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Radio Sleep Mode Optimization in Wireless Sensor Networks
Abstract and Figures
Energy efficiency is a central challenge in sensor networks, and the radio is a major contributor to overall energy node consumption. Current energy-efficient MAC protocols for sensor networks use a fixed low-power radio mode for putting the radio to sleep. Fixed low-power modes involve an inherent trade-off: deep sleep modes have low current draw and high energy cost and latency for switching the radio to active mode, while light sleep modes have quick and inexpensive switching to active mode with a higher current draw. This paper proposes adaptive radio low-power sleep modes based on current traffic conditions in the network. It first introduces a comprehensive node energy model, which includes energy components for radio switching, transmission, reception, listening, and sleeping, as well as the often disregarded microcontroller energy component for determining the optimal sleep mode and MAC protocol to use for given traffic scenarios. The model is then used for evaluating the energy-related performance of our recently proposed RFID impulse protocol enhanced with adaptive low-power modes, and comparing it against BMAC and IEEE 802.15.4, for both MicaZ and TelosB platforms under varying data rates. The comparative analysis confirms that RFID impulse with adaptive low-power modes provides up to 20 times lower energy consumption than IEEE 802.15.4 in low traffic scenario. The evaluation also yields the optimal settings of low-power modes on the basis of data rates for each node platform, and provides guidelines and a simple algorithm for the selection of appropriate MAC protocol, low-power mode, and node platform for a given set of traffic requirements of a sensor network application.
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... A handful of WuR enabled MAC protocols have been devised in the context of WBANs [16]. WuR based MAC protocols are classified as transmitter-initiated [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] or receiver-initiated [22] [23] [24]. In transmitted initiated protocols, the transmitter initiates the communication by sending a WuC to the potential receivers while in a receiverinitiated protocols, a receiver transmits WuC inviting the transmitter to initiate data transmission to that receiver. ...
Implantable Wireless Body Area Network (IWBAN), a network of implantable medical sensors, is one of the emerging network paradigms due to the rapid proliferation of wireless technologies and growing demand of sophisticated healthcare. The wireless sensors in IWBAN is capable of communicating with each other through radio frequency (RF) link. However, recurring wireless communication inside the human body induces heat causing severe thermal damage to the human tissue which, if not controlled, may appear as a threat to human life. Moreover, higher propagation loss inside the human body as well as low-power requirement of the sensor nodes necessitate multi-hop communication for IWBAN. A IWBAN also requires meeting certain Quality of Service demands in terms of energy, delay, reliability etc. These pressing concerns engender the design of TRW-MAC: A thermal-aware receiver-driven wake-up radio enabled duty cycle MAC protocol for multi-hop IWBANs in Internet of Things. TRW-MAC introduces a thermal-aware duty cycle adjustment mechanism to reduce temperature inside the body and adopts wake-up radio (WuR) scheme for attaining higher energy efficiency. The protocol devises a wake-up estimation scheme to facilitate staggered wake-up schedule for multi-hop transmission. A superframe structure is introduced that utilizes both contention-based and contention free medium access operations. The performance of TRW-MAC is evaluated through simulations that exhibit its superior performance in attaining lower thermal-rise as well as satisfying other QoS metrics in terms of energy-efficiency, delay and reliability.
... According to Misra, S. et al. [14], energy can be obtained by multiplying the squared value of the voltage drop of the sensor node battery by the time, and dividing the result by the average electrical load at the node. Another way to obtain it is to add the reading of the different energy consumption generated in the node [18,19]: ...
The emergence of Industry 4.0 technologies, such as the Internet of Things (IoT) and Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN), has prompted a reconsideration of methodologies for network security as well as reducing operation and maintenance costs, especially at the physical layer, where the energy consumption plays an important role. This article demonstrates through simulations and experiments that, while the cooperative scheme is more efficient when a WSN is at normal operating conditions, the collaborative scheme offers more enhanced protection against the aggressiveness of jamming in the performance metrics, thus making it safer, reducing operation and maintenance costs and laying the foundations for jamming mitigation. This document additionally offers an algorithm to detect jamming in real time. Firstly, it examines the characteristics and damages caused by the type of aggressor. Secondly, it reflects on the natural immunity of the WSN (which depends on its node density and a cooperative or collaborative configuration). Finally, it considers the performance metrics, especially those that impact energy consumption during transmission.
... This latter benefits by reducing the data latency. Semi-Passive Unicast Out-of-Band [40][41][42] In-Band [43][44][45] Indifferent [25,[46][47][48][49] In-Band [50] Active Unicast Out-of-Band [51][52][53][54][55] In-Band [56][57][58][59][60][61][62][63] Indifferent [64][65][66][67] Broadcast ...
