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Complex traumatic stress disorders: An evidence-based clinician’s guide
... Although video evidence of policing violence holds much promise for reducing racial disparities in policing, exposure to graphic violence via social media can also induce negative stress responses consistent with trauma-termed vicarious trauma (Ramsden, 2017). Vicarious trauma is created when individuals are repeatedly exposed to the trauma of others (Bober & Regehr, 2006;Kim et al., 2022;Pearlman & Caringi, 2009). Originating in the literature on well-being of careworkers, first-responders, and clinicians, vicarious trauma (VT) is created by exposure to another's trauma while also empathically engaging with and feeling a responsibility to help the victim (Pearlman & Caringi, 2009). ...
... Vicarious trauma is created when individuals are repeatedly exposed to the trauma of others (Bober & Regehr, 2006;Kim et al., 2022;Pearlman & Caringi, 2009). Originating in the literature on well-being of careworkers, first-responders, and clinicians, vicarious trauma (VT) is created by exposure to another's trauma while also empathically engaging with and feeling a responsibility to help the victim (Pearlman & Caringi, 2009). Though the definition of VT is contested and overlapping with secondary traumatic stress and compassion fatigue (Kim et al., 2022), the manifestations of VT are similar to posttraumatic stress disorder (e.g., irritability, avoidance, intrusive thoughts, nightmares) but also include a change in beliefs about the world, one's self, or others (Kim et al., 2022;Pearlman & Caringi, 2009). ...
... Originating in the literature on well-being of careworkers, first-responders, and clinicians, vicarious trauma (VT) is created by exposure to another's trauma while also empathically engaging with and feeling a responsibility to help the victim (Pearlman & Caringi, 2009). Though the definition of VT is contested and overlapping with secondary traumatic stress and compassion fatigue (Kim et al., 2022), the manifestations of VT are similar to posttraumatic stress disorder (e.g., irritability, avoidance, intrusive thoughts, nightmares) but also include a change in beliefs about the world, one's self, or others (Kim et al., 2022;Pearlman & Caringi, 2009). In the context of exposure to racially biased policing violence videos, the related concept of racist incident or race-based trauma are of key importance (Bryant-Davis et al., 2017;Chin et al., 2020). ...
Objective: This research investigates how watching videos of police violence and experiences with police contributes to health disparities in well-being that disproportionately negatively affect Black Americans. Method: A large-scale survey of Americans (n = 1,240; nBlack American = 286, nWhite American = 954) examined the impact of negative experiences with police and watching violent policing videos as distal (i.e., external) stressors that contribute to symptoms of trauma. The proximal (i.e., internal) stressor of worrying about being stereotyped as criminal by police was also examined. Results: Those who identified as Black were more likely to report negative experiences with police, exposure to violent policing videos, and greater worry about being stereotyped as criminal by police than those who identified as White. The three stressors were, in turn, associated with experiencing trauma symptoms. Conclusions: Exposure to violent policing videos is disproportionately associated with well-being for Black Americans, even when accounting for direct experiences with police. These findings demonstrate the importance of considering vicarious trauma in therapeutic settings and have implications for dissemination of these videos through media channels.
... Pearlman and Caringi (2009: 202) define VT as 'the negative transformation in the helper that results from empathic engagement with trauma survivors and their trauma material, combined with a commitment or responsibility to help them'. Similar to primary trauma, this transformation is often in the form of painful and distressing changes to a person's core systems of meaning, their relationships, their sense of hope and their measure of safety (Barrington and Shakespeare-Finch, 2013;Hunter and Schofield, 2006;Pack, 2013;Pearlman and Caringi, 2009). VT often manifests as intrusive thoughts and images, nightmares, overwhelming emotional responses and changes in belief systems and behaviour (Barrington and Shakespeare-Finch, 2013;Hunter and Schofield, 2006;Pack, 2013;Pearlman and Caringi, 2009). ...
... Similar to primary trauma, this transformation is often in the form of painful and distressing changes to a person's core systems of meaning, their relationships, their sense of hope and their measure of safety (Barrington and Shakespeare-Finch, 2013;Hunter and Schofield, 2006;Pack, 2013;Pearlman and Caringi, 2009). VT often manifests as intrusive thoughts and images, nightmares, overwhelming emotional responses and changes in belief systems and behaviour (Barrington and Shakespeare-Finch, 2013;Hunter and Schofield, 2006;Pack, 2013;Pearlman and Caringi, 2009). ...
... VT is considered by some to be an inevitable impact of exposure to trauma material and witnessing the suffering of trauma survivors (Barrington and Shakespeare-Finch, 2013;Pearlman and Caringi, 2009). While there is an overlap between VT, post-traumatic stress disorder, compassion fatigue and burnout, the distinction lies in the nature of the exposure to trauma material (Silver et al., 2015). ...
The psychological cost of exposure to traumatic events is receiving greater recognition in recent years, especially in terms of its impact in helping professions and emergency services. However, the costs to researchers remain relatively unexplored. In this article, we will discuss the nature and impact of vicarious trauma using two criminological research projects as case studies: one a qualitative project engaging with survivors of childhood sexual abuse, and the other, a quantitative analysis of police hate crime reports. In addition to considering the trauma elicited in fieldwork such as interviews, we interrogate the costs imposed on researchers during the coding and analysing processes. We suggest that the cost is potentially greater when the researcher has a personal connection with the issues being researched, but that this personal experience also provides the researcher with important skills for responding to new or compounded trauma. The costs of engagement with trauma may be compensated by the productive outputs and impact on policy and practice that this type of research may elicit. Understanding the impact and costs of engaging with close analyses of trauma is critical in developing more robust and ethical research processes to ensure that this trauma is appropriately managed so as to avert the long-term damage this work can inflict on researchers and participants.
... Framed as a vocational health issue, the mental well-being of social workers is critical in their ability to provide high quality services to recipients. Secondary traumatic stress, compassion fatigue, and burnout have been identified as among the workplace-based challenges facing those in helping professions (Figley, 1995;Pearlman & Caringi, 2009). Yet there remains a lack of understanding about the extent to which these issues impact social workers and in what ways. ...
... McCann and Pearlman (1990) introduced the concept of transference of beliefs and assumptions about the world related to the traumatic experience from the client to the therapist, calling this phenomenon "vicarious traumatization." Since then there has been a growing body of research introducing and identifying the effects and prevalence of Secondary Traumatic Stress (STS) among clinicians (Bride, 2007;Figley, 1995;Pearlman & Caringi, 2009;Pryce, Shackelford, & Pryce, 2007;Stamm, 1999). STS refers to behaviors and emotions resulting from helping a traumatized or suffering person (Figley, 1995). ...
... This population was selected because LCSWs are often exposed to high levels of stress, work with traumatized populations, and spend time listening to recollections of traumatic events. Exposure to stress and trauma can create burnout, compassion fatigue, or secondary trauma (Pearlman & Caringi, 2009). A list of social workers was obtained from the Montana Board of Licensure. ...
This study examines levels of secondary traumatic stress (STS), compassion fatigue, burnout, and compassion satisfaction in social workers in the State of Montana. It also seeks to explain how specific organizational factors or peer support can potentially reduce the impact of these phenomena. A mixed methodology was utilized. Respondents (N = 256, response rate = 56%) completed 4 short measures: (a) the Social Work Demographics/Workplace Questionnaire, (b) the Secondary Traumatic Stress Scale (STSS; Bride, Robinson, Yegidis, & Figley, 2004), (c) the Professional Quality of Life Scale (ProQOL) (Stamm, 2010), and (d) an original peer support survey. A smaller sample (N = 15) of follow-up interviews were conducted to collect qualitative data. A theory-based approach guided the qualitative data analysis, for which ATLAS-Ti software was used. Findings indicate that social workers in the sample experience significant levels of STS (M = 33.63, SD = 11.30), with 40.9% (n = 105) meeting the criteria for posttraumatic stress disorder, using the STSS (α = .92) as a proxy measure. ProQOL (α = .76) results confirm the presence of high levels of burnout and compassion fatigue on subscale scores, with t tests indicating that individuals performing case management reported lower levels than other groups. Age and time in current job were not found to be significant factors, whereas lower levels of job satisfaction and intent to look for other work were predictive of higher burnout and compassion fatigue scores. Qualitative data analysis revealed themes related to worker perceptions of factors that contributed to their levels of STS. Implications for policy and practice changes are offered.
