, 2006).
Dhingra et al. (2006) demonstrated that the n-hexane extract of the seeds of M. fragrans
significantly inhibited AChE activity in brain of Swiss albino mice. Mukherjee et al. (2007) reported
that in in vitro hydroalcoholic extracts of M. fragrans inhibited 50% of AChE activity at concentration
of 100-150 µg/ml using AChE obtained from bovine erythrocytes. Jaiswal et al. (2009) demonstrated
that in vivo treatment of snail with sublethal concentrations (40% and 80% of 24h and 96h LC50) of
trimyristin and myristicin caused significant (P < 0.05) inhibition in AChE (acetylcholinesterase), ACP
(acid phosphatase) and ALP (alkaline phosphatase) activity in the nervous tissue of Lymnaea acuminata.
Inhibition of these enzymes by trimyristin and myristicin in the nervous tissue of L. acuminata is the
major cause of the molluscicidal activity of Myristica fragrans.
3.11. Clinical effects
In human, nutmeg intoxication resembles to intoxication due to excessive intake of
anticholinergic agents, e.g. profuse sweating, flushed face, delirium, dry throat etc. There is always an
Jaiswal P et al. - Biological Effects of Myristica fragrans 27
altered state of mind, e.g. hallucinations, confusion and an impending sense of doom. Clinical symptoms
may be contradictory depending on the length of time lapsed after ingesting the toxin. Symptoms also
vary according to the dose taken and the variability between different samples of nutmegs.
4. Conclusion
Information from extensive literature review indicates that M. fragrans has a broad spectrum of
pharmacological effects. A single spice has the potential of curing a large number of diseases. Nutmeg
and mace produced from M. fragrans are very effective against various animal and plant bacteria, fungi
and harmful viruses, insects and snails. The antidepressant, aphrodisiac, antioxidant and hepatoprotective
activities of M. fragrans are well accepted because of the wealth of scientific literature supporting these
effects. Instead of several tests on rats / rabbits, M. fragrans is not yet widely used against man. More
research should be undertaken to determine its efficacy against several diseases on man with respect to
other natural products and modern drugs. Therefore, M. fragrans deserves more attention by scientific
community and public health specialists to explore its full range of benefits in the welfare of the society.
5. References
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... (Salleh et al., 2015) [25] Nutmeg, Myristica fragranus Antimicrobial, antioxidant, antidepressant, aphrodisiac, hypolipidemic, memory-enhancing, and hepatoprotective properties. (Jaiswal et al., 2009) [26] Clove, Syzygium aromaticum Analgesic, antioxidant, anticancer, antiseptic, antidepressant, antispasmodic, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, antifungal, and antibacterial activity of eugenol against pathogenic bacteria (Batiha et al., 2020) [27] Tagar wood, Valeriana wallchii Anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, anthelmintic, antioxidant, antispasmodic, antipsychotic, analgesic, neuroprotective, and cytoprotective properties and to treat snake bites. ...
... (Salleh et al., 2015) [25] Nutmeg, Myristica fragranus Antimicrobial, antioxidant, antidepressant, aphrodisiac, hypolipidemic, memory-enhancing, and hepatoprotective properties. (Jaiswal et al., 2009) [26] Clove, Syzygium aromaticum Analgesic, antioxidant, anticancer, antiseptic, antidepressant, antispasmodic, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, antifungal, and antibacterial activity of eugenol against pathogenic bacteria (Batiha et al., 2020) [27] Tagar wood, Valeriana wallchii Anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, anthelmintic, antioxidant, antispasmodic, antipsychotic, analgesic, neuroprotective, and cytoprotective properties and to treat snake bites. ...
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A BSTRACT Health is defined as a state of complete physical, mental, and social wellbeing, not merely the absence of diseases or infirmity. Yajna means selfless sacrifices performed along with sacred sounds, the mantras. The procedure includes offering selected herbal and sacred materials to the fire to obtain an array of benefits such as air purification and release of therapeutic compounds (antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal, antidepression, and anticonvulsant) in the form of aerosol that enriches the atmosphere and soil. Microbial intrusions into the human system such as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 have proved their ability to hack the elements such as air, water, and earth to coerce humans’ physical and mental status. Panic during COVID (coronavirus disease) pandemic did not decline despite advanced therapeutic approaches. Vaccinating the human and animals of the entire globe within a specific time may not be a practically viable approach; adopting an alternative strategy that holistically represses the viral outbreak at various levels will support the medical and government authorities. Pandemic-combatted ancestors developed traditional remedies with secret medicinal portions prescribed to perform as rituals. One of those rituals is Yajna . Yajna procedure controls microbial load at both the environmental and zoonotic levels. The purpose of this literature review is to examine the advantages of scientifically establishing a correlation between Yajna and its potential contribution to prevent pandemics like COVID. An online search explored the phytotherapeutics of Yajna and correlated with the noninvasive drug delivery.
