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STRENGTH TRAINING ADAPTATIONS AFTER
COLD-WATER IMMERSION
MICHAEL FRO
¨HLICH,
1
OLIVER FAUDE,
2
MARKUS KLEIN,
1
ANDREA PIETER,
3
EIKE EMRICH,
1
AND
TIM MEYER
4
1
Institute for Sport Science, Saarland University, Saarbru
¨cken, Germany;
2
Department of Sport, Exercise and Health,
University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland;
3
Institute for Prevention and Public Health, University of Applied Sciences (DHfPG),
Saarbru
¨cken, Germany; and
4
Institute of Sports and Preventive Medicine, Saarland University, Saarbru
¨cken, Germany
ABSTRACT
Fro
¨hlich, M, Faude, O, Klein, M, Pieter, A, Emrich, E, and Meyer, T.
Strength training adaptations after cold-water immersion.
J Strength Cond Res 28(9): 2628–2633, 2014—Several studies
analyzed the effectiveness of cold-water immersion (CWI) to sup-
port recovery after strenuous exercise, but the overall results seem
to be conflicting. Most of these studies analyzed only short-
term recovery effects, whereas the adaptational aspect has
been widely neglected. Therefore, we analyzed the effects of
repeated cooling after training sessions (CWI) on adaptations
to strength training. Seventeen trained male students volun-
teered the study. After a 2-week familiarization period, a pre-
test (T1) of 1 repetition maximum (RM) and 12RM was
conducted followed by the 5-week strength training period
(within-subject design). After the posttest (T2) and a 2-week
detraining period, a retention test (T3) was carried out.
Directly after each training session, CWI was applied for
1randomlyassignedleg.Cooling consisted of 3 4-minute
intervals with a 30-second rest period. The other leg was
not cooled. A significant increase in 1RM and 12RM from
baseline to T2 and T3 (p,0.001), respectively, and a further
significant increase in 12RM from T2 to T3 (p#0.05) were
observed. In addition, a tendency for a large leg effect with
higher values for the “control leg” in both parameters (p=
0.08 each) and a moderate time 3leg interaction in favor of
the control leg was found (1RM: p= 0.11; 12RM: p= 0.09).
The percentage change differences between both conditions
were 1.6% for the increase in 1RM from T1 to T2 and 2.0%
from T1 to T3 in favor of the control leg. Long-term strength
training adaptations in trained subjects can be negatively
affected by CWI. However, effects were small, and the prac-
tical relevance relative to possible recovery effects needs to
be considered in a sports practical setting.
KEY WORDS resistance training, cryotherapy, recovery, 1RM,
training stimulus
INTRODUCTION
Cold applications have been proposed to be bene-
ficial for athletes under various circumstances
(5,6,38). In particular, during recent years cold-
water immersion (CWI) has been established as
a promising means to support recovery in high-performance
sports after highly intensive training bouts or competitions
(15,17,26,40). Several studies analyzed the recovery effects of
CWI, but the overall results seem to be conflicting (29).
Some studies have described the beneficial effects on perfor-
mance and strength development (7,8,27,35,36), whereas
other studies found no or only very small positive effects
(10,20–23,28). A recent meta-analysis arrived at the result
that during recovery, CWI has the potential to effectively
enhance strength and power performance and to reduce
muscle soreness and muscle damage compared with a pas-
sive control condition. Leeder et al. (26) illustrated that CWI
is an effective strategy to reduce symptoms of delayed onset
muscle soreness at 24, 48, 72, and 96 hours after exercise, in
particular after high-intensity or eccentric exercise. Never-
theless, the underlying physiological mechanisms remain
less clear (6,39). Furthermore, CWI had no direct effect on
the recovery of muscle strength, but it was effective to
improve recovery of muscle power. In this context, Leeder
et al. (26) pointed out that CWI has no substantial negative
effects on recovery from strenuous exercise, but the knowl-
edge about the effects of chronic cold-water application on
adaptations to training is very limited. Halson (15) reviewed
the scientific literature with reference to the time frame
between different exercise modes (e.g., sprint, cycling,
weight training, swimming) and the effectiveness of hydro-
therapy for recovery. The author (15) concluded that the
time frame between competitions or intense training sessions
and the possible benefits and risks should be considered and
that evidence-based recovery modalities should be applied.
Address correspondence to Michael Fro
¨hlich, m.froehlich@mx.uni-
saarland.de.