The Internet of Things (IoT) is currently used in many wireless sensor network (WSN) applications. Conventionally, the WSN’s energy consumption is considered as one of the prime concerns. The energy consumption is mostly due to the sensing, data processing, communications and other wasted energies such as idle listening, collisions and overhearing. These sensor nodes are regularly powered by an external power source and consequently have a shorter lifetime. Fortunately, different approaches for wireless energy harvesting (WEH) have been improved. Thus, wake-up radio (WuR) becomes a remedy for WEH which provides active, passive and semi-passive circuits consumption and other protocols. For instance, the most used, convincing and productive go to passive WuR which can significantly increase the network lifetime in a sensor network (SN) by decreasing unnecessary idle listening. Eventually, this paper proposes a state of the art in active, semi-passive, centering more on passive WuR and covers the applications areas. Then, an overview of WuR related to physical, medium access control (MAC) and routing layers. Lastly, the paper accentuates the potential research opportunities for wake-up technology for future IoT applications.
... Rather, adaptive sleep intervals, which are accessible in most low-power electronics and which not seldom power the device down to consuming 10 mW or less, should be implemented to temporarily save up energy to connect to networks in periodic intervals. 80 This can be applied to save energy in many sensor networks where a number of dispatched devices communicate to a permanently running base station. However, such communication becomes more difficult to implement when both sender and receiver adapt their respective on/off intervals to local illumination levels. ...
The impending implementation of billions of Internet of Things and wireless sensor network devices has the potential to be the next digital revolution, if energy consumption and sustainability constraints can be overcome. Ambient photovoltaics provide vast universal energy that can be used to realise near-perpetual intelligent IoT devices which can directly transform diffused light energy into computational inferences based on artificial neural networks and machine learning. At the same time, a new architecture and energy model needs to be developed for IoT devices to optimize their ability to sense, interact, and anticipate. We address the state-of-the-art materials for indoor photovoltaics, with a particular focus on dye-sensitized solar cells, and their effect on the architecture of next generation IoT devices and sensor networks.
... Generally, each node is required to send its gathered data as well as to relay the data collected by the neighboring nodes as it is the case in most of the routing protocols. The heaviest burden on the battery of a node is the energy consumed for transmitting the data and its reception [19]. Therefore it is required to contemplate choosing the realistic energy consumption model for data transmission. ...
The Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) usually consist of several wirelessly connected sensors, to accumulate the data from some geographically scattered field and communicate it to a central database. Thus WSNs become an expedient tool to monitor the widespread gas distribution network such as Sui Northern Gas Pipelines Ltd. Pakistan. In this paper, some routing protocols performance has been investigated for gas pipeline monitoring applications. Simulated comparison of various routing protocols for WSNs deployed over gas distribution pipeline networks can give a valuable insight into the workability of the system, its performance, and other critical design parameters. The estimated lifetime of the network, node deployment for encyclopedic operation, the impact of energy harvesting from the field, and placement of the sink node at an optimal location are the key issues in the design of the WSN for pipeline network monitoring. All these issues are studied through simulation of various protocols for WSNs based upon real geographic locations of the nodes, real-world power levels and power consumptions by various processes of the wireless sensor networks. The simulations results show that DDEEC based WSN, for monitoring an actual Gas Distribution Network with a substantial quantity of nodes, can run with about 99.9% alive nodes for a benchmark period of 10 years. It was also evident from the comparison of the simulation results that the routing protocol DDEEC based system performs 0.4 to 34% better than the system based on LEACH, SEP, DEEC, and its other variants.