... These effects can be caused by the various pharmacological effects of each spice used to make Songgak. These spices have antioxidant potential, hypolipidemia, and hypo cholesterol effects, antidiabetics, antibacterial, anticancer, antiobesity, and hepatoprotective (Jaiswal et al., 2009;Kim et al., 2011;Zarai et al., 2013;Cortés-Rojas et al., 2014;Kumar and Singh, 2014;Li et al., 2020). The antioxidant content in a herbal ingredient is essential to reduce free radicals that cause oxidative stress. ...
... The main compounds in white pepper are piperine and piperic acid (Zarai et al., 2013). Coriander, nutmeg, lilit, and Javanese chilli were reported to have antioxidant activities, especially in protecting the body from attacks by reactive oxygen species (ROS) (Jaiswal et al., 2009;Kumar and Singh, 2014;Wei et al., 2019). ...
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Songgak is a traditional herbal tea of the Sasak Tribe in Lombok Island, Indonesia, formulated to strengthen people's stamina. Songgak is composed of seven kinds of roasted spices: Piper nigrum L., Coriandrum sativum L., Piper retrofractum Vahl, Myristica fragrans Houtt, Syzygium aromaticum, Elaeocarpus grandiflorus, and Helicteres isora. This study aimed to assess the benefits of Songgak and its constituent spices by evaluating their antioxidant activities, total phenolic content (TPC) and flavonoid content (TPC). Antioxidant activity tests were performed on the water extract of Songgak, ethanolic extract of Songgak, and ethanolic extract of seven spices of Songgak including 2,2′-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radical scavenging, Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC), and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assay. The antioxidant activity using DPPH method showed that the water extract of Songgak has a strong categorisation of antioxidant activity with DPPH IC 50 value of 63.78±4.29 µg/mL. The constituent species of Songgak with the strongest antioxidant activity was S. aromaticum. Total phenolic content (TPC) and total flavonoid content (TFC) of Songgak tea were 26.85±4.29 mg GAE/g and 6.99±0.29 mg RE/gram, respectively. The correlation between TPC, TFC, and antioxidant activities was determined using principal component analysis (PCA). The loading plot showed that TPC and TFC were strongly correlated with the antioxidant activity (FRAP method) of Songgak tea and its constituent spices. These results revealed that the presence of flavonoid and phenolic compounds in the seven herbal medicinal plants were responsible for the antioxidant properties of Songgak as a healthy herbal drink. Therefore, consuming Songgak every day can be beneficial for preventing various diseases involving free radicals.
... Nutmeg, Myristica fragrans Houtt., is a large, leafy tree that originates from Moluccas Island in Indonesia and is known as "the spice island." Nutmeg has been used to treat anxiety, dyspepsia, cramps, nausea, and diarrhea [13]. It is also used as a food preservative because of its antimicrobial activity [14]. ...
... M. fragrans exhibits antimicrobial activity against Helicobacter pylori, Bacillus subtilis, multidrug-resistant Salmonella typhi, Escherichia coli, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae [13]. Nutmeg oil affects the growth and survival of E. coli, Listeria monocytogenes, Yersinia enterocolitica, and Staphylococcus aureus [51]. ...