28(9)/2628–2633
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
Ó2014 National Strength and Conditioning Association
2628
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Lane and Wenger (25) examined the effects of active
recovery, massage, and CWI on performance of repeated
bouts of high-intensity cycling separated by 24 hours. Active
recovery, massage, and CWI enhanced the recovery process
between the 2 high-intensity, intermittent exercise sessions
separated by 24 hours, but the effects of CWI were greater
when compared with the other recovery forms. Poppen-
dieck et al. (29) showed in a current meta-analytical review
that CWI (2.9%) and cryogenic chambers (3.8%) seem to be
more beneficial for sports performance than cooling packs
(21.4%). Furthermore, whole-body immersion (5.1%) was
observed to be significantly more effective than partial-
body CWI for only 1 leg or arms (1.1%).
Most studies on CWI for recovery analyzed short periods
up to 1 week. The common situations in a high-performance
setting are intensive training periods or camps that last from
2 weeks to several weeks. Although most studies focused on
recovery, the adaptational aspect has been mostly neglected
(21). Interestingly, Yamane et al. (41) analyzed adaptations to
strength (lower arm exercises) and endurance (cycling) train-
ing lasting 4–6 weeks in untrained subjects in 4 different
experiments. After each strength or endurance training ses-
sion, one of the trained limbs was cooled in 58Cor108C,
respectively, cold water, whereas the other limb was not.
Endurance and strength endurance adaptations were com-
promised in the cooled extremity compared with the control
limb, whereas maximal strength was not consistently
affected in all experiments. Training-induced changes on
a cellular and humoral levels and myofibrillar muscle dam-
age are essential triggers of training adaptations. Yamane
et al. (41) speculated that CWI may suppress these processes
and, thus, intended training adaptations might be deterio-
rated when CWI is applied regularly after training (21). To
our knowledge, to date, this is the only study that focused on
training adaptations as a result of CWI. Untrained subjects
were analyzed, and the differences between conditions were
rather small. Thus, a conclusive statement is not possible yet.
Because the recovery effects tend to be small as well—
although these small effects are likely relevant in a high-
performance setting—it seems warranted to further analyze
the possible detrimental effects of cooling interventions (10).
Therefore, we conducted the present pilot study to
analyze the effects of long-term applications of CWI on
adaptations to strength training in already trained subjects.
We hypothesized according to Howatson et al. (21) and
Yamane et al. (41) that CWI will reduce training-specific
adaptations in long-term training interventions.
METHODS
Experimental Approach to the Problem
The study was designed as within-subject repeated-measures
experiment. Each participant served as his own control. Before
training and testing, 2 weeks of familiarization were performed
(3 appointments for familiarization with the specific training
and test protocol and with the CWI procedure). After that
period, the pretest was conducted followed by the 5-week
strength training period. After the posttest and a 2-week
detraining period, a retention test was performed. Strength
training (1-legged curl) was performed twice a week at the
same time of day (Monday and Thursday or Tuesday and
Friday, respectively, constant for each participant). Recovery
phase between the training sessions were held constant. The
participants were reminded to maintain their usual nutritional
and lifestyle habits, including manual work (normal strength
training routines) and sport-specific activities (e.g., running,
swimming, volleyball, climbing, soccer) throughout the study
period. At pretest (T1), posttest (T2), and retention test (T3),
the 1 repetition maximum (RM) and the 12RM were
determined according to the protocol of Baechle and Earle
(2). After a warming-up with light resistance, the load was
gradually increased until the athlete was able to complete just
1 (1RM) or 12 repetition(s) (12RM) with proper exercise tech-
nique. Three to 5 testing sets were allowed. Testing and train-
ing device was the same. Before all tests and training sessions,
the machines were adjusted to the individual anthropometric
requirements. Testing order was held constant, and all tests
were conducted on the same day.
Subjects
A total of 17 healthy and experienced male sport students
(mean 6standard deviation age, 23.5 62.4 years; range, 20–
28 years; weight, 76.5 68.7 kg; body fat, 13.9 63.8%)
participated in the present study. Strength training experi-
ence was at least 6 months (range, 6 months to 5 years). The
participants typically performed 1–3 strength training ses-
sions per week with 1–3 hours per session. All participants
were thoroughly informed about the study design, risks, and
possible benefits associated with the present study and pro-
vided written informed consent before participation. The
study complied with ethical guidelines as outlined in the
Declaration of Helsinki. Ethical approval was obtained from
the local ethics committee. All training and testing sessions
were conducted at the Olympiastu¨ tzpunkt Rheinland-Pfalz/
Saarland. Before the training or testing sessions, no strength
training was allowed (24 hours) for the legs.