bold xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">The structural health monitoring (SHM) of bridges with wireless sensor networks (WSNs) is addressed by leveraging two distinct but interrelated aspects: GaAs-based solar energy harvesting and switched-beam antenna strategies in combination with asynchronous media access control (MAC) protocols. The joint optimization of solar energy harvesting and switched-beam directional antennas at the nodes is considered and compared with an equivalent omnidirectional antenna network. To address the limited energy budget in battery-based sensor nodes which is a serious limitation in long-lived applications such as bridge SHM, an efficient solar harvesting solution is put forth based on the good performance of GaAs cells even under low-light conditions. Given the current state of the art in GaAs cells, single-junction cells were selected due to the cost of double-or triple-junction versions. The simulation model includes the residual energy capacity with GaAs-based solar energy harvesting of actual selected components (microcontroller, radio interface chip). The model was implemented on top of the Omnet $++$ and Silvaco Atlas simulator. The comparative study in this article provides insights into realistic bridge SHM sensor networks, leveraging solar energy harvesting and switched-beam antennas.</b
Energy harvesting (EH) powered sensor nodes can achieve theoretically unlimited lifetime by scavenging energy from ambient power sources, such as radio frequency (RF) and kinetic energy. The nodes can collect and transmit data wirelessly with the harvested energy. However, the transmission between two sensor nodes is successful only when both nodes have enough energy at the same time. While the receiver can be actively listening, it may deplete the energy long before the sender has accumulated enough energy. Thus, given the scarce, unpredictable, and unevenly distributed energy among sensor nodes, it is challenging to ensure efficient data transmission between them. To address this challenge, we propose a sensor node architecture with multiple radios, each with different energy consumption on the sender and receiver. A node can be put into sleep when charged up and wakes up for communication when it infers that both nodes have enough energy based on its observations. What is more, two nodes can cooperatively and dynamically select different radios according to the stored energy and historical information to maximize the data throughput. To achieve cooperative communication adaptively, the communication procedure is modeled as a cooperative Markov game with partial observability on each node, and multi-agent reinforcement learning (MARL) is employed to achieve the best results. Experimental results on hardware prototype and by simulation show that the proposed approaches achieve up to 89.1% of the optimal throughput and significantly outperform other online algorithms.
An international panel of experts provide major research issues and a self-contained, rapid introduction to the theory and application of UWB. This book delivers end-to-end coverage of recent advances in both the theory and practical design of ultra wideband (UWB) communication networks. Contributions offer a worldwide perspective on new and emerging applications, including WPAN, sensor and ad hoc networks, wireless telemetry, and telemedicine. The book explores issues related to the physical layer, medium access layer, and networking layer. Following an introductory chapter, the book explores three core areas: Analysis of physical layer and technology issues System design elements, including channel modeling, coexistence, and interference mitigation and control Review of MAC and network layer issues, up to the application Case studies present examples such as network and transceiver design, assisting the reader in understanding the application of theory to real-world tasks. Ultra Wideband Wireless Communication enables technical professionals, graduate students, engineers, scientists, and academic and professional researchers in mobile and wireless communications to become conversant with the latest theory and applications by offering a survey of all important topics in the field. It also serves as an advanced mathematical treatise; however, the book is organized to allow non-technical readers to bypass the mathematical treatments and still gain an excellent understanding of both theory and practice.
The IEEE 802.15.4a Task Group recently proposed Impulse Radio Ultra Wide Band (IR-UWB) for a physical layer that can provide combined communication and ranging in low data rate indoor/outdoor networks. At present, it is therefore particularly relevant to design IEEE 802.15.4a MAC strategies that are appropriately tailored on the physical layer. In previous work, we proposed an UWB-tailored MAC named Uncoordinated Baseborn Wireless medium access control for UWB networks (UWB) 2 that adopted the Aloha principle, based on the low probability of pulse collision for low data rate communications, and enabled location-based network optimization by providing and storing estimates of distance between nodes. This paper first revisits the (UWB) 2 MAC protocol in view of its application to IEEE 802.15.4a. The structure of both control and data MAC protocol data units is defined based on the legacy 802.15.4 MAC, in order to allow a seamless support, for both centralized and distributed network topologies, as defined in the parent standard. Secondly, this work extends and completes the analysis of (UWB) 2 since it takes into account multipath-prone channels. Channel parameters, for both indoor and outdoor propagation scenarios in Line Of Sight (LOS) and Non-Line Of Sight (NLOS) conditions, were derived from the channel model defined within the 802.15.4a channel sub-committee. Results highlight that the (UWB) 2 protocol is robust to multipath, and provides high throughput and low delay, with performance scaling gracefully as a function of number of users and user bit rate. Results confirm and support the adoption of (UWB) 2 principles for low data rate UWB communications.
Communication protocols for wireless sensor networks reduce the energy consumption by duty cycling the node activity and adopting a periodic sleeping scheduling. This approach often results in idle listening and therefore energy dissipated for listening to a channel free from packet transmitted. Duty cycling trades-off energy consumption due to idle listening and high end-to-end delay. Proposed solutions mitigate this issue for example through extra low-power radio components (wake-up radio) that listen to the radio and wake-up the node if some channel activity is sensed. These extra components also consume some energy to listen to the channel. In contrast, we propose an on-demand wake-up capability, namely RFIDimpulse, which is achieved through using an off-the-shelf battery-less RFID tag attached to each sensor node that is also provided with RFID reader capability. Because modern RFID techniques can trigger all the neighbouring tags at once or pinpoint a particular tag, RFIDimpluse provides both unicast and multicast capability. RFIDimpulse allows event-driven communication and eliminates node idle listening.