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Background and Aim Cryptosporidiosis is a major waterborne disease affecting ruminants and humans worldwide. It causes diarrhea and neonatal mortality in buffalo calves, and watery diarrhea and mortality in children and immunodeficient patients. This study aimed to investigate the efficacy of Myristica fragrans methanolic extract in treatment of C. parvum infection in comparison with nitazoxanide (NZX) (a Food and Drug Administration-approved drug control) in immunosuppressed and immunocompetent mice. Materials and Methods One hundred laboratory-bred male Swiss albino mice were equally divided into immunocompetent and immunosuppressed groups. Each group was further divided into five subgroups: (1) non-infected and non-treated control, (2) infected and non-treated control (infected with Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts 3 × 10³), (3) NZX-treated (100 mg/kg, 200 μL/mouse), (4) M. fragrans Houtt. methanol extract-treated (500 mg/kg), and (5) combination-treated (NZX + M. fragrans extract). Number of oocysts/g of feces, serum immunoglobulin (Ig) G level, and interferon (IFN)-γ, and interleukin (IL)-4 levels were used to evaluate the therapeutic effect. Results C. parvum oocyst shedding in stool samples was significantly decreased in all treatment groups, with 79.7%, 81.2 %, and 85.5 % reduction in immunocompetent mice treated with NZX, M. fragrans, and their combination, respectively. In immunosuppressed mice, oocyst shedding was reduced by 77.7%, 80.5 %, and 83.7 % upon NZX, M. fragrans, and their combination treatments, respectively. The serum IgG level was lowest in mice treated with a mixture of M. fragrans and NZX, followed by those treated with NZX, and was highest in mice treated with M. fragrans alone. Regarding cytokine levels, all groups treated with M. fragrans had low levels of IFN-γ and IL4 on day 21 post-infection. Conclusion Collectively, the treatment of cryptosporidiosis with M. fragrans extract was successful in mice, as demonstrated by the measured parameters. M. fragrans reduced C. parvum oocyst shedding and serum IgG, IFN-γ, and IL-4 levels in immunocompetent and immunosuppressed mice.
... JATHIKKAI • Anti-inflammatory activity [24] • Anti-bacterialactivity • Anti-microbial activity • Anti-fungal activity • Hypoglycemic and antidiabeticactivitiy • Myristic acid [24] • Alpha-pinene • Terpenes • Beta-pinene and trimyristin • Camphene and limonene 16. JATHIPATHIRI • Antimicrobial activity [25] • Hypolipidaemic and hypocholesterolemic effect • Antidepressant activity • Antioxidant activity • Alkaloids [25] • Flavanoids • Saponins • Tannins • Anthraquinones ...
... JATHIKKAI • Anti-inflammatory activity [24] • Anti-bacterialactivity • Anti-microbial activity • Anti-fungal activity • Hypoglycemic and antidiabeticactivitiy • Myristic acid [24] • Alpha-pinene • Terpenes • Beta-pinene and trimyristin • Camphene and limonene 16. JATHIPATHIRI • Antimicrobial activity [25] • Hypolipidaemic and hypocholesterolemic effect • Antidepressant activity • Antioxidant activity • Alkaloids [25] • Flavanoids • Saponins • Tannins • Anthraquinones ...
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The most prevalent type of arthritis is by far osteoarthritis (OA). It is a significant contributor to pain and impairment in the elderly and is closely linked to aging. The symptoms of osteoarthritis include expansion of the afflicted joints, subchondral osteosclerosis, the growth of osteophytes at the joint edge, and localized loss of articular cartilage. Although it can happen, inflammation is not a common occurrence. The distribution of joint involvement in osteoarthritis (OA) is typical, primarily affecting the hips, knees, hands' proximal and distal interphalangeal joints (DIP), neck, and lumbar spine. It has been projected that 45% of all persons will get knee OA and 25% will develop hip OA at some time in their lives. The prevalence of OA increases gradually with age. For a person over 50, the lifetime likelihood of requiring a total hip or knee replacement due to osteoarthritis is approximately 11% for women and 8% for men, even though some of these patients have no symptoms. With the exception of the hip, where men and women are equally afflicted, symptoms associated with OA are more common in women. A herbal composition makes up the RAC. According to Gunapadam Mooligai Vaguppu, the main indication for each constituent in this formulation is for Vatha illnesses. Additionally, the majority of the substances have pungent tastes (Kaippusuvai) and veppaveerium (hot potency), which balance and correct the disturbed validhosham. Thus, this combination works well for treating Santhu Vatham.
... Nutmeg (Myristica fragrans) is one of the leading commodities of the plantation sub-sector in Indonesia. Nutmeg is a native plant of Indonesia originating from the Maluku and Banda Islands (Jaiswal et al. 2009). The central areas of nutmeg production in Indonesia include North Maluku Province. ...
... In traditional medicine, M. fragrans has been used to treat headaches, diarrhea, pyrexia, analgesics, and stomach cramps [19,21]. The biological effects of M. fragrans have been related to antimicrobial, antioxidant, antidepressant, and antidiabetic activities [22][23][24]. In spite of having benefits in health, a large quantity of M. fragrans consumption (>5 g of powder) has been reported to induce intoxication [25]. ...