... feeling unable to relate to others), safety (e.g. to walk at night alone), and trust (e.g. in men, see Baird and Kracen, 2006;Morrison, 2007: 3). Typically, the shift in the individual's cognitive schema is correlative to the nature of the trauma to which the individual is vicariously exposed (Pearlman and Caringi, 2009). For example, the study of domestic abuse may lead one to doubt marriage to provide a safe and mutually loving union, and therefore, to perceive this relational outcome as something to be avoided. ...
... Following this inquiry in the press and visual reportage, I was distressed by the secrecy exercised by the Roman Catholic Church in relation to known instances of child sexual abuse. Like many scholars, I entered the field of child protection to contribute to reform in some way, a common causative risk-factor for vicarious trauma (Pearlman and Caringi, 2009;Waters, 2016). At the time, I did not readily comprehend what I was signing up for. ...
Criminology almost inevitably involves the study of sensitive and sorrowful research topics. Consequently, criminologists fall victim to the inherent risks of exposure to vicarious trauma, requiring many to practice emotional labour in the field, in the lecture hall, and perhaps, even along the corridors of the university campus itself. This article offers a reflective account of the experiences of vicarious trauma and the self-imposed, protective practice of emotional labour within doctoral research on child protection initiatives within a religious institution. It explores my experience of self-regulating my emotions in response to the reading of disturbing content, and of the active filtering of points of conversation when asked about my research within professional, familial and social settings, to prevent disturbing the emotions of others. The article encourages potential doctoral students to consider how they might prepare for themselves emotionally, socially and physically, for their inevitable encounter with difficult content, prior to the commencement of candidature, thereby increasing their resilience in facing the difficult components of a doctoral degree tasked with exploring content of a bleak and emotionally unnerving nature.
... A major focus of the literature of the field of trauma treatment (Pearlman & Caringi, 2009) has been the stressful effects of trauma work on service providers. Vicarious trauma, empathic stress, secondary traumatic stress, burnout, and compassion fatigue are concepts that identify the toxic processes experienced by trauma therapists and explain how these therapists may develop negative outcomes as a result of their work with trauma survivors. ...
... Another qualitative study found that therapists operating from a resilience-and strength-based clinical model seemed to experience VR across more dimensions than those using more traditional treatment models (Edelkott et al., 2016). Further, scholars in the trauma and resilience fields (Figley & Kiser, 2013;Pearlman & Caringi, 2009;Puvimanasinghe et al., 2015;Walsh, 2007) have noted the clinical, training, and supervisory relevance of VR, confirming that although working with trauma survivors may carry long term risks such as vicarious trauma and compassion fatigue, it may also bring the positive outcomes of improved skills to reframe and cope with negative events, and inspiration. ...
Objective: Attending to the potential impacts, both positive and negative, of clinical work with trauma survivors on professionals themselves is a crucial aspect of clinical training and supervision. Vicarious resilience refers to unique, positive effects that transform therapists in response to witnessing trauma survivors' resilience and recovery process. This study describes the development and exploratory factor analysis of the first instrument to assess vicarious resilience. Method: The Vicarious Resilience Scale (VRS) was developed and administered via electronic survey to 190 helping professionals from around the globe working with survivors of severe traumas, such as torture. Results: Exploratory factor analysis yielded 7 factors: Changes in life goals and perspective, client-inspired hope, increased recognition of clients' spirituality as a therapeutic resource, increased capacity for resourcefulness, increased self-awareness and self-care practices, increased consciousness about power and privilege relative to clients' social location, and increased capacity for remaining present while listening to trauma narratives. The Cronbach's alpha reliability of the VRS was .92 and, as hypothesized, the VRS was moderately and positively correlated with posttraumatic growth and compassion satisfaction, indicating convergent validity. The VRS was not significantly correlated with compassion fatigue (CF) or burnout, indicating discriminant validity and that vicarious resilience is a unique construct that is not merely "the opposite" of CF or burnout. Conclusion: The VRS possesses sound psychometric properties and can be utilized in supervision and training contexts and for self-assessment by professionals working with trauma survivors to aid the recognition and cultivation of vicarious resilience.
... Although thus far we have discussed the potential for interpersonal theory to be clinically useful with respect to the clinician's influence on the trauma survivor, it may also be useful for purposes of understanding and dealing with the trauma survivor's influence on the clinician. One particularly relevant kind of influence for clinicians conducting trauma-focused treatment is vicarious traumatization, the development of psychiatric symptoms (e.g., of PTSD) on the part of the clinician in response to her repeated exposure to narratives of and similar interactions with trauma survivors (Pearlman & Caringi, 2009). Detection of specific symptoms of vicarious traumatization and of disrupted patterns of interpersonal behavior more generally (e.g., the clinician's slow drift toward a submissive detached style in and outside of session, rather than her pulling the trauma survivor towards assertive attachment) is an important task for the trauma-focused clinician. ...
... It is also a task that is particularly amenable for interpersonally focused approaches to clinical supervision (e.g., Levendosky & Hopwood, 2017) in which disrupted interpersonal patterns such as those associated with trauma (vicarious and otherwise) are of primary interest. In such supervision, vicarious traumatization can not only be understood and managed for the sake of the clinician's own mental health, but potentially also leveraged in the clinical care of the trauma survivor (see Boulanger, 2018;Pearlman & Caringi, 2009). ...
Introduction
Symptom-focused theories of trauma and posttraumatic response have yielded many valuable clinical insights, ultimately leading to a number of empirically supported approaches to diagnosing and treating trauma survivors. Limitations observed in these approaches have led some trauma-focused researchers and clinicians to examine the role not only of symptoms, but of interpersonal factors on trauma and posttraumatic response. The study of such interpersonal factors is the mainstay of contemporary interpersonal theory, although at present research and clinical intervention concerning trauma has been largely detached from the insights of contemporary interpersonal theory.
Objective/method
In this paper, we review and integrate the disparate literatures on trauma and interpersonal theory.
Results/Conclusion
We conclude that synthesizing these two literatures is not only feasible, but may also generate useful clinical insights and provide directions for future research relevant to trauma.
... Examining outcomes of compassion satisfaction, STS and burnout provides a vehicle for appraising the professional quality of life of RMAs who work with trauma clients. Furthermore, protective factors were of interest with a view to mitigating potential risk factors that have been associated with more profound problems (Pearlman & Caringi, 2009;Salston & Figley, 2003). ...
... Symptoms resulting from direct contact with trauma clients include hyperarousal, avoidance, intrusions, trust and intimacy difficulties, depression, changed cognitions about safety, and increased use of substances (Levin & Greisberg, 2003;McCann & Pearlman, 1990). If left unchecked, STS has the potential to escalate into PTSD (Pearlman & Caringi, 2009). ...
Threats to professional quality of life such as compassion fatigue constitute a risk for those working with trauma-exposed individuals. Research has investigated professional quality of life in first responders, mental health practitioners, and medical personnel, but the impact on Registered Migration Agents (RMAs) who work with trauma-exposed refugee clients has not been evaluated.
This study examined the prevalence of secondary traumatic stress, burnout and compassion satisfaction in 188 RMAs, and the roles of empathy and coping strategies. More than one-third of the sample members were potentially at risk of compassion fatigue (under two-thirds indicated compassion satisfaction). Regression results suggested that compassion fatigue was significantly related both to lower empathy and to maladaptive coping; while adaptive coping and high empathy significantly predicted compassion satisfaction. Results indicate a potential occupational hazard for RMAs working with trauma clients; suggesting tailored interventions to reduce the risk of deleterious compassion fatigue on RMAs.
... A major focus of the literature of the field of trauma treatment (Pearlman & Caringi, 2009) has been the stressful effects of trauma work on service providers. Vicarious trauma, empathic stress, secondary traumatic stress, burnout, and compassion fatigue are concepts that identify the toxic processes experienced by trauma therapists and explain how these therapists may develop negative outcomes as a result of their work with trauma survivors. ...
... Another qualitative study found that therapists operating from a resilience-and strength-based clinical model seemed to experience VR across more dimensions than those using more traditional treatment models (Edelkott et al., 2016). Further, scholars in the trauma and resilience fields (Figley & Kiser, 2013;Pearlman & Caringi, 2009;Puvimanasinghe et al., 2015;Walsh, 2007) have noted the clinical, training, and supervisory relevance of VR, confirming that although working with trauma survivors may carry long term risks such as vicarious trauma and compassion fatigue, it may also bring the positive outcomes of improved skills to reframe and cope with negative events, and inspiration. ...
