The Study of Association between Mother Weight Efficacy Life-style with Feeding Practices, Food Groups Intake and Body Mass Index in Children Aged 3-6 Years

Abstract

Nutrition in childhood has a significant role in current and adulthood health. Recent studies have shown that the mother's life-style has an important role in the methods used by mother to feed child, child's diet and body mass index (BMI). This study paper aimed to investigate the association between mother's weight efficacy life-style (WEL) with feeding practices and diet in children aged 3-6 years.
In this cross-sectional study, which was carried out in 18 Primary Schools of Rasht (Iran) in 2012, 165 mothers with children aged 3-6 years were participated. Mothers reported their own and their child's demographics. Aspects of mother's WEL and mother's control practices were assessed using WEL questionnaire and Comprehensive Feeding Practices Questionnaire respectively. Height and weight of mothers participated in the study were measured. Child's dietary intake was measured using Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ). The role of mother's weight efficacy in predicting child's feeding practices and child's diet was assessed using the linear regression. Statistical significance for all P values was set at 0.003.
The results were showed that mother's weight efficacy was related to child feeding practices and child's dietary intake. The mothers with similar WEL applied similar methods in child nutrition. Mothers with better weight efficacy used more encourage balance and variety (β = 1.860), environmental control (β = 0.437), child involvement (β = 0.203) and less emotion regulation using foods (β = -0.213) and their children eat fewer snacks (β = -0.318) (PV= 0.003).
The result of this study showed that maternal life-style was associated with feeding practices and child's intake. There was no significant relation between the maternal self-efficacy and child BMI.

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Original Article
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International Journal of Preventive Medicine, Vol 5, No 1, January, 2014
The Study of Association between Mother Weight Efcacy Life‑style with Feeding
Practices, Food Groups Intake and Body Mass Index in Children Aged 3‑6 Years
Maryam Gholamalizadeh1,2, Mohammad Hassan Entezari1,2, Zamzam Paknahad1,2, Akbar Hassanzadeh3,
Saeid Doaei4
ABSTRACT
Background: Nutrition in childhood has a significant role in
current and adulthood health. Recent studies have shown that the
mother’s life‑style has an important role in the methods used by
mother to feed child, child’s diet and body mass index (BMI). This
study paper aimed to investigate the association between mother’s
weight efficacy life‑style (WEL) with feeding practices and diet in
children aged 3‑6 years.
Methods: In this cross‑sectional study, which was carried out in 18
Primary Schools of Rasht (Iran) in 2012, 165 mothers with children
aged 3‑6 years were participated. Mothers reported their own and their
child’s demographics. Aspects of mother’s WEL and mother’s control
practices were assessed using WEL questionnaire and Comprehensive
Feeding Practices Questionnaire respectively. Height and weight of
mothers participated in the study were measured. Child’s dietary
intake was measured using Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ).
The role of mother’s weight efcacy in predicting child’s feeding
practices and child’s diet was assessed using the linear regression.
Statistical signicance for all P values was set at 0.003.
Results: The results were showed that mother’s weight efcacy was
related to child feeding practices and child’s dietary intake. The mothers
with similar WEL applied similar methods in child nutrition. Mothers
with better weight efcacy used more encourage balance and variety
(β = 1.860), environmental control (β = 0.437), child involvement
(β = 0.203) and less emotion regulation using foods (β = −0.213) and
their children eat fewer snacks (β = −0.318) (PV = 0.003).
Conclusions: The result of this study showed that maternal
life‑style was associated with feeding practices and child’s intake.
There was no significant relation between the maternal self‑efficacy
and child BMI.
Keywords: Child nutrition, feeding practices, life‑style
INTRODUCTION
The prevalence of childhood obesity has turned into global
epidemic and public health problem.[1] The results of the
1Food Security Research Center, Isfahan University
of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran, 2Department of
Clinical Nutrition, School of Nutrition and Food
Sciences, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences,
Isfahan, Iran, 3Department of Epidemiology and
Biostatistics, School of Health ,Isfahan University
of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran, 4Department of
Public Health, Faculty of Health, North Khorasan
University of Medical Sciences, Bojnurd, Iran
Correspondence to:
Dr. Mohammad Hassan Entezari,
Food Security Research Center and
Department of Clinical Nutrition,
School of Nutrition and Food Sciences,
Isfahan University of Medical Sciences,
Isfahan, Iran.