Strength Training Procedures
The 5-week strength training was carried out using a leg curl
(gym80 International, Gelsenkirchen, Germany) with a defined
movement speed (metronome-controlled, 2-second concen-
tric and 2-second eccentric per repetition for the hamstring
muscles) and a consistent range of motion in the knee joint
(908flexion and 1708extension at knee angle). Before strength
training, a 5-minute warm-up was executed on a bicycle
ergometer with 60–70 revolutions per minute at 150 W. In
between the 3 series of each leg, a rest of 3 minutes took place
during which the other leg was exercised (lifting protocol: 3
sets of 8–12 repetitions with 3 minutes of rest (14,24)). The
load was set to arrive at 8–12 repetitions per series (75–80%
1RM) until exhaustion (progressive load increase during
the training period) and based off the initial 1RM. If more
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than 13 repetitions were achieved, the load was increased for
the following training session. The participants started each
training session with exercising the cooled leg. The cooled
and uncooled legs were randomly determined according to
the pretest 1RM and to arrive at an equal distribution between
the dominant leg and nondominant leg. Leg dominance was
thereby defined with respect to leg strength (1RM). There was
no difference in total training workload between the cooled and
uncooled legs and between the dominant and the nondomi-
nant legs. The distribution was almost homogeneous (cooled
leg dominant, n= 9 and cooled leg nondominant, n=8).This
assignment was held constant over the training period.
Cold-Water Immersion
Immediately after each strength training session, a CWI was
carried out for the previously defined leg. The cooling
consisted of 3 4-minutes cooling intervals with a 30-second
rest period in between. The other leg was not cooled (room
temperature, 20–238C). The water temperature for the CWI
was 12.0 61.58C (39). To keep the water temperature as
constant as possible, the water was stirred before the cooling
phase. The CWI was applied to the entire leg. The test
person climbed up to the iliac crest into a cooling barrel
filled with ice water. The other leg was rested outside.
Statistical Analyses
Data are presented as means with SDs. To analyze the time
course of dependent variables during the training period,
a 2-factor repeated-measures analysis of variance (ANOVA:
factor time: T1 vs. T2 vs. T3; factor intervention: cooled leg
vs. control leg) was calculated. In case of significant time
effect, the Bonferroni post hoc test was applied. In addition,
the percentage changes for both conditions from T1 to T2
and from T1 to T3, respectively, were analyzed by means of
a 2-factorial ANOVA (factor time: difference between T1
and T2 vs. difference between T1 and T3, factor interven-
tion: cooled leg vs. control leg). Partial eta square (
h
2
p) was
used to assess effect size with
h
2
p.0.01,
h
2
p.0.06, and
h
2
p.
0.14 indicating small, medium, and large effects, respectively
(9). An a-level of p#0.05 was accepted as statistically sig-
nificant. As this study had pilot character and small changes
might be relevant, a pvalue between 0.05 and 0.1 was
accepted as indicating a trend. In addition, for each variable,
the percentage difference in the change scores between
cooled and control leg, from T1 to T2 and T1 to T3, respec-
tively, were calculated together with corresponding 90% con-
fidence intervals (CI). To take potential baseline differences
into account, calculations were adjusted for pretest values.
A practically worthwhile change was assumed when the dif-
ference score was at least 0.2 of the between-subject standard
deviation (19). The probability for an effect being practically
worthwhile was additionally calculated (4). These calculations
were conducted using a published spreadsheet in Microsoft
Excel (Microsoft Corp., Redmond, WA, USA) (18).
RESULTS
We observed a significant increase in 1RM and 12RM from
baseline to T2 and T3, respectively, and a further significant
increase in 12RM from T2 to T3 (Table 1). In addition, we
found a tendency for a “large” intervention effect with higher
values for the control leg in both parameters and a “moder-
ate” to “large” time 3intervention interaction also in favor of
the control leg (Table 1). The mean difference between the
control leg and the cooled leg in 1RM was 0.7 kg at baseline,
2.3 kg at T2, and 2.6 kg at T3. Figure 1 displays the percent-
age changes from T1 to T2 and from T1 to T3 for both
conditions. There was a tendency for further increases in
strength from T2 and T3 for 1RM (time effect: p= 0.08)
and 12RM (time effect: p= 0.06), respectively. The percent-
age gains in 12RM were significantly larger in the control leg
(intervention effect: p= 0.01;
h
2
p= 0.33). The moderately
higher relative increases in the control leg for 1RM were not
significant (intervention effect: p= 0.21;
h
2
p= 0.10).