Objective: Attending to the potential impacts, both positive and negative, of clinical work with trauma survivors on professionals themselves is a crucial aspect of clinical training and supervision. Vicarious resilience refers to unique, positive effects that transform therapists in response to witnessing trauma survivors’ resilience and recovery process. This study describes the development and exploratory factor analysis of the first instrument to assess vicarious resilience. Method: The Vicarious Resilience Scale (VRS) was developed and administered via electronic survey to 190 helping professionals from around the globe working with survivors of severe traumas, such as torture. Results: Exploratory factor analysis yielded 7 factors: Changes in life goals and perspective, client-inspired hope, increased recognition of clients’ spirituality as a therapeutic resource, increased capacity for resourcefulness, increased self awareness and self-care practices, increased consciousness about power and privilege relative to clients’ social location, and increased capacity for remaining present while listening to trauma narratives. The Cronbach’s alpha reliability of the VRS was .92 and, as hypothesized, the VRS was moderately and positively correlated with posttraumatic growth and compassion satisfaction, indicating convergent validity. The VRS was not significantly correlated with compassion fatigue (CF) or burnout, indicating
discriminant validity and that vicarious resilience is a unique construct that is not merely “the opposite” of CF or burnout. Conclusion: The VRS possesses sound psychometric properties and can be utilized in supervision and training contexts and for self-assessment by professionals working with trauma survivors to aid the recognition and cultivation of vicarious resilience.
... Charles Murigande invited me and Laurie Anne Pearlman, a clinical psychologist (who has also been my life partner since 1992) specializing in research on and treatment of trauma (e.g., Pearlman & Caringi, 2009;Pearlman & Saakvitne, 1995), to come to Rwanda to help with healing and reconciliation. During the discussion in our small group, she and I committed ourselves to do so. ...
... Such connections also increase the likelihood that the work will fit the culture and be sustainable. Connections to both the people one works with and associates with also help inhibit or reduce vicarious trauma, the effect of substantial exposure to others' trauma (Pearlman & Caringi, 2009;Pearlman & Saakvitne, 1995). Moreover, in Rwanda, it is presumably because of relationships with some high-level officials that we have been allowed to broadcast programs that are at odds with both the authority orientation of the culture and an authority-oriented government. ...
In this article, I describe some of my research on caring, helping, active bystandership, and the origins of genocide and collective violence, as a background to interventions in real-world settings aimed to create positive change. They include working with teachers to create classrooms that promote caring and helping; training police to prevent or stop unnecessary harmful actions by fellow officers, and similarly students in schools to prevent harmful actions; promoting reconciliation, using trainings and workshops, and educational radio programs in Rwanda, Burundi, and the Congo; working to improve Dutch–Muslim relations in Amsterdam after violence; and a number of other projects. In these projects, information and participants’ experiences combined to create “experiential understanding.” Evaluation studies showed positive effects. These projects and their evaluation show that research- and theory-based interventions can be effective. An initial motivation for this work was my early childhood experience during the Holocaust in Hungary and receiving help from bystanders.
... Put differently, STS symptomatology is an everpresent risk in work with vulnerable children and families (Caringi, 2008;Caringi & Hardiman, 2012). Fortunately, STS specialists are developing specialized interventions (Bride, 2007;Pearlman & Caringi, 2009;Pryce, Shackelford, & Pryce, 2007). ...
... What is more, an emergent line of research documents STS in the adult workforce, reducing their ability to help affected children and families and contributing to turnover. Therefore, the designers of this intervention take the stance that it is an "ethical imperative" to provide STS training to those who implement evidence-based practices to children impacted by trauma (Pearlman & Caringi, 2009. Thus, a central element of the work of the NNCTC is the development of a trauma-informed system that entails evidence-based detection, treatment, and prevention mechanisms for children, families, and STS-affected social services professionals. ...
This analysis provides an emergent framework that emphasizes a neglected component of both direct practice with families and organizational development. Human emotions, both beneficial (positive emotional labor) and harmful (negative emotional labor), have received short shrift in leadership development, supervision, direct practice preparation and supports, and workforce stabilization, and professionalization.
Significantly, a key indicator of negative emotional labor—secondary traumatic stress (STS)—often has been ignored and neglected, despite the fact that it may be endemic in the workforce. STS typically results from traumatic events in practice, but it also stems from workplace violence. Often undetected and untreated, STS is at least a hidden correlate and perhaps a probable cause of myriad problems such as questionable practice with families, life-work conflicts, undesirable workforce turnover, and a sub-optimal organizational climate. Special interventions are needed.
At the same time, new organizational designs are needed to promote and reinforce positive emotional labor. Arguably, positive emotional labor and the positive organizational climates it facilitates are requisites for harmonious relations between jobs and personal lives, desirable workforce retention, and better outcomes for children and families. What’s more, specialized interventions for positive emotional labor constitute a key component in the prevention system for STS.
A dual design for positive emotional labor and STS (and other negative emotional labor) prevention/intervention is provided herewith. Early detection and rapid response systems for STS, with social work leadership, receive special attention. Guidelines for new organizational designs for emotional labor in child welfare are offered in conclusion.
... These diverging results probably reflect the multifaceted and mercurial nature of empathy as a psychological phenomenon that may be expressed and internalized in myriad ways depending on multiple factors (Batchelder et al., 2017;Stosic et al., 2022). For instance, research that differentiates between emotional and cognitive empathy suggests that vicarious stress might be triggered by the former empathic style to a greater degree than the latter (Caringi & Pearlman, 2009;Harvey, 2003;Nummenmaa et al., 2008). That is, engaging with other people's adversity instinctually and emotionally might expose the empathizer to a more visceral and personal experience of secondhand stress (Harvey, 2003;Nummenmaa et al., 2008). ...
Background
Empathy has been associated with a range of positive outcomes, including social connection, pro‐social behavior, and mental health. Nonetheless, acknowledging the multidimensional aspects of empathy, budding research indicates that sometimes empathy may precipitate negative health outcomes.
Aim
In the present paper, we explore the extent to which the multidimensional aspects of empathy—as measured by the Interpersonal Reactivity Index—may relate to the experience of increased stress during the COVID‐19 pandemic. We also examine potential behavioral moderators (altruism) and social mediators (loneliness) of any such effect.
Method
We conducted a cross‐sectional survey study of 2595 Danish university students and implemented linear regression analyses to determine the relationships between our key variables.
Results
In both crude and adjusted regression models, our findings indicate positive associations between the IRI subscales Fantasy, Empathic Concern, and Personal Distress on self‐reported stress and loneliness. Perspective Taking was marginally and inversely associated with stress but not loneliness. Altruism did not moderate these associations, but loneliness did mediate the effects of Fantasy, Empathic Concern, and Personal Distress on stress.
Discussion
Our results emphasize the importance of conceptualizing empathy in multi‐dimensional terms. Further, our study highlights the potential negative health consequences of empathy in certain settings. These results may help focus future research in this area and feed into mental health interventions.
... Il lavoro con i sopravvissuti a traumi complessi presenta numerose sfide relazionali e personali per il terapeuta. Alcuni autori descrivono la relazione con questi pazienti come un "viaggio sulle montagne russe" (Pearlman & Caringi, 2009). La gestione delle richieste di dipendenza nel paziente traumatico consiste in un processo complesso, faticoso e impegnativo per il terapeuta, e la definizione dei limiti e dei confini personali dovrà essere chiarita e ridefinita più volte. ...