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Macelignan, from Myristica fragrans (nutmeg), is a bioactive compound with various pharmacological properties, including anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective activities. The purpose of this work was to investigate the antioxidant and anti-apoptotic effects of macelignan in glutamate-treated HT22 mouse hippocampal neurons. Macelignan was extracted and identified in a methanol extract of M. fragrans seeds. The DPPH was used to assess the antioxidative activity of macelignan. Glutamate (5 mM) was used to induce neurotoxicity in the HT22 cells. Neuroprotective effects were measured using relevant biochemical and imaging assays, including cell viability, ROS production, nuclear staining, apoptotic cell death, and protein expression. Macelignan markedly and concentration-dependently enhanced DPPH radical scavenging activity. In the HT22 cell model, glutamate induced cell damage by decreasing cell viability, promoting ROS generation, and increasing apoptotic cell death according to cell morphological changes. However, macelignan treatment restored cell viability, inhibited ROS generation concentration-dependently, and reduced apoptosis. Moreover, glutamate significantly up-regulated the phosphorylation of MAPK-pathway-related proteins, which was reversed by macelignan treatment. In conclusion, macelignan shows notable neuroprotective effects on oxidative stress and apoptotic cell death in glutamate-induced cells, and this study provides useful information on its potential therapeutic implications in neurological disorders.
... The main constituents of M. fragrans are alkylbenzene derivatives, terpenes, α-pinene, β-pinene, myristic acid and trimyristin. Nutmeg contains approximately 10% essential oil (EO), which is mostly composed of terpene hydrocarbons, terpene derivatives and phenylpropanoids [23,24]. The pharmacological potential of M. fragrans crude extract (CE) and various organic chemical extracts has been reviewed and published by several different research groups. ...
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Background Skin commensal bacteria (Staphylococcus epidermidis) can help defend against skin infections, and they are increasingly being recognized for their role in benefiting skin health. This study aims to demonstrate the activities that Myristica fragrans Houtt. seed extracts, crude extract (CE) and essential oil (EO), have in terms of promoting the growth of the skin commensal bacterium S. epidermidis and providing metabolites under culture conditions to disrupt the biofilm formation of the common pathogen Staphylococcus aureus. Methods The culture supernatant obtained from a co-culture of S. epidermidis with M. fragrans Houtt. seed extracts in either CE or EO forms were analyzed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), in silico investigations, and applied to assess the survival and biofilm formation of S. aureus. Results The combination of commensal bacteria with M. fragrans Houtt. seed extract either CE or EO produced metabolic compounds such as short-chain fatty acids and antimicrobial peptides, contributing to the antimicrobial activity. This antimicrobial activity was related to downregulating key genes involved in bacterial adherence and biofilm development in S. aureus, including cna, agr, and fnbA. Conclusion These findings suggest that using the culture supernatant of the commensal bacteria in combination with CE or EO may provide a potential approach to combat biofilm formation and control the bacterial proliferation of S. aureus. This may be a putative non-invasive therapeutic strategy for maintaining a healthy skin microbiota and preventing skin infections.
... Te high prospects of studying M. fragrans to develop herbal drugs or pharmaceutical products have been previously reported [7]. M. fragrans has pharmacologically active components attributed to the main oils myristicin, elemicin, and safrole [8]. Its phytoconstituents, i.e., terpenoids, steroids, favonoids, lignans, neolignans, and saponins [7], as well as methanolic extracts [9], have been well established to possess strong antibacterial activities. ...
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The rapid emergence of antimicrobial resistance and the preference of consumers for natural products are driving the exploration of herbal skin care products, including soaps. This study aimed to determine the physicochemical and antibacterial properties of herbal soaps formulated from single and combined methanolic extracts of Myristica fragrans and Syzygium aromaticum. The methanolic extracts of Myristica fragrans (Mf), Syzygium aromaticum (Sa), and a combination (MfSa) were used in the formulation of soaps. Antibacterial activities, minimum inhibitory concentrations, minimum bactericidal concentrations, moisture content (MC), total fatty matter (TFM), iodine value (IV), pH, free caustic alkali (FCA), total alkali content (TAC), and foaming capacity (FC) of the formulae were determined. The MC of the formulations ranged from 22.0% to 39.13%, TFM from 35.3% to 52.2%, IV from 0.57 gI2/100 g to 10.40 gI2/100 g, pH from 10.35 to 10.54, TAC from 5.81 to 6.06, FCA from 0.0406% to 0.03391%, and FC from 20 cm to 15 cm for the extract formulations. The antibacterial activity of Sa (12.0 ± 3.5 mm) against Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 29213 was the greatest, and it had the lowest MIC (2.5 × 10⁻² mg/mL), lowest MBC (6.25 × 10⁻³ mg/mL), and highest activity indices. The MC, TFM, and FC of MfSa were significantly greater than the corresponding values for the non-extract formula. In conclusion, the Sa extract formula was the most potent in terms of antibacterial activity against S. aureus.