E‑mail: entezari@hlth.mui.ac.ir
How to cite this article: Gholamalizadeh M,
Entezari MH, Paknahad Z, Hassanzadeh A, Doaei S. The
study of association between mother weight efcacy
life‑style with feeding practices, food groups intake and
body mass index in children aged 3‑6 years. Int J Prev
Med 2014;5:21‑8.
Date of Submission: Jun 11, 2013
Date of Acceptance: Sep 23, 2013

Gholamalizadeh, et al.: Mother life‑style and child nutrition
International Journal of Preventive Medicine, Vol 5, No 1, January, 2014
22
various studies showed that 7‑16% of Iranian
children are obese.[2,3] Childhood overweight and
obesity is an independent risk factor for obesity
and heart diseases in adulthood.[4] It is predicted
that in the next 10 years, cardio‑vascular diseases
will be the major factor of mortality all over the
world.[5] Eating habits of childhood are continued
in adulthood. Thus, malnutrition in this stage
brings many problems in adulthood.[6]
The children nutrition may be impressed by
parents, friends, media and personal preferences
of children at pre‑school ages.[1] The influence of
parents, who play the role of providers, executors
and models for child nutrition at the early stages
of childhood, has been recognized as the most
important effective factor.[2,7]
During the pre‑school ages, parents are
considered to be the main individuals in charge for
food choices of children and they feed their child
using different methods.[5] The feeding practices
used by parents affect child’s nutrition.[7] Many
of the studies have shown that feeding practices
are associated with child’s ability for food intake
regulation,[5] food preferences,[6] calorie intake and
body weight.[7]
Studies showed that parent’s life‑style and
their self‑efficacy in weight control are effective
on the feeding practices and eating patterns of
children.[2,8] It seems that based on the important
role of life‑style of mothers in child nutrition
and as the behavior change is the most important
factor in life‑style change,[9] instead of choosing
short‑term diets, the eating‑based behaviors should
be modified in the family and society[10] to mitigate
the obesity and other chronic diseases in future.
According to psychology, there are many factors
affecting the health‑related behaviors including
a person belief in his capabilities in applying
the change.[11] Self‑efficacy is defined as one’s
belief in one’s ability to succeed in recognized
theories of behavior change as cognitive‑social
theory of Bandura.[12] Bandura theory shows
how interpersonal factors such as knowledge and
beliefs, social environment and behavior act in a
complex relation with each other. This theory
emphasizes on the importance of self‑efficacy as
an intervening factor.
Besides cognitive‑social theory of Bandura,
other models of health behaviors such as health
belief models[13] and motivational consulting[14]
applied self‑efficacy as one of the important factors
in behavior change in their theory.
The relation between self‑efficacy and food
behaviors is investigated from various aspects
including the relation of self‑efficacy and weight
change,[15] eating pattern and overweight control,[16]
lack of eating control,[17] fat consumption[18] and
fruits and vegetables intake.[19] The result of most of
the studies showed that self‑efficacy is an important
factor in prediction of nutrition behaviors.
Weight‑efficacy is defined as one’s beliefs about
his abilities to resist eating when overeating risk is
high.[20] Various studies showed that the individuals,
who believe in their ability to weight loss, are more
successful in this regard.[21‑24]
To the best of our knowledge, there is not
any study that investigated the precise relation
between maternal weigh‑efficacy and children
feeding practices and dietary intake; the present
study investigated the relation of maternal weight
efficacy life (WEL) style on and feeding methods
and child diet and body mass index (BMI).
METHODS
Participants
In a cross‑section analytical study, 165 children
aged 3‑6 years from 18 kindergartens of Rasht were
selected through the second‑stage cluster random
sampling from March 2011 to August 2011.[8]
After visiting the Welfare Organization of Gilan
Province (Iran) and managers of the required
kindergartens, the planning was made for face‑to‑face
visit and data collection from the mothers. On that
day after talking with the mothers of children,
the study aims were explained. 165 mothers and
children were included in the study.