La capacità di raggiungere un certo grado di vicinanza e intimità nella relazione con gli altri costituisce un fattore protettivo per la salute mentale. Nonostante questo, molte persone sperimentano difficoltà nello stabilire relazioni caratterizzate da un adeguato livello di interdipendenza. La ricerca ha identificato come le esperienze relazionali precoci avverse e lo sviluppo di un attaccamento insicuro costituiscano dei fattori ostacolanti la costruzione di una dipendenza sana nelle relazioni interpersonali. Infatti, se da un lato questi individui possono rappresentare sé stessi solo in relazione a un altro che fornisce cure e accudimento, dall’altro possono mostrare risposte avversive alla vicinanza emotiva per timore di entrare in intimità con gli altri. Nel trauma complesso vi è una pervasiva sfiducia nei confronti degli altri mentre, su di sé, prevale la credenza di essere inamabili e privi di valore. Il contesto relazionale, che precedentemente è stato fonte di abuso o neglect, diventa lo stesso nel quale può avvenire la guarigione, attraverso la costruzione di una relazione terapeutica caratterizzata da confini chiari e definiti, indicativi di una dipendenza sana. Le rappresentazioni di sé e dell’altro non integrate portano il paziente traumatico a oscillare tra tentativi di vicinanza e di distacco nella relazione terapeutica quando entra in contatto con i propri bisogni di accudimento e di dipendenza, manifestandoli attraverso strategie che tendono a elicitare il rifiuto del terapeuta e pongono il paziente a rischio di ulteriori traumatizzazioni. L’intensa qualità degli stati emotivi nel trauma comporta un alto grado di coinvolgimento per il terapeuta, che potrà mostrare sentimenti ambivalenti tra una forte sintonizzazione emotiva e un istinto a respingere e allontanare il paziente. La frattura dell’alleanza è un processo continuo nella relazione col paziente traumatico, ed è proprio attraverso di esso che il paziente guarisce nella misura in cui apprende che l’interruzione è riparabile e che la disconnessione non coincide con la perdita del senso di sé.
Parole chiave: trauma complesso, relazione terapeutica, confini, vicinanza, intimità, dipendenza
... It relates to the deep emotional exhaustion experienced after repeated exposure to traumatic stories. Similarly, vicarious traumasometimes known as secondary traumatic stressrefers to the effects on an individual that result from being exposed to someone else's stories of trauma (Pearlman and Caringi, 2009). For example, teachers working with students who have been exposed to traumatic events can experience vicarious trauma through learning about students' trauma exposure and empathising with their suffering . ...
Working with trauma-affected youth in physical education (PE) can be a challenging and, at times, stressful and emotionally demanding process. Whilst little is known about how student trauma affects in-service teachers, even less is known about how it might impact pre-service PE teachers. The aims of this paper are therefore to (1) explore pre-service PE teachers’ experiences of working with students affected by trauma, and (2) consider the potential implications of this for their well-being. Through an online professional learning programme, we worked with three distinct groups of pre-service PE teachers (n = 22). The workshops generated data through individual activities and group tasks that allowed participants to reflect on their experiences. Findings revealed that pre-service teachers had several encounters during their school-based placements with young people who may have experienced trauma. These experiences were felt by the pre-service PE teachers – both emotionally and physically. Pre-service PE teachers were encouraged to develop self-care strategies; however, our participants indicated that this was not always easy to do. That said, pre-service PE teachers were able to describe some of the strategies they engaged with to take care of themselves and safeguard their own well-being. Many of these strategies were relational and involved spending time with others – such as school colleagues (teachers and/or mentors) – who were available to offer both practical and emotional guidance and support. Thus, our findings reinforce the importance of pre-service teachers learning about self-care and emotional regulation as part of initial teacher education courses.
... The impact of trauma stories on practitioners is conceptualised as vicarious traumatisation, which develops from empathically listening to or "witnessing" traumatic stories and symptoms (Pearlman & Caringi, 2009;Herman, 1992;McCann & Pearlman, 1990). Practitioners can suffer from secondary trauma symptoms such as intrusive thoughts of clients' stories, negative feelings of distress and outrage, raised anxiety and startle responses. ...
This article presents the participation of a client reference group in a qualitative research study which explored clients’ experiences of counselling and natural therapies services in a women’s health centre. The article focuses on the development of working relationships between the reference group and researchers using a capacity building approach which facilitated a two-way exchange of skills, knowledge and experience. This ensured that the views of clients and community members were represented in the research design, thereby increasing its rigour and accountability and fostering social inclusion. Members’ reflections on their journey and the changes they experienced as outcomes of the research process are presented. Ethical issues in working with the reference group are explored. Some members experienced vicarious traumatisation as a result of their exposure to data on domestic violence. This analysis of the use of a reference group and its beneficial impact on research outcomes will be of interest to other researchers looking to work with a client reference or advisory group.
... The review further includes vicarious trauma (VT) and vicarious resilience (VR), terms which are often used interchangeably with CF and CS within the literature (e.g., Meadors et al., 2010;Silveira & Boyer, 2015). VT is defined as the negative transformation in the helper that results from empathic engagement with trauma survivors and their trauma material, combined with a commitment or responsibility to help them (Pearlman & Caringi, 2009). In contrast, VR refers to the positive impact on and personal growth of therapists resulting from exposure to clients' resilience (Hernández et al., 2007). ...
Professionals employed within the field of domestic and sexual violence (DV/SV) are known to experience both positive and negative psychological impacts because of the nature of their work. This review aims to establish which factors influence the professional quality of life (ProQOL) of DV/SV advocates. This group is known to face challenges that are specific to their working practices including scarce resources and frequent exposure to traumatic material. The systematic review protocol was designed based upon Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) 2020 guidance. Following a mixed-methods convergent segregated approach, a systematic search for qualitative and quantitative research within PsycINFO, Academic Search Complete, CINAHL, MEDLINE, Sage, Taylor & Francis, Wiley Online Library, and BASE was undertaken. Peer-reviewed empirical research and relevant gray literature, published in English, were considered for inclusion. Thirty articles were identified (16 quantitative, 13 qualitative, and 1 mixed-methods study), and assessed for methodological quality and risk of bias using established quality appraisal tools. An array of risk and protective factors emerged including communication competence, support from co-workers, office resources, and occupational stigma. A gap in the current evidence base was identified regarding the role that personal strengths may play in the well-being of those employed within the DV/SV sector. The ProQOL of DV/SV advocates is complex and dependent upon a variety of factors specific to their situation at the time. However, the findings of this review provide an important evidence base for future research avenues as well as policies and procedures for this workforce specifically.
... Pearlman and Caringi (2009, p. 202) define vicarious trauma as 'the negative transformation in the helper that results from empathic engagement with trauma survivors and their trauma material, combined with a commitment or responsibility to help them'. Similar to primary trauma, vicarious trauma often manifests in the form of nightmares and intrusive thoughts, distressing changes to a person's core systems of meaning, their relationships, their sense of hope or their feelings of safety (Barrington & Shakespeare-Finch, 2013;Hunter & Schofield, 2006;Pack, 2013;Pearlman & Caringi, 2009). ...
Criminological research is a challenging field in many ways. The discipline criticizes the labeling carried out by the criminal justice system, which marks certain groups of people as “deviant,” “criminal,” or “dangerous.” Nevertheless, criminological studies often fall into the same trap. By relying on labels that the criminal justice system has applied when accessing the field through prisons, probation officers, or other kinds of support systems for offenders, sampling and labeling are intertwined. This article scrutinizes how qualitative reconstructive research supports and reproduces social inequality. It applies the concept of “doing social problems” and emphasizes a constructionist point of view. Furthermore, we review the sampling mechanisms of recent studies: What concepts of “social problems” do we see? What world does the criminological research at hand reconstruct? In our conclusion, we call for a sensitive approach and a broad discussion of possibilities and limitations. To us, qualitative reconstructive research – in fact – seems to offer some solutions for making the processes of labeling visible. We ask how social knowledge systems concerning crime and deviance are constituted and how we, as criminologists, contribute to them through our research practice.
... Pearlman and Caringi (2009, p. 202) define vicarious trauma as 'the negative transformation in the helper that results from empathic engagement with trauma survivors and their trauma material, combined with a commitment or responsibility to help them'. Similar to primary trauma, vicarious trauma often manifests in the form of nightmares and intrusive thoughts, distressing changes to a person's core systems of meaning, their relationships, their sense of hope or their feelings of safety (Barrington & Shakespeare-Finch, 2013;Hunter & Schofield, 2006;Pack, 2013;Pearlman & Caringi, 2009). ...