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Dünyada ve Türkiye’de temel gıda ürünlerinin başında tahıllar ve baklagiller gelmektedir. Birim alandan yüksek verim elde etmek için yoğun çalışmalar yapılmaktadır. Tarım ürünlerinde verime etki eden önemli hastalık ve zararlılar bulunmaktadır. Pratylenchus spp. tahıl ve baklagillerde önemli verim kayıplarına neden olan zararlılardandır. Toprak kökenli zararlılar olduğundan mücadelesi de oldukça zordur. Günümüzde kullanılan kimyasalların tarımsal üretimin sürdürülebilirliği açısından bazı olumsuzlukları ortaya çıkarması ve insan sağlığını tehdit etmesi nedeniyle alternatif mücadele yöntemleri üzerine çalışmalar yoğunlaşmıştır. Bu alternatif yöntemlerin başında bitki ekstraktlarının kullanımı yer almaktadır. Doğada bulunan birçok bitki içermiş olduğu sekonder metabolitler gibi maddeler sayesinde zararlılara karşı biyopestisit olarak kullanılmaktadır. Bu çalışmada Pratylenchus thornei Sher et Allen (Tylenchida: Pratylenchidae)’a karşı Myristica fragrans Houtt (Magnoliales: Myristicaceae) bitki ekstraktının etkinliği laboratuvar koşullarında denenmiştir. Denemede M. fragrans ‘ın etanol ekstraktının 100, 250, 500, 1000 ve 2500 ppm dozları uygulanmış ve deneme 4 tekerrürlü ve 2 tekrarlı olarak yürütülmüştür. Denemeler 12 kuyucuklu petri kabında gerçekleştirilmiştir. 24, 48 ve 72 saat sonunda ölüm oranları belirlenmiştir. M.fragrans uçucu yağının analizi sonucunda ana bileşen %37.18 ile Sabinene belirlenmiştir. Bunu sırasıyla α-Pinene %29.93, 2-α-Pinene %19.00 ve dl-Limonene %3.31 oranlarında tespit edilmiştir. Deneme sonuçlarına göre 24 saat sonunda en düşük ölüm oranı % 4.93 ile 100 ppm’de belirlenmiştir. 2500 ppm’de %27.02 ve pozitif kontrol olan Abamectin etken maddeli nematisitte %85.81 olarak tespit edilmiştir. 48. saat sonunda en düşük ölüm oranı %14.14 ile 100 ppm’de belirlenmiştir. 2500 ppm’de %72.70 olan ölüm oranı Abamectin etken maddeli nematisitte %89.39 olarak tespit edilmiştir. 72. saat sonunda en düşük ölüm oranı %26.57 ile 100 ppm’de belirlenmiştir. 2500 ppm’de %75.33 olan ölüm oranı Abamectin etken maddeli nematisitte %92.50 olarak bulunmuştur. Elde edilen sonuçlara göre M. fragrans’ın etanol ekstraktının P. thornei’yi baskıladığı ve nematodun mücadelesinde kullanılma potansiyelinin olduğu belirlenmiştir.
Chapter
You are invited to a journey full of health and taste! Step into a world full of the miracles of nature and open the doors to a life full of health! The book ""Medical Spices"" is designed for you to discover the magical world of natural spices, which have been used for thousands of years and are known for their health benefits. This book proves that spices that add flavour to your cuisine are not ordinary sweeteners. Because each spice can be an important source for health. ""Medical Spices"" reveals the secrets of these spices to you: it discusses in detail which spices are good for which health problems, which spices are perfect with which dishes, and how they can be used. The book touches on many topics, from recipes to health tips, from the history of medicinal spices to their modern uses. Additionally, the nutritional properties and health benefits of each spice are examined in detail. In addition to being a great resource for those seeking health, the book ""Medical Spices"" will be a reference book for anyone who wants to cook delicious and healthy meals in their kitchens. We invite everyone who wants to discover the healing powers offered by nature and take the first step towards a healthy life to read this book!