Wireless Ad Hoc and Sensor Networks: A Cross-Layer Design Perspective deals with the emerging design trend that transcends traditional communication layers for performance gains in ad hoc and sensor networks. The author explores the current state of the art in cross-layer approaches for ad hoc and sensor networks, providing a comprehensive design resource.
The book offers a structured comparison and analysis of both layered and cross-layer design, providing readers with an overview of the many issues relating to ad hoc and sensor networks. The benefits of these cross-layer approaches are examined through three diverse case studies: a monitoring sensor network using Radio Frequency waves, an ad hoc network that uses Ultra Wide Band Radio, and an acoustic underwater sensor network for environmental monitoring.
Wireless Ad Hoc and Sensor Networks: A Cross-Layer Design Perspective is interdisciplinary in character, and should be of value to software engineers, hardware engineers, application developers, network protocol designers, graduate students, communication engineers, systems engineers, and university professors.
A MAC protocol for Ultra Wide Band (UWB) radio networks named (UWB)2 is proposed. The algorithm exploits typical features of impulse radio such as large processing gain, and is conceived in conjunction with a synchronization strategy which foresees the presence of a synchronization sequence in each transmitted packet. (UWB)2 adopts a pure Aloha approach; Performance analysis of the synchronization tracking mechanism showed in fact that under the preliminary simplistic hypothesis of an AWGN channel, and for a sufficient number of pulses in the synchronization sequence, a fairly high probability of successful synchronization can be achieved, even in the presence of several users and Multi User Interference (MUI). The multiple access scheme is based on the combination of a common control channel provided by a common Time Hopping (TH) code with dedicated data channels associated to transmitter specific TH codes.
Results obtained by simulation indicate that (UWB)2 can be successfully applied when the number of users spans from a few tens to about one hundred, for data rates ranging from a few thousands to a few hundreds of bits per second. Network throughput was above 99.8% in all considered simulation settings. Such achievement confirms that (UWB)2 is a suitable and straightforward solution for large networks of terminals using impulse radio for transmission at low bit rates.
This conference paper proposes and investigates a new distributed cooperative routing strategy that can be adopted to forward data in the ultra wide band (UWB) ad-hoc network via a multi-hop route with the best instantaneous quality. The strategy combines the physical (PHY) and medium-access-control (MAC) layer mechanisms to select the best route from available ones in a cooperative and distributed way. Using an example of the parallel two-hop relay network where data from a source node can be forwarded by several possible relays to the destination node, we study two related issues: First, we devise a new estimation algorithm for the UWB link received signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) that is used to determine the UWB link quality. The estimation algorithm is unbiased with estimation errors significantly lower than the reported algorithms in literature. Second, we propose a new distributed cooperative routing scheme. Each relay node uses an enhanced carrier sensing with deterministically mapped backoff period as the MAC protocol. The back-off period is chosen by each relay such that the higher the quality of the associated source-relay-destination route, the shorter the back-off time. Simulation results show that even without any feedback about the relay- destination link quality from the destination node to relays and using only its statistical information, the proposed scheme still has up to 3 dB improvement in performance as compared to the random routing. When having 1-bit such feedback, the proposed scheme can achieve full diversity and the overall performance is only 2 dB away from that with full-precision feedback.
There is recently an increasing popularity in the use of wireless ad hoc networks, especially for sensor networks. However, these networks are susceptible to fading, interference and limited power supply. In this paper, we consider the issue of cooperative routing under the effect of both multi-user interference (MUI) and fading in ultra-wideband (UWB) networks. We first generate a single path route from any available routing algorithms. Based on this single path route, our cooperative routing algorithm is executed to see whether nodes which 'overhear' the information should cooperate to alleviate the effect of fading, and thus improve outage performance. From our result, it is shown that our cooperative routing algorithm reduces the average transmit energy by 8dB at 3% of outage.
We investigate the performance degradation due to rapidly time varying channels in a repetition based coherent cooperative system. We demonstrate that mobility of source affects the performance much more than the mobility of destination, for both amplify and forward (AF) and demodulate and forward (DF) relays, despite the symmetry of the network. Exploiting the property of FSK modulation that allow us to detect either coherently or noncoherently or even semi-coherently, we develop ML detection rules for a variety of mobile scenarios. The detection rules that take into account the mobility of the nodes, are mostly hybrids of partially coherent detectors and noncoherent detectors. The performance of these detectors is better than the best of coherent and noncoherent detectors in fast fading and a gain of about 2 dB is obtained over a wide range of SNR and a gain of almost 3 dB is achieved at the crossing of coherent and noncoherent curves. As energy efficiency is one of the main objectives for pursuing cooperation and relaying, these hybrid detectors assume significance in fast fading scenarios