Many of us work in a dispiriting academic industry run by corporate philosophies which demand our time is increasingly spent towards marketing ourselves, writing grants, obtaining research funds and undertaking projects which generally tend to have less benefit for the people we study yet more for our academic kudos and that of our institutions. As university funding structures crumble and instead hone in on new student markets and the pursuit of big grants, the pressure on us increases and so, in turn, research calls become increasingly competitive. Many of us are continually rejected particularly if we try to do ethnographic research and even more so if it means that it is done ‘differently’, ‘unconventionally’ and ‘covertly’ with some of society’s most dangerous and hard-to-reach groups. Notwithstanding the time invested in writing proposals and even in the event they are successful, before commencement, projects must also secure ethical clearance – a means of research governance and control, which frowns on ethnography – thus reducing further time and resource away from the studying the fast-paced change of the twenty-first century. We subsequently believe that our academic worth thereafter translates to further investment in publishing in ‘high-impact-factor journals’ and producing a seemingly never-ending stream of social media updates and waiting for ‘likes’ about our ‘research excellence’ and academic activity. However, as I saw written on the wall of a building where thousands of Bosnians were executed in the 1990s genocide ‘a like doesn’t change the world’. In the same vein, we have to ask ourselves if what we are doing actually contributes to the positive social change we outline in our research proposals. If – because of restrictive funding calls and ethics committees – we cannot access the world’s most excluded groups, study between the nooks and crannies of democratic societies and propose unconventional research methods, how can we report on the real harms of the social structure? This paper offers a twofold reflection – firstly, how can one ‘break from the shackles’ of this academic capitalism, and secondly, it evidences what this liberation can produce by providing reflexive analysis of three ethnographic projects I have undertaken over the last 5 years: (1) a two-year study of Spain’s largest drug market, (2) a three-year study of the refugee crisis across Europe and (3) an 18-month undercover study of a luxury brothel.
... If reactive trauma-triggered behavior occurs, it may become a stressor for the caregivers, manifesting in them as anger over feeling insufficiently protected and overwhelmed by the overall presentation of consumers with tremendous trauma (Bride et al., 2009). Reactions can manifest as secondary traumatic stress, compassion fatigue, and PTSD (Figley, 1995;Huggard, 2003;Pearlman & Caringi, 2009). The lifetime PTSD rate for social service providers is three times that of the general population (Bride et al., 2009). ...
A growing body of evidence connects traumatic stress and homelessness, which illustrates the importance of trauma and-resiliency-informed care (TIC) to appropriately serve persons experiencing homelessness (PEH). This paper reviews the literature on traumatic stress, including the biology of trauma as well as psychosocial, environmental, and systemic factors. These areas of knowledge constitute necessary elements when designing systems of care for PEH in order to provide effective services, avoid re-traumatization, and create healing environments to foster resilience. The authors identify trauma-specific evidence-based therapies, and comprehensive programmatic approaches that stem from established trauma-informed core values. Practical applications of the reviewed literature are utilized to demonstrate how organizations can adopt a trauma and resiliency-informed approach, based on both the reviewed literature as well as the authors’ collective clinical experience. A key takeaway is an emerging consensus that service providers must consider trauma when designing and offering services to persons with a history of homelessness. The authors offer recommendations for future pathways to create outcome measurement tools for social service providers based on the theory of self-efficacy and using concrete, quantifiable variables.
... There has been a call for research on secondary traumatic stress given religious leaders' roles in supporting individuals in crisis (Hendron et al., 2012). Secondary traumatic stress, conceptually similar to compassion fatigue, describes the stress reaction of mental health workers who work with traumatized patients (Canfield, 2005;Pearlman & Caringi, 2009). They potentially experience symptoms similar to those of PTSD, such as avoidance, re-experiencing, and hyperarousal (Bride et al., 2007;Canfield, 2005). ...
Religious leaders face numerous mental health challenges, and prior research suggests that some experience symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) due to work-related experiences. This study employed a diverse sample of 274 religious leaders to (a) qualitatively describe the types of work-related experiences they identify as particularly stressful or overwhelming, (b) assess the prevalence of PTSD symptoms associated with these experiences, and (c) test hypothesized associations between PTSD symptoms and narcissism. The study found that the stressful experiences reported typically involved relational conflict, having limited resources, or caring for people suffering. Over half of the sample endorsed symptoms that were above the cutoff for a clinical concern for PTSD, and PTSD symptoms were significantly associated with symptoms of both vulnerable narcissism and grandiose narcissism. Practical implications for the ongoing formation and support of religious leaders are discussed.
... Professional quality of life, the quality that a professional feels in relation to his or her work (Stamm, 2010, p. 8), is a key concept in occupational health. Conceptualised as a combination of both negative (compassion fatigue) and positive (compassion satisfaction) aspects (Figley & Roop, 2006;Pearlman & Caringi, 2009;Stamm & Figley, 2010), professional quality of life can be achieved as professionals in various fields such as healthcare, social services, education, law enforcement and the like help at the time of crises or need. ...
Background:
Compassion fatigue and compassion satisfaction are caring concepts that have been explored among nurses in specialized hospital units. However, there is paucity of studies exploring the occupational determinants among general medical-surgical Registered Nurses.
Aim:
To determine the prevalence and to identify the occupational determinants of compassion satisfaction and compassion fatigue among general medical-surgical Registered Nurses.
Design:
Cross-sectional.
Methods:
From August - November 2017, 121 consecutively-selected general medical-surgical Registered Nurses from 5 hospitals completed a 4-part survey packet composed of the participant information sheet, the Professional Quality of Life Version 5, the McCloskey-Mueller Satisfaction Scale, and the Eden Warmth Survey - Employee Questionnaire. Stepwise-forward multiple linear regression was employed to identify the occupational determinants of compassion fatigue and compassion satisfaction. The STROBE checklist was followed in reporting this study (See Supplementary File 1).
Results:
The prevalence of moderate to high levels of compassion satisfaction was 90.09% while burnout and secondary stress, the facets of compassion fatigue, had a prevalence of 74.38% and 83.47%, respectively. Among the identified occupational determinants, only job satisfaction and nurse colleague relationship positively influenced compassion satisfaction. In contrary, although higher monthly income positively influenced both dimensions of compassion fatigue, nurse colleague relationship had the strongest negative effect.
Conclusion:
Among the occupational determinants of compassion fatigue and compassion satisfaction, nurse colleague relationship had the strongest influence. This result highlights the importance of positive nurse colleague relationships and paves way for the development and initiation of appropriate strategies.
Relevance to clinical practice:
The findings of this study paves way for the development of institutional policies and individualized programs geared towards building rapport and communication among Registered Nurses assigned in general medical-surgical units. Likewise, the high prevalence of compassion fatigue needs further exploration to develop appropriate measures to mitigate its development among general medical-surgical nurses.
... Most social workers are at least familiar with, if not always great at, implementing traditional strategies for self-care such as boundary setting with service consumers and work responsibilities and making sure to take respite to avoid illnesses or to heal. Intentionally and consistently creating opportunities for rest; engaging in activities that offer distraction and personal growth; and developing and maintaining sustainable intimate, family, and interpersonal relationships are ethical imperatives for those in helping professions, such as social work (Pearlman & Caringi, 2009). As renowned environmental and political activist Audre Lorde decried, "Caring for myself is not self-indulgence, it is self-preservation, and that is an act of political warfare" (origin unknown). ...
Gradual environmental degradation, more extreme climate change events, and related environmental injustices affect individuals and communities every day. Social work entities around the world are increasingly highlighting professional responsibilities for addressing the global climate crisis. Often, social workers experience vicarious trauma from work with those immediately affected. Working within the context of the global climate crisis brings further risk. Social workers may be personally affected, or experiencing their own challenges, such as climate anxiety and eco-grief. Thus, radical self-care is a dire need as social workers promote sustainable communities and environments and seek ecological justice for all. This article discusses the health and mental health impacts of the compounding factors of the climate crisis, modern technology, and current political contexts. Activism for change and ecotherapeutic strategies are presented as radical self-care for social workers, in both academic and practice-based settings. These strategies are essential for recognizing, legitimizing, and addressing the need for radical self-care practices in the global climate crisis.
... This affects the way clinicians view themselves, their world view, beliefs and values, and therefore over time can change their cognitive schema in a negative way (Pearlman & Saakvitne, 1995). More recent research has explored vicarious traumatisation and identified it as a change process (Pearlman & Caringi, 2009) and has conceptualised certain positive changes resulting from trauma work such as vicarious posttraumatic growth (Arnold, Calhoun, Tedeschi & Cann, 2005) or as vicarious resilience (Hermandez, Gansei & Engstrom, 2007). One instrument designed to measure vicarious trauma is the Traumatic Stress Institute Belief Scale -Revision L (TSI-BSL) which measures and assesses cognitive disruptions in psychological areas of safety, trust, control, intimacy, and power (Jenkins & Baird, 2002). ...