TABLE 1. Time course of strength parameters throughout study period with statistical results.*†
T1 T2 T3
ANOVA
Time Intervention Time interventionz
1RM (kg)
Cooled leg 88.0 (13.7)§ 94.4 (13.5) 95.3 (13.2) p,0.001 p= 0.08 p= 0.11
Control leg 88.7 (14.1)§ 96.7 (14.0) 97.9 (14.0)
h
2
p= 0.55
h
2
p= 0.18
h
2
p= 0.13
12RM (kg)
Cooled leg 49.4 (6.7)§ 56.8 (7.7)z57.9 (8.6) p,0.001 p= 0.08 p= 0.09
Control leg 49.4 (6.6)§ 57.4 (7.5)z58.7 (8.5)
h
2
p= 0.63
h
2
p= 0.18
h
2
p= 0.14
*Data as mean (standard deviation).
†1RM = 1 repetition maximum; 12RM = 12 repetition maximum; ANOVA = analysis of variance;
h
2
p= partial eta square (effect size).
zSignificantly different from T3 (p= 0.03).
§Significantly different to T2 and T3 (p,0.001).
CWI and Strength Training Adaptation
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The percentage change difference between the cooled and
the control leg were 1.6% (90% confidence interval [CI], 22.6%
to 5.7%) for the increase in 1RM from T1 to T2 and 2.0% (90%
CI, 22.9% to 6.7%) from T1 to T3 in favor of the control leg.
The probability for this effect to be practically relevant was 37%
and 35%, respectively. The corresponding figures for 12RM
were as follows: 1.1% (90% CI, 24.9% to 6.7%) for the increase
in 1RM from T1 to T2 and 2.3% (90% CI, 25.5% to 7.7%) from
T1 to T3 with a 40% and 37% probability for both effects to be
practically relevant, respectively.
DISCUSSION
The main result of the present study was that strength
training adaptations were reduced by 1–2% after a 5-week
strength training regimen when the trained leg was regularly
cooled directly after training compared with an uncooled
control condition. The effects were rather small, and the
probability of the effects to be practically relevant was
below 40%. Nevertheless, this result should be considered
when CWI is applied in high-
performance sports to support
recovery from moderate-
intensive training bouts aiming
for muscle hypertrophy.
Strength training in experi-
enced sport students led to
a significant performance
increase of the concentric max-
imum strength (1RM) and the
load in the 12RM test. Under
regular cooling, the 1RM
increased by 8.2% from the pre-
test to the retention test,
whereas the uncooled side
improved by 10.3%. The differ-
ence between the 2 conditions
was 2.7% for 1RM and 1.4% for
12RM at T3. Cold-water
immersion is frequently applied
in sports practice to support
recovery. Poppendieck et al.
(29) found, in this context, an
average effect of cooling on
strength recovery in trained ath-
letes of 2.4%. This is very similar
to the observed differences in
adaptations in the present study.
Thus, the anticipated recovery
effects tend to be small as well.
However, such small effects
might be regarded relevant in
a high-performance setting.
Because these considerations
hold true for adaptations and
recovery effects, it seems war-
ranted to further analyze possible detrimental effects of cooling
interventions. The present results are in accordance with the
observations of Yamane et al. (41) who reported that CWI
applied after training led to negative effects on training adap-
tations. Thus, although CWI seems to be a potentially benefi-
cial means to support recovery, postexercise cooling might be
regarded an adverse treatment from a training perspective (37).
Yamane et al. (41) hypothesized that strength training–induced
microdamage and cellular and humoral processes within the
skeletal musculature are a precondition for repair processes,
regeneration of muscle fibers, activation of satellite cells, and
the like. A reduction in muscle temperature as a result of CWI
might disrupt or suppress these adaptive processes, leading to
a delay instead of an improvement in muscular performance in
hypertrophy training (11,37,41). Barnett (3) pointed out that
inflammatory processes play a central role during recovery for
the repair of damaged muscle structure and for adaptation, and
therefore, measures that suppress these processes are contra-
indicated. Another explanation for the lower training adaption
Figure 1. Percentage increase of 1RM and 12RM from T1 to T2 and T3. **Significant intervention effect (p=
0.01). Exact pvalues refer to the time effect. RM = repetition maximum.
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of the cooled leg might be seen in the fact that CWI can
negatively affect capillary permeability, the release of circulat-
ing hormones (such insulin-like growth factor-1, testosterone,
and growth hormone), and blood flow (12,21,31,39). A further
potential mechanism for muscle hypertrophy may be an
increase in intracellular water content. This so-called cell swell-
ing stimulates anabolic processesbothbyincreasingprotein
syntheses and decreasing protein breakdown (12,16). In addi-
tion, it may trigger proliferation of satellite cells and facilitate
their fusion to hypertrophying myofibres. Cold-water immer-
sion may negatively influence these processes as well (21,32).