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AIM: To investigate the bactericidal and anti-adhesive properties of 25 plants against Helicobacter pylori (H pylori). METHODS: Twenty-five plants were boiled in water to produce aqueous extracts that simulate the effect of cooking. The bactericidal activity of the extracts was assessed by a standard kill-curve with seven strains of H pylori. The anti-adhesive property was assessed by the inhibition of binding of four strains of FITC-labeled H pylori to stomach sections. RESULTS: Of all the plants tested, eight plants, including Bengal quince, nightshade, garlic, dill, black pepper, coriander, fenugreek and black tea, were found to have no bactericidal effect on any of the isolates. Columbo weed, long pepper, parsley, tarragon, nutmeg, yellow-berried nightshade, threadstem carpetweed, sage and cinnamon had bactericidal activities against H pylori, but total inhibition of growth was not achieved in this study. Among the plants that killed H pylori, turmeric was the most efficient, followed by cumin, ginger, chilli, borage, black caraway, oregano and liquorice. Moreover, extracts of turmeric, borage and parsley were able to inhibit the adhesion of H pylori strains to the stomach sections. CONCLUSION: Several plants that were tested in our study had bactericidal and/or anti-adhesive effects on H pylori. Ingestion of the plants with anti-adhesive properties could therefore provide a potent alternative therapy for H pylori infection, which overcomes the problem of resistance associated with current antibiotic treatment.
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Molluscicidal activity of Zingiber officinale rhizome extract, fruits of Trachyspermum ammi, seeds of Trigonella foenum-graecum and Allium cepa bulbs were studied against the snails Lymnaea acuminata and Indoplanorbis exustus. Toxic effect of different preparations and chemicals present in them were also studied against both the snails. It was reported that cineole, citral and oleoresin from ginger rhizome and thymol present in fruits of Trachyspermum ammi were potent molluscicides. Toxic effects of the different preparations and their chemical components were time-as well as dose-dependent.
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A homogenate of raw garlic was chemically fractionated and the toxicity of individual fractions against the snails Lymnaea acuminata and Indoplanorbis exustus was compared. Allicin (allyl 2-propenethiosulphinate) was tentatively identified as the active moiety causing snail death by co-migration of the active agent with extracted and synthetic allicin on TLC plates.
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Effects of malabaricon C, isolated from nutmeg (Myristica fragrans), on Arg-gingipain activity and growth of several kinds of anaerobic and aerobic microorganisms were investigated. Malabaricone C irreversibly inhibited Arg-gingipain by 50% at a concentration of 0.7 mu g/ml and selectively suppressed Porphyromomas gingivalis growth.
Article
The molluscicidal activity of powdered nutmeg and mace (Myristica fragrans Houtt.) against the vector snail Lymnaea acuminata was evaluated. The toxicity of both the spices was time- and dose-dependent. The toxicity of mace powder (96 h LC50 = 28.61 mgL) was more pronounced than that of nutmeg powder (96 h LC50 = 36.95 mgL). Ethanolic extracts of nutmeg and mace were more toxic than their other organic solvent extracts. The ethanolic extract of mace (24 h LC50 = 13.33 mgL) was more effective than the ethanolic extract of nutmeg (24 h LC50 = 18.04 mgL) in killing the test animals. The 96 h LC50 of column purified fraction of mace was 2.77 mgL whereas that of nutmeg was 3.98 mgL. Nutmeg and mace may be used as potent molluscicides.
Article
Laboratory studies on toxicity of three carbamate (mexacarbate, carbaryl, and aldicarb) and three organophosphorus (trichlorfon, formothion, and phorate) compounds were made on two species of snails, Lymnaea acuminata Lamarck and Pila globosa Swainson. L. acuminata was more sensitive to the pesticides tested. LC50 values computed for different exposure periods from 24 to 240 h showed a gradual decrease as the exposure time was increased. Although trichlorfon was most toxic to L. acuminata and mexacarbate to P. globosa, the relative LC50s of the six compounds varied at different exposure periods. A possible explanation on the basis of pharmacological evidences and structure-activity of these compounds has been given.
Article
The synergistic effects of piperonyl butoxide (PB)2, sulfoxide (SU), and dimethyl amino aniline (DAA) used in conjunction with two organophosphate pesticides (phorate and formothion) and two carbamate pesticides (mexacarbate and carbaryl) were examined in terms of the LC50 and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibition in the snailLymnaea acuminata. The three synergists reduced the LC50 of phorate, formothion, mexacarbate, and carbaryl at exposure periods ranging from 24 to 144 hr. PB and SU had strong synergistic action; DAA had little effect; the highest synergistic ratio (70) was found with carbaryl and PB. The synergists enhanced thein vitro inhibition of cholinesterase caused by the pesticides; the synergistic effect onin vitro inhibition, however, was lower, compared to the change in the LC50.