The terms secondary traumatic stress, compassion fatigue and vicarious trauma are often used in literature to describe emotional consequences for health professionals working with traumatised clients. While research has paid some attention to social workers, care givers and other health professions in contact with traumatised clients, little specific attention has been paid to clinicians working in the alcohol and drug field. This article reports on a systematic review of literature that looked at what had been said about one or more of the three terms outlined above, for professionals that work within the alcohol and drug field. The aim of this review is twofold. Firstly, to increase awareness of an issue that appears to have gone unnoticed within this sector. Secondly, to highlight the importance of such awareness for clinicians and those involved in managing services within this sector. The current review found few published papers that investigated these terms with reference to alcohol and drug clinicians. However, the available literature reviewed did show that alcohol and drug clinicians are at risk of experiencing secondary traumatic stress and compassion fatigue. No literature was found that discussed vicarious trauma. The implications of this absence of literature are discussed, particularly with reference to the health and wellbeing of alcohol and drug clinicians. Recommendations for future research in this area are discussed.
... At the same time, therapists who work in treatment of complex trauma often experience vicarious traumatization, which may also include altered systems of meaning-making that threaten the therapist's belief systems and faith practices. Pearlman and Caringi (2009) state, "disrupted spirituality is a hallmark of both direct and indirect trauma, and rampant cynicism or despair in clients with complex trauma can challenge the helper's sense of meaning and hope" (p. 209). ...
Disrupted systems of meaning are a core domain in which adults with a complex trauma history are impacted, often leading to adversely affected belief systems. For adult survivors of childhood trauma, experiences related to shame, betrayal, meaning-making, and mourning often complicate their spiritual and/or religious beliefs. This article uses a clinical case example to introduce and illustrate the relevance of a particular complex trauma intervention framework in the context of spiritually-informed treatment with adult Christian clients. Component-Based Psychotherapy (CBP; Hopper, Grossman, Spinazzola, & Zucker, in press) consists of four principal components: (a) relationship, (b) regulation, (c) parts work, and (d) narrative, and is predicated upon the importance of clienttherapist parallel process to therapeutic movement and client change. Each treatment component is summarized and practically applied to case material, with particular focus on the ways in which client's faith beliefs and practices can serve as a potential resource and/or barrier in treatment. Particular integrative focus is given to the final treatment component (narrative), where issues of a client's lament, spiritual meaning making, and the therapist's potential vulnerabilities in working with this population are addressed.
... An incidental and interesting finding in this study relates to the drawings depicting a worrying professional meeting and can indicate the professional strain clinicians can experience during their daily routines. Problems such as high burnout rates (Maslach, 2003;Maslach, Jackson, & Leiter, 1996;Maslach & Leiter, 2005), and compassion fatigue in health professions has been well characterized (Fiagley, 1995(Fiagley, , 1997(Fiagley, , 2002Gerge, 2011a,b;Pearlman & Saakvitne, 1995a,b;Pearlman & Caringi, 2009;Wilson, 2004). Presumably arts-based self-experiencing methodology can provide possibilities in supervision to make explicit, and overt, implicit states and tacit knowing about overburdening tasks, and how we in our professions will be impacted of the suffering of other human beings. ...
In this paper we discuss the identification of defining characteristics in pictorial artefacts based upon a pre-understanding of traumatization, dissociation and recovery, metaphorical processing, and pictorial semiotics. Signs of reduced arousal, increased positive affect and states, self-efficacy, and self-esteem, are considered important parameters when assessing pictorial artefacts conducted in therapy. These signs, related to overcoming traumatization and a re-established experience of safety, as well as the concept of neuroception, should be easily identifiable via the use of appropriately designed assessment tools. We tested this hypothesis on a series of non-clinical material consisting of drawings produced by 122 experienced clinicians. Through the identification of defining concepts in artwork we developed a preliminary assessment tool with the aims of guiding clinicians in identifying perceptions of fright in relation to safety and in facilitating the nurturing of safe states in clients when conducting pictorial artefacts. This tool consists of plain observation and subjective appraisal combined with the identification of seven predefined perspectives; how is the picture made, colour utilization, depiction of states and body positions, which affects/emotions, symbols and secondary metaphors/symbols for the self can be recognised in relation to a neuroception of threat with respect to safety.
... Another qualitative study found that therapists operating from a resilience-and strength-based clinical model seemed to experience VR across more dimensions than those using more traditional treatment models (Edelkott et al., 2016). Further, scholars in the trauma and resilience fields (Figley & Kiser, 2013;Pearlman & Caringi, 2009;Puvimanasinghe et al., 2015;Walsh, 2007) have noted the clinical, training, and supervisory relevance of VR, confirming that although working with trauma survivors may carry long term risks such as vicarious trauma and compassion fatigue, it may also bring the positive outcomes of improved skills to reframe and cope with negative events, and inspiration. ...
Objective: Attending to the potential impacts, both positive and negative, of clinical work with trauma survivors on professionals themselves is a crucial aspect of clinical training and supervision. Vicarious resilience refers to unique, positive effects that transform therapists in response to witnessing trauma survivors’ resilience and recovery process. This study describes the development and exploratory factor analysis of the first instrument to assess vicarious resilience. Method: The Vicarious Resilience Scale (VRS) was developed and administered via electronic survey to 190 helping professionals from around the globe working with survivors of severe traumas, such as torture. Results: Exploratory factor analysis yielded 7 factors: Changes in life goals and perspective, client-inspired hope, increased recognition of clients’ spirituality as a therapeutic resource, increased capacity for resourcefulness, increased self-awareness and self-care practices, increased consciousness about power and privilege relative to clients’ social location, and increased capacity for remaining present while listening to trauma narratives. The Cronbach’s alpha reliability of the VRS was .92 and, as hypothesized, the VRS was moderately and positively correlated with posttraumatic growth and compassion satisfaction, indicating convergent validity. The VRS was not significantly correlated with compassion fatigue (CF) or burnout, indicating discriminant validity and that vicarious resilience is a unique construct that is not merely “the opposite” of CF or burnout. Conclusion: The VRS possesses sound psychometric properties and can be utilized in supervision and training contexts and for self-assessment by professionals working with trauma survivors to aid the recognition and cultivation of vicarious resilience.
... The impact of trauma stories on practitioners is conceptualised as vicarious traumatisation, which develops from empathically listening to or "witnessing" traumatic stories and symptoms (Pearlman & Caringi, 2009;Herman, 1992;McCann & Pearlman, 1990). Practitioners can suffer from secondary trauma symptoms such as intrusive thoughts of clients' stories, negative feelings of distress and outrage, raised anxiety and startle responses. ...
This article presents the participation of a client reference group in a qualitative research study which explored clients’ experiences of counselling and natural therapies services in a women’s health centre. The article focuses on the development of working relationships between the reference group and researchers using a capacity building approach which facilitated a two-way exchange of skills, knowledge and experience. This ensured that the views of clients and community members were represented in the research design, thereby increasing its rigour and accountability and fostering social inclusion. Members’ reflections on their journey and the changes they experienced as outcomes of the research process are presented. Ethical issues in working with the reference group are explored. Some members experienced vicarious traumatisation as a result of their exposure to data on domestic violence. This analysis of the use of a reference group and its beneficial impact on research outcomes will be of interest to other researchers looking to work with a client reference or advisory group.
... At the same time, advocates may encounter clients who do not heed their advice, such as victims who return to abusive partners (Dunn & Powell-Williams, 2007), leaving advocates to cope with the clash of their professional values and victims' self-professed needs (Powell-Williams, White, & Powell-Williams, 2013;Ullman, 2005). These difficulties compound with advocates' risk of vicarious traumatization (McCann & Pearlman, 1990), an occupational hazard that can be aggravated if they receive inadequate emotional support from their organizations (Slattery & Goodman, 2009;Wasco, Campbell, & Clark, 2002), lack access to shared power in the workplace (Slattery & Goodman, 2009), or generally face barriers in aiding the clients in whom they have become emotionally invested (Pearlman & Caringi, 2009). ...