Assessment of mother’s WEL and mother’s
control practices
The mothers were asked to complete three
questionnaires of general information, WEL
questionnaire and Comprehensive Feeding
Practices Questionnaire (CFPQ). Also, the
information of children diet was achieved through
asking from the mothers and filing out the FFQ.
General information questionnaire was applied
for data collection of personal characteristics of
mothers such as age, education, employment,

Gholamalizadeh, et al.: Mother life‑style and child nutrition
23
International Journal of Preventive Medicine, Vol 5, No 1, January, 2014
“never” to “always” or “agree” to “disagree.” For
data collection about child diet, FFQ was applied.[29]
By this questionnaire, the information about
intake of refined grain, fruit and vegetables, simple
sugar, fat, desserts, snacks, dairy and meat were
analyzed.
Statistical methods
Finally, the collected data to describe
self‑efficacy of the mother regarding weight control
by feeding methods, diet and BMI of the child
were analyzed. The role of mother weight‑efficacy
in determining the type of the applied approach of
the mother for child feeding, child diet and BMI of
the child were evaluated by multiple block linear
regression analysis. In this study, the effect of some
independent variables on many dependent variables
is measured; Bonferroni correction coefficient was
used to determine significance level of the results
and hence that the results have no difference with
univariate analysis.[30] By this formula, the adjusted
significance level for data analysis was 0.003.
RESULTS
Parent and child general characteristics are
shown in Table 1.
The sample consisted of 102 boys and 63 girls
who had a mean age of 4.7 years. The majority
the number of children, smoking and child’s age,
gender and weight at birth. To measure the height
and weight of the mother and child, Seca scale and
meter were used. To determine the self‑efficacy
of the mother regarding the weight control,
WEL questionnaire WEL was applied.[25,26]
The 20‑item WEL instrument is consisting of
five‑item subscales; the subscales were including
the evaluation of mother resistance against
eating in five circumstances including food
availability in different conditions, negative
emotions (e.g., anxiety), social pressure, physical
discomfort and positive activities.
Assessment of dietary intake
To determine the child feeding method by the
mother, CFPQ was applied.[27] The questionnaire was
consisting of 46 questions and 12 different aspects
including child authority, emotion regulation by
food, encourage balance and variety, environmental
control, using food as reward, children involvement
in food preparation, modeling, monitoring, pressure,
restriction for health, restriction for weight control
and teaching about nutrition. The validity and
reliability of the questionnaire were investigated
in a separate study and they were verified.[28] To
determine the scores of each question in two above
questionnaires, a five‑point Likert scoring method
was applied. The options for questions 1‑5 are
Table 1: Parent and child demographics (n=165)
Variables %NMean SD Variables %N
Child gender Mother’s smoking
Boy 61.8 102 Yes 0 0
Girl 38.2 63 No 100 165
Child age (years) 4.7 0.88
Child birth weight (kg) 3.4 0.43 Stay at home mothers
Child BMI (kg/m2) 17.73 5.86 Yes 18.18 30
Mother age (years) 31.67 4.59 No 81.82 135
Mother height (m) 157 17.10
Mother weight (kg) 71.54 1.72
Mother BMI (kg/m2) 33.22 3.07
Single parent status
Yes 3.6 6
No 96.4 159
Mother highest certied educational qualication
Primary school 1.8 3
Secondary school 38.1 63
University degree 60 99
SD=Standard deviation, BMI=Body mass index

Gholamalizadeh, et al.: Mother life‑style and child nutrition
International Journal of Preventive Medicine, Vol 5, No 1, January, 2014
24
of mothers had a job and had a university degree.
The most of the mothers would be classified as
overweight or obese.
In terms of the maternal weight efficacy, the
mean WEL was 52.99. The range of measures
that one could acquire was between 20 and 100.
Table 2 provides the raw means (±SD) for the
WEL measure.
In terms of the child feeding practices, mean
score of any subscale of CFPQ was determined.
Higher scores for the feeding scales reflected
greater use of scales.[31] The frequency that
mothers used each feeding practices is shown in
Table 3. The most commonly used feeding practice
was environmental control, encourage to balance,
modeling and teaching about nutrition and only a
minority used emotion regulation.