In addition to the above-mentioned rationales, Al Haddad
et al. (1) observed that a daily, 5-minute CWI resulted in
improved resting parasympathetic activity and improved
quality of sleep and also subjective well-being in high-level
swimmers. These likely beneficial recovery effects were evi-
dent for 24–72 hours. Furthermore, blood lactate concentra-
tions were lower after CWI. The authors hypothesized that
this might be because of an increased blood circulation in the
relevant musculature, which positively affects lactate deple-
tion. Currently, it is discussed to what extent lactate itself
functions as a training stimulus at the cell level (33).
From the present results, we cannot conclude to what
extent the applied hydrostatic pressure on the cooled leg
side was responsible for the lower strength gains. In
principle, because of the hydrostatic pressure, the immersion
of the body or of body segments results in an increased
transportation of metabolic products (e.g., lactate) from
muscle tissue, reduced peripheral resistance, and reduced
neuromuscular activity (10,39).
The observed deteriorations in training effects in the cooled
leg were small. A difference of 1–2% over a period of 5 weeks
might be regarded negligible. Nevertheless, to date, most stud-
ies that analyzed the recovery effects lasted maximally 1 week,
and the recovery effects as compared with a passive control
condition were also small (up to 1.8–4.3% dependent on the
time after CWI when performance was analyzed) (20,29). In
addition, there are other recovery modalities, which showed
smaller differences to CWI (e.g., contrast water therapy, active
recovery, hot shower) (11,22,23). Although these studies ana-
lyzed short-term recovery effects over a period of maximally 1
week, recovery during longer periods has been not evaluated
yet. The observed recovery effects and the possibly reduced
training adaptations might be regarded practically relevant
from the viewpoint of high-performance sports. Thus, from
a sports practical perspective, the uncritical use of CWI during
longer training camps should be carefully handled. It seems
advisable that the short-term recovery effects should be
balanced against possibly reduced long-term training
adaptations.
Obviously, some limitations of the present study need to
be addressed. We did not evaluate high-level athletes. Thus,
the transferability to professional sports remains question-
able. Well-controlled studies to analyze specific and small
but possibly relevant effects are complicated in athletes
because their training routine affects the framework for
scientific studies and confounding factors can hardly be
eliminated. The participants in the present study had
strength training experience, and a well-controlled training
situation was created, and thus, internal validity seems high.
A further limitation might be seen in the fact that the
training stimulus was a very specific, isolated strength task
and not very functional in nature. However, the training
stimulus was highly standardized. In addition, we used
a moderate-intensity protocol aiming on muscle hypertro-
phy. Studies that investigated the effects of cold applications
on strength recovery usually used high-intensity eccentric
protocols (29). The training mode that was applied in the
present study, however, is widely used in sports practical
settings (13,30), and nowadays, athletes often use CWI as
recovery modality after routine strength training. We used
a within-subject repeated-measures experiment to minimize
interindividual differences and randomized the leg for con-
trol or cooling condition. We cannot exclude any cross-talk
effect from one leg to the other. Also, cooling may have
suppressed the release of growth factors. Such a reduced
release of growth factors can be expected to be transferred
from the cooled to the control leg via humoral pathways,
and thus, training adaptations may have been diminished in
the uncooled leg, too. However, this must remain speculative
and warrants further research (34).
This pilot work was conducted to assess possibly small but
relevant effects of CWI on adaptations in a well-controlled
situation with a clear and defined task. As a next step, this
approach needs to be transferred to a sports practical setting
and to higher level athletes.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
From the results of the present study, it is concluded that
CWI can have a negative impact on strength training
adaptations in sports students with strength training expe-
rience. The small deteriorations in training adaptations in the
long term should be balanced with the possible beneficial
short-term recovery effects of CWI. The transferability of the
results to a higher performance level together with the
optimal scenarios for the application of CWI as a recovery
means in a practical setting need to be addressed in future
research. In addition, scientific efforts with regard to the
physiological mechanisms that may cause reduced training
adaptations as a consequence of cold applications seem
warranted (e.g., by means of muscle biopsies).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors acknowledge the access to facilities for testing
and training by the Olympiastu¨ tzpunkt Rheinland-Pfalz/
Saarland, especially Prof Hanno Felder for further support.
In addition, Jan Neubauer is acknowledged for his valuable
assistance with the study execution. This study was under-
taken with no external financial support, and there are no
conflicts of interest to declare.
CWI and Strength Training Adaptation
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