In contrast to works on victim advocacy in specific organizational contexts, this article introduces the term “victim work” to capture the vast array of victim-related roles and tasks that have proliferated in recent decades. Data are derived from in-depth interviews with 30 “victim workers” in public and private agencies in two Midwestern states. The interviews revealed diverse work experiences that spanned hotlines, crisis response, legal proceedings, and postconviction support. Three themes emerged that characterize “victim work”: flexibility, emotions, and the challenge of “fit”—the multifaceted difficulties of interacting with victims and agents of the justice system. Based on the findings, we offer a revised model of criminal justice vis-à-vis victims and implications for practice and future research.
... In the literature, this impact of working with trauma on professionals has been interchangeably termed vicarious trauma (McCann & Pearlman, 1990), compassion fatigue (Figley, 1999), secondary traumatic stress (Figley, 1995) and burnout (Maslach, 1982) . For the purposes of this paper, the conceptual framework of vicarious trauma (McCann & Pearlman, 1990;Pearlman & Caringi, 2009) is used as it was designed to capture the psychological consequences of working with trauma survivors . ...
Traumatic events are highly prevalent in South African society and psychologists who work with survivors of trauma have been identified as particularly at risk of being adversely affected by their work, and experiencing vicarious trauma. This study aimed to explore the experiences of a group of South African psychologists who work predominantly with trauma survivors. Individual semi-structured interviews were conducted with six psychologists (females = 67%). The predominant type of trauma encountered by participants in clinical practice was interpersonal trauma in the form of physical and sexual abuse (83%). Data were analysed using thematic analysis. All participants reported symptoms of vicarious trauma including disruption in cognitive schemas, symptoms characteristic of post-traumatic stress disorder, and somatic symptoms. Participants also reported vicarious post-traumatic growth including an enhanced sense of interpersonal connectedness and positive changes in their philosophy of life and self-perceptions. The findings serve to sensitise psychologists to the impact of working with trauma survivors so as to enhance the efficiency of psychological service delivery to traumatised populations.
English language teachers, especially those working with refugees and vulnerable populations, are at risk of empathy-based stress (e.g., burnout, compassion fatigue, vicarious trauma). Due to conditions prevalent in the English language teaching context and relationships of trust that develop classrooms, instructors may inadvertently be exposed to and impacted by learner trauma. Over time, empathetic engagement and hearing troubling stories can result in vicarious trauma. One key factor that puts instructors at risk of vicarious trauma and other empathy-based stress is unclear boundaries. In this article, we draw on data from 44 semi-structured ethnographic interviews with language instructors who self-identified as being negatively impacted by their work with learners who have had trauma experiences. We report specifically on themes related to boundaries that emerged from the data. The findings focus on factors that contribute to crossed boundaries, such as overfamiliarity, role misperception, a saviour mentality, and dual relationships. We also describe benefits of and strategies for setting and maintaining boundaries. The article concludes with implications and recommendations for policy makers, organizational decision makers, and English language instructors.
Providing academic insights, reflections, and practical guidance on ethically conducting qualitative criminological research, this book emphasises real-life examples to navigate research risks, boundaries, and emotions, while spotlighting reflexivity as a pivotal tool for qualitative inquiries, serving as an ethical compass throughout the research process.
By engaging with this book, readers will be exposed to critical themes of managing risks, including physical harm and psychological trauma, navigating boundaries, dealing with the intense emotions that surface during research, and the importance of reflexivity in qualitative criminological research. The themes are illustrated through real-life examples that the authors have encountered during their fieldwork, using reflexive practices to highlight how they were able to ethically deal with unforeseen challenges. By presenting solutions, asking critical questions, and offering practical recommendations, the book guides readers on mitigating ethical issues, and provides a comprehensive approach to conducting research responsibly and ethically.
Ethics in Qualitative Criminological Research will be useful for undergraduate and postgraduate students, academic researchers and practitioners with an interest in conducting research, and pracademics occupying both practitioner and academic roles.
Multicultural and feminist perspectives are characterized by a variety of similarities, and the integration of multicultural and feminist perspectives in counseling psychology has been a key aim of those in these fields for decades. However, the effective implementation this approach often has been proven challenging and elusive, with difficulties defining the complexity of feminist and multicultural factors in inclusive and meaningful ways. Integrating multicultural and feminist perspectives, The Oxford Handbook of Feminist Multicultural Counseling features the accumulated knowledge of approximately forty years of scholarship that flows out of feminist and multicultural efforts within counseling psychology. It brings a feminist multicultural perspective to core domains within counseling psychology such as ethical frameworks, lifespan development, identify formation and change, growth-oriented and ecological assessment, and career theory and practice. Emphasis is placed on the intersections among social identities related to gender, ethnicity/race, sexual orientation, social class and socioeconomic status, religion, disability, and nationality. Articles provide insights and perspectives about specific groups of women include African American women, Latinas, women with disabilities, women in poverty, women who have experienced trauma, and American Muslim women. Also featured are a range of additional multicultural feminist psychological practices such as feminist multicultural mentoring, teaching, training, and social activism.
Convict criminology (CC) teaches us that it is essential for critical prison studies to foreground the voices, views and lived experiences of those who have endured criminalization and incarceration, for without access to the experiential, we are unable to accurately conceptualize or understand the pains of imprisonment. Critical criminologists, both those who identify as formerly incarcerated and as ‘noncons’ or prisoner allies (for example, see ‘Qualities of a Prisoner Ally’ information sheet created by prisoners of the Prisoner’s Justice Day Committee, Vancouver, BC. Available at: https://penalpress.com), have taken up this charge primarily via qualitative research that incorporates fieldwork, interviews, observation and autoethnography – and where possible, ethnography. Following the edict ‘nothing about us, without us’, convict criminology advances a critical approach to prison research that centres notions of justice, diversity and inclusivity as primary research values. We situate this chapter within a CC perspective to help us unpack the emotional labour involved in doing critical prison research. Given the traumatic nature and long-lasting effects of incarceration, we showcase how this kind of inclusion and representation in critical prison research can take different emotional tolls on formerly incarcerated scholars. Using the second author’s lived experience of incarceration and her participation in a large-scale qualitative research project on the emotional geography of the Canadian federal penal landscape as the primary object lesson, we also outline the advantages of inclusive research team membership for the project and those who are involved in it, namely, the differently located research team members as well as the participants. We conclude the chapter with a discussion of some of the ways that allied prison researchers can support their research assistants, graduate students and colleagues with criminal histories as they cope with the emotional labour of conducting critical prison research and outline a series of possible coping strategies for researchers who are exposed to and who may be struggling with the emotional toll of the research topic and content, including the intense and oftentimes emotional participant interactions and observations they witness while in the field.
Background
Rates of aggressive offending among Justice-Involved Young Women (JIYW) have increased over the past few decades. Yet, there is little discourse, research, or intervention to address it among young women.Aims/hypotheses:This study hypothesized that a higher capacity for self-restraint measured on the Weinberger Adjustment Inventory (WAI) scale among 14-18-year-old JIYW would moderate the relationship between the exposure to violence and serious aggressive offending.Methods
The pathways to desistance project, a multi-site, longitudinal study, included a sample of JIYW aged 14–18 years old (n = 184). The baseline data were analyzed using linear multiple regression.ResultsAfter controlling for two variables, race and neighborhood conditions, the overall model was significant (F = 8.31 (df = 7,176), p = .001). The predictor variables (exposure to violence and self-restraint) explained 25% of the outcome variable (level of aggressive offending). The moderation result was significant such that higher self-restraint weakens the relationship between exposure to violence and aggressive offending (B = − 0.01, t (176) = -2.39, p = .018).Conclusions/implicationsThis study highlights the need to disrupt the trauma- to- prison pipeline by enhancing positive social skills in a trauma-responsive manner, which could mitigate the effect of exposure to violence among JIYW.
This paper examines the written reflections of 30 Canadian undergraduate students who participated in an international field course focusing on migration and human rights in Mexico. It endeavors to understand how the students reconciled their thoughts and feelings about trauma and oppression in an intercultural setting. Borrowing Foucault’s ‘ethic of discomfort’, which emphasizes the proactive and transformative potential of discomfort in education, the paper extends existing scholarship in teaching and learning around study abroad and social justice by focusing on ethically complex situations in the field. The findings reveal that while preparation for unprecedented and unforeseeable scenarios during an international field course was challenging for faculty, exposing students to the realities of migration ultimately facilitated learning.