In terms of the child diet, children’s food group’s
intake is shown in Table 4. Data were classified by
pre‑existing feeding guide.[4] About a half of the
mothers reported fruits and vegetables intake of
their children less than recommendations.[4] More
than a half of the children had meat group intake
less than recommendations. About a half of the
children had more than two portions of simple
sugars and snacks groups on an average day.
Multiple block linear regression was used to
predict children feeding practices and children’s
diet and BMI using parent/child demographics
(block 1) and maternal WEL (block 2) as
independent variables. Although our primary
analysis was on the WEL total score, values for the
subscale scores are included [Table 4].
Mothers with better weight efficacy used more
encourage balance and variety, environmental
control, child involvement and less emotion
regulation using foods and their children eat fewer
snacks (P < 0.0003). There was no significant relation
between maternal self‑efficacy and child BMI.
DISCUSSION
The current study aimed to study the maternal
WEL, the applied methods of the mother in child
feeding and diet and BMI of children aged 3‑6 years.
Regarding weight efficacy, the mothers faced with
physical discomfort reported the highest resistance
and the lowest resistance against food availability.
In a similar study done by Chang in Malaysia
regarding the study of WEL of mother by WEL
Table 2: Describing maternal control practices and maternal weight efcacy (n/%)
Scale %NScale %NScale %NScale %NScale %NScale %NScale The mean
WEL
scores
(±SD)
Child’s
control
Modeling Encourage
balance and
variety
Pressure Food as
reward
Restriction for
weight control
Total 52.99±11.57
Low 6.1 10 Low 0.6 1Low 0 0 Low 23 38 Low 27.9 46 Low 34.5 57 Negative
emotions
11.42±3.53
Medium 60.6 100 Medium 21.8 36 Medium 8.5 14 Medium 52.7 87 Medium 50.3 83 Medium 48.5 80 Availability 8.79±3.47
High 33.3 55 High 77.6 128 High 98.5 151 High 24.20 40 High 21.8 36 High 17 28 Social pressure 10.36±2.89
Emotion
regulation
Monitoring Environment Restriction
for Health
Involvement Teaching
about nutrition
Physical
discomfort
11.47±2.59
Low 37.6 62 Low 4.2 7Low 0 0 Low 10.3 17 Low 0 0 Low 0 0 Positive activity 10.95±2.91
Medium 58.2 96 Medium 25.5 42 Medium 23 38 Medium 64.2 106 Medium 10.9 18 Medium 15.8 26
High 4.2 7High 70.3 116 High 77 127 High 25.5 42 High 89.1 147 High 84.2 139
WEL=Weight efcacy lifestyle, SD=Standard deviation

Gholamalizadeh, et al.: Mother life‑style and child nutrition
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International Journal of Preventive Medicine, Vol 5, No 1, January, 2014
Table 4: Standardized Regression coefcients for the role of maternal weight efcacy in child feeding practices and child’s diet
Variables Child’s
control
Emotion
regulation
Encourage
balance
and
variety
Environmental
control
Involvement Modeling Monitoring Rened
grains
Fruits Snacks Simple
sugar
Total −0.050 −0.213* 1.860* 0.437* 0.203* 0.142 −0.069 0.26 −0.106 −0.318* 0.237
Negative
emotions
0.161 0.026 0.027 0.036 −0.060 0.070 −0.236* 0.182 0.259 −0.141 0.031
Availability 0.325* 0.042 0.136 0.080 0.009 0.050 −0.042 0.090 −0.547* 0.131 0.227
Social
pressure
0.197 −0.128 0.319 0.073 0.551* −0.096 −0.064 −0.446* −0.126 −0.132 −0.048
Physical
discomfort
−0.373* −0.256* 0.173 0.714* 0.119 0.26* −0.032 0.345 0.295 −0.156 −0.48*
Positive
activity
0.181 0.156 −0.196 0.045 0.046 −0.23 0.167 0.039 0.228 0.119 0.067
*P<0.0003
Table 3: Describing children’s diet (n/%)
Portion/day % N
Rened grains
<3 9.69 16
≥3 90.3 149
Dairy products
<3 16.94 27
≥3 83.03 137
Fruits and vegetables
<5 48.49 80
≥5 51.51 85
Meats
<2 61.21 101
≥2 38.79 64
Simple sugar
<2 56.36 93
≥2 43.64 72
Colas
<1 87.87 145
≥1 12.13 20
Dessert and snack
<2 56.36 116
≥2 43.64 72
questionnaire, the mothers were least able to
control their eating under social pressure and food
availability, according to their WEL score.[32]
In the above study, the sample study was of both
genders (men and women) with age mean 42 years
that is the probable reason of existing differences in
the results. A study was conducted by Presnell et al.
in USA has emphasized on the role of gender in
determining the type of efficacy of an individual in
weight control.[33] In another study done by Rejeski
et al., the least resistance was reported in eating
control under food availability and the results were
consistent with the results of the current study.[34]
The results of this study showed that maternal
self‑efficacy in weight control was related by the
applied methods in child feeding and mothers
with similar WEL applied similar methods in
child nutrition. In the previous studies, the role of
maternal self‑efficacy and the belief in her ability
was supported in weight loss[35‑37] and reduction of
behavioral disorder of the child.[38] Moreover, Dutton
et al. in a study showed that obese or overweight
individuals had lower self‑efficacy in weight
control compared with others.[10] A research done
by Sanders and Woolley, the parent’s self‑efficacy
was associated with childcare methods.[39] In the

Gholamalizadeh, et al.: Mother life‑style and child nutrition
International Journal of Preventive Medicine, Vol 5, No 1, January, 2014
26
study conducted by Danaher et al., it was shown
that high self‑efficacy of the parents was associated
with the improvement of child feeding methods.[40]
In the present study, the mother who had less
self‑efficacy against eating food used a few of the
following methods: Balance encouragement and
variety in eating, environment control and child
involvement. The results of this study done by
Birch and Davison showed that the obese parents
applied some methods in child nutrition control
leading into child obesity and overweight.[41] In
our previous study the relation of less application
of balance encouragement and involvement with
frequent intake of high calorie food was shown.[42]
In the present study, the mothers with low
self‑efficacy in weight control used children
emotion regulation by food. In a study done
by Gholamalizadeh et al. Mothers obesity was
associated with emotion regulation with food.[43]
In a study done by Swanson et al., it was reported
that low self‑efficacy of the mother led into the
reduction of the quality of feeding methods and
child nutrition.[8] According to Powell et al.,
children behaviors regulation with foods was
associated with food consumption and avoiding
food consumption in the child.[44]
Another result of the present study was the
relationship between mother self‑efficacy and child
nutrition. The dessert and snacks consumption
was significantly high among the children whose
mothers had low self‑efficacy with the least
resistance against eating. Scaglioni et al. in a study
showed that mother attitude in food consumption
was effective in formation of food behaviors
of the child.[45] Moreover, in a study done by
Blissett et al., child emotion regulation by food
was associated with high consumption of snacks.
Thus, the results of the study supported the results
of the previous study in this regard.[46] A research
done by Campbell et al. showed that high maternal
self‑efficacy was associated with high consumption
of fruit and vegetables and low consumption of
cake and drinking among 5‑year‑old children.[47] In
a new study conducted by Morrison, it was shown
that emotional maternal eating (eating in response
to outside stimuli, hunger) was associated with
food consumption of the child.[48]
In this study, maternal self‑efficacy in weight
control had not significant association with child
BMI. Although the various studies showed that the
effect of maternal life‑style and feeding methods
on child BMI had long‑term effect.[31,42,49‑51] The
longitudinal studies are more useful in this regard.
It can be said that the limitations of the present
study are the self‑report of the mothers regarding
self‑efficacy in weight control, child feeding
methods and child diet. The study was also cross
sectional in design, which has implications for
understanding causality and the relationship
between variables.
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the limitations, it can be concluded
that the result of the study showed that maternal
weight efficacy was associated with feeding and
eating methods of the child. The results show that
mothers use several different strategies to feed their
children. The mothers with more control on their
weight applied better methods in child nutrition.
The instrumental application of the food was low
in these mothers and their children applied less
dessert. There was no significant relation between
maternal self‑efficacy and child BMI.
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Source of Support: This study was extracted from Msc
dissertation which was approved by School of Nutrition and Food
Sciences, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences code 391426,
Conict of Interest: None declared.