Recent studies have highlighted the increased risk of exposure to PTSD among military personnel who are faced with extreme stressor events, the stress related to the peacekeeping mission, indicates that even peacekeepers could be at risk of developing PTSD independently of war attacks or wounds. The resilience's construct has a strong theoretical background, and in a pragmatic way has been shown to be a significant stress resistance resource in multiple groups, like those involved in military and security operations. The aim of this study was to examine the impact of resilience on the relationship between post-traumatic stress disorder (measured through the Davidson trauma scale) and professional quality of life. Our sample included 399 (138 females, 261 males) military who carried out peacekeeping operations between 2017 and 2019. In order to test the moderation hypothesis, a hierarchical regression analysis was performed, and a three-step regression model was carried out. The results that emerged in our study reveal that the moderating effect of resilience is evident in all the effects of on the professional quality of life.. The moderating effect of the dispositional resilience on the relationship between Post-traumatic Stress Disorder and the professional quality of life of the military returning from the peacekeeping operations.
Recent studies have highlighted the increased risk of exposure to PTSD among military personnel who are faced with extreme stressor events, the stress related to the peacekeeping mission, indicates that even peacekeepers could be at risk of developing PTSD independently of war attacks or wounds. The resilience construct has a strong theoretical background, and in a pragmatic way has been shown to be a significant stress resistance resource in multiple groups, like those involved in military and security operations. The aim of this study was to examine the impact of resilience on the relationship between post-traumatic stress disorder (measured through the Davidson trauma scale) and professional quality of life. Our sample included 399 (138 females, 261 males) military who carried out peacekeeping operations between 2017 and 2019. In order to test the moderation hypothesis, a hierarchical regression analysis was performed, and a three-step regression model was carried out. The results that emerged in our study reveal that the moderating effect of resilience is evident in all the effects of on the professional quality of life..The moderating effect of the dispositional resilience on the relationship between Post-traumatic Stress Disorder and the professional quality of life of the military returning from the peacekeeping operations.
This is the official manual for the ProQOL (the Professional Quality of Life Scale) which is a 30 item self-report measure of the positive and negative effects of working with people who have experienced suffering and trauma. The ProQol contains three subscales measuring Compassion Fatigue (Burnout and Secondary Traumatic Stress scales) and Compassion Satisfaction (Compassion Satisfaction scale). The ProQOL is the most commonly used measure of the negative and positive affects of helping others who experience suffering and trauma. The measure has been in use since 1995 and is cited in over 1,000 peer-reviewed papers. The manual explains the background, theory, practical and research uses for the measure.
Homelessness continues to be a pervasive problem nationally and internationally. In the USA, the National Law Center on Poverty and Homelessness has estimated the annual number of homeless individuals to be in the range of 9.9–10.9 million sheltered and unsheltered persons, including those who have moved in with others due to financial hardship. Many of these persons suffer from severe mental illness or chronic substance abuse disorders. Additionally, many homeless persons have trauma histories, including abuse, neglect, and family and community violence. Many more have also experienced the traumatic effects of homelessness itself, including violence, revictimization, stigma, hunger, poor health, and other negative outcomes. To address the ongoing effects of traumatic stress, homelessness service settings are implementing trauma-informed care (TIC). This chapter will review the tenets of TIC and examine the personal and organizational barriers that may impede its successful implementation. Strategies for overcoming these barriers will also be highlighted.
The results trap happens when social workers believe they are responsible for and/or that they have control over the outcomes of their clients. This article explains the etiology and signs of the results trap along with highlighting how it can impair a social worker’s practice as it fosters stress and burnout. The article explores how a spiritual-based examination of practice perspectives and self-care can help practitioners avoid or limit the impact of this trap. Examination and consideration of spiritual and religious voices as part of a spiritual self-care strategy can help practitioners utilize these approaches while simultaneously avoiding this trap.
Writing in a narrative style, the authors describe the continuing education model of the Red Well Theater Group. The model combines a study group format with a play reading performance module to enhance the professional development of the Group’s members and their audiences of colleagues. The educational goals are to: 1) didactically study the principles and practice of group therapy; 2) theatrically illuminate concepts, relational themes, and small group dynamics relevant to group therapy; 3) experientially deepen therapist empathy for the challenge of being in a group; and 4) provide a vitalizing experience in support of therapist well-being. As an example of this model in action, the authors elaborate their experience preparing The Great God Pan, by Amy Herzog, for presentation at the 2014 American Group Psychotherapy Association (AGPA) Annual Meeting.
Child welfare workers speak of the satisfaction of knowing they have made a critical difference in children’s lives; at the same time, there is also the difficulty of dealing with the stressful aspects of working in this field. Some level of stress is inherent in child welfare work, and this affects both individuals and organizations. Exposure to details of the suffering of maltreated children is a job requirement for child welfare workers as they carefully investigate maltreatment allegations and interact with people who often do not want to see them and who may threaten them or try to hurt them. In addition to their day-to-day responsibilities, child welfare workers may also have to face the news of a child’s injury or death that they could not prevent. The combination of all of these factors can certainly be extremely taxing, and severely stressful events can result in negative effects on functioning in child welfare workers, such as traumatic stress, depression, and anxiety.
Compassion fatigue (CF) is stress resulting from exposure to a traumatized individual. CF has been described as the convergence of secondary traumatic stress (STS) and cumulative burnout (BO), a state of physical and mental exhaustion caused by a depleted ability to cope with one’s everyday environment. Professionals regularly exposed to the traumatic experiences of the people they service, such as healthcare, emergency and community service workers, are particularly susceptible to developing CF. This can impact standards of patient care, relationships with colleagues, or lead to more serious mental health conditions such as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), anxiety or depression. A systematic review of the effectiveness of interventions to reduce CF in healthcare, emergency and community service workers was conducted. Thirteen relevant studies were identified, the majority of which were conducted on nurses (n = 10). Three included studies focused on community service workers (social workers, disability sector workers), while no studies targeting emergency service workers were identified. Seven studies reported a significant difference post-intervention in BO (n = 4) or STS (n = 3). This review revealed that evidence of the effectiveness of CF interventions in at-risk health and social care professions is relatively recent. Therefore, we recommend more research to determine how best to protect vulnerable workers at work to prevent not only CF, but also the health and economic consequences related to the ensuing, and more disabling, physical and mental health outcomes.
More than three quarters of youth involved in the juvenile justice system have been exposed (usually repeatedly) to traumatic stressors, including abuse or family or community violence, life-threatening accidents or disasters, and interpersonal losses. The prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) among justice-involved youth is three to ten times greater than in community samples. In addition, justice-involved youth with PTSD are at high risk for problems, including depression and suicidality, oppositional-defiant and conduct disorders, risk taking, and substance abuse. This chapter provides an overview of clinical epidemiology research on PTSD, comorbid emotional and behavioral disorders, and complex traumatic stress disorders associated with the poly-victimization experienced by many youth in the juvenile justice system. Evidence is described of complex forms of PTSD among justice-involved youth that include: (1) persistently reduced adaptive arousal reactions and episodic maladaptive hyperarousal, (2) impaired information processing and impulse control, (3) self-critical and aggression-prone cognitive schemas, and (4) deviant peer relationships that model and reinforce disinhibited reactions, maladaptive ways of thinking, and aggressive, antisocial, and delinquent behaviors. Findings are highlighted concerning PTSD and vulnerable subpopulations, including girls, ethnoracial minority youth, and juveniles charged with sexual offenses. Finally, the chapter concludes with a discussion of trauma-informed approaches for court proceedings, juvenile justice facilities and rehabilitation services, and mental health treatment.
The aim of the current study was to identify personal and work-related risk factors for vicarious traumatization among social workers in Israel, as well as the contribution of relational-oriented supervision in mitigating the consequences of working with traumatized clients. Data was collected from 109 social workers who were employed in various agencies. Participants were asked about their personal trauma history, trauma work experience, work-related measures of trauma exposure, and supervision characteristics. Findings showed that social workers with trauma history, who worked mainly with survivors of human-induced trauma, and who had experienced more threat while working with traumatized clients, had higher levels of vicarious traumatization. Furthermore, social workers who reported they were receiving a more relational-oriented supervision and who evaluated their supervision as more effective had lower levels of vicarious traumatization. These findings suggest that beyond personal characteristics, the level of exposure to traumatized clients has a significant effect on social workers’ well-being. Additionally, these findings underscore the importance of a relational-oriented supervision in the context of trauma. Implications for social work practice are emphasized, as well as recommendations for future research.
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