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Use and re-use: Re-knapped flakes from the Mode 1 site of Fuente
Nueva 3 (Orce, Andalucía, Spain)
Deborah Barsky
a
,
b
,
*
, Robert Sala
a
,
b
, Leticia Menéndez
a
, Isidro Toro-Moyano
c
a
Institut Català de Paleoecologia Humana i Evolució Social, c/Marcelli Domingo s/n, Campus Sescelades URV, Edifici W3, 43007 Tarragona, Spain
b
Area de Prehistoria, Universitat Rovira i Virgili (URV), Avinguda de Catalunya 35, 43002 Tarragona, Spain
c
Museo Arqueológico de Granada, Carrera. Del Darro 41-43, 18010 Granada, Spain
article info
Article history:
Available online xxx
Keywords:
Oldowan
Mode 1
Stone tools
Orce
Flakes
Cores
abstract
The presence of some flaked flakes at the Mode 1 site of Fuente Nueva 3 (1.2 Ma) poses the problem of
the use and re-use of flakes as cores for obtaining smaller cutting tools. The industry is characterized by
small flint flakes and cores, as well as by numerous limestone heavy-duty tools. Both of the raw materials
were collected from local alluvial and colluvial sources. The assemblage presents a significant dimen-
sional dichotomy with, on the one hand, large-sized limestone percussion tools and, on the other hand,
small-sized flint debitage. Flint plates, blocks or nodules were obtained from local secondary deposits.
There are very few flint cores and the average flake size is only 3 cm. Some of the flakes display opposite
ventral surfaces indicating that they were obtained from larger flakes used as cores. In addition, a few
intensively exploited flint cores conserve convex surfaces corresponding to their original flake matrices.
No appreciably large-sized flint flakes have so far been found at the site suggesting that some phases of
the knapping sequences were carried out further away. However, a few flakes could have been expe-
diently re-knapped in situ. What can this behavioural choice tell us about early hominin behaviour at
Fuente Nueva 3? The re-use of flint flakes as makeshift cores implies a two-step operative scheme
involving the choice of a suitable blank that was further reduced on-site. This raises questions about raw
material transport during the earliest periods of European Mode 1.
Ó2014 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Core-flake industries attributed to the Oldowan or (heretofore)
Mode 1 (Leakey, 1971; Clark, 1970), are currently documented
throughout the Old World for a cumulative period of nearly 2 Ma
(Barsky, 2009). The assemblages are mirrors to understanding
earliest hominin technological capacities and, while the behaviours
they reflect are generally elusive, it is likely that their nature was
simple and closely related to survival-linked activities. Earliest as-
semblages contain few retouched items and their lack of typolog-
ical variability (Isaac, 1984, 1986; de la Torre and Mora, 2005)
distances them from the notion of recycling which we may define
as: a process aimed at transforming brute materials or waste into
potentially new products destined for future use. In the context of
lithic analysis, the concepts of reduction,re-use and recycling have
been more broadly explored for the diversified toolkits of the
Middle and Upper Paleolithic. Questions related to this were
notably treated regarding Middle Paleolithic assemblages; espe-
cially with regards to re-sharpening (Dibble, 1984; Dibble and
Rolland, 1992). The finds raised doubts about the validity of the
influential typological models previously proposed by some au-
thors (Bordes, 1953). From the Lower through into the Upper
Paleolithic, reduction, re-use and recycling of stone is commonly
associated with activities related to population mobility and raw
material economy (Féblot-Augustin, 1997; Thacker, 2001; Miller
and Barton, 2008). In any case, understanding the beginnings and
evolution of these basic economic concepts has largely reposed up
to now upon the retouched tool component of Paleolithic assem-
blages. Given that retouched tools are, by definition, considered to
be absent or very rare in Mode 1 (Oldowan) assemblages (Hovers,
2012), what, if anything can be said about reduction, re-use and
recycling in the earliest toolkits known to humankind? Even if such
notions are not usually associated with Mode 1, many of the toolkits
do occasionally display evidence for re-use or multifunctionality of
flakes, heavy-duty tools and/or cores. This paper explores how the
lithic economic considerations attached to the notion of recycling
could have emerged by providing some examples from the Mode 1
site of Fuente Nueve 3 (Orce, Spain).
*Corresponding author. Institut Català de Paleoecologia Humana i Evolució So-
cial, c/Marcelli Domingo s/n, Campus Sescelades URV, Edifici W3, 43007 Tarragona,
Spain; Area de Prehistoria, Universitat Rovirai Virgili (URV), Avinguda de Catalunya
35, 43002 Tarragona, Spain.
E-mail addresses: dbarsky@iphes.cat,dbarsky@hotmail.fr (D. Barsky).
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Quaternary International
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/quaint
1040-6182/$ esee front matter Ó2014 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.01.048
Quaternary International xxx (2014) 1e13
Please cite this article in press as: Barsky, D., et al., Use and re-use: Re-knapped flakes from the Mode 1 site of Fuente Nueva 3 (Orce, Andalucía,
Spain), Quaternary International (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.01.048
The oldest stone tool assemblages are documented in Africa, in
the Busidima Formation of the Ethiopian Awash Valley from 2,6 Ma
(Kada Gona EG 10 and EG 12 and Ounda Gona OGS 6 and OGS 7
(Semaw et al., 1997, 2003, 2009; Semaw, 2000, 2005; Stout et al.,
2010; Campisano, 2012). From around 2.3 Ma to 1.9 Ma, increas-
ingly numerous occurrences situated along the East African Rift
valley and in south Africa, bear witness to the beginnings of a long
tradition of stone tool manufacture and use that was to become so
emblematic of the genesis of humanity. For early hominins, the
making of stone tools represents a bifurcation from natural (ani-
mal) selection processes which rely upon biological adaptations for
surmounting environmental pressures. Developing this new skill
thus opened up pathways to innovative survival strategies. Other
earliest sites include: AL 666 and AL 894, Hadar, Ethiopia (Kimbel
et al., 1996, 1997; Hovers et al., 2002; Hovers, 2003; Goldman-
Neuman and Hovers, 2009); Omo 57, 123, 71, Omo Basin, Ethiopia
(Chavaillon, 1970,1976;Merrick et al., 1973; Merrick, 1976; Howell
et al., 1987; Feibel et al., 1989; de la Torre, 2004); FwJj20, East
Turkana Basin, Kenya, (Braun et al., 2010); Fejej FJ-1, Omo-Turkana
Basin, Ethiopia (Echassoux et al., 2004;Lumley and Beyene, 2004;
Barsky et al., 2006, 2011; Chapon et al., 2011); Lokalalei 2C,
West Turkana, Kenya (Kibunjia, 1994; Roche et al., 1999;Delagnes
and Roche, 2005) and Kanjera South, southwestern Kenya
(Behrensmeyer et al., 1995; Plummer et al., 1999, 2001; Plummer,
2004; Bishop et al., 2006; Braun et al., 2009). The industries from
these sites include cores and flakes, as well as non or slightly
modified pebbles, cobbles or blocks. While there is some evidence
of micro use-wear (for example at Koobi Fora and Kanjera, Keeley
and Toth, 1981; Gibbons, 2009), few flakes from such early sites
bear stigmata of intentional, secondary modification (re-knapped
or retouched flakes). The lack of truly standardized morphologies
and an overall dominance of notched types are both contributing
factors to the somewhat nebulous frontier separating intentionally
manufactured tools from flakes that were knapped in the aim of
producing smaller flakes (Barsky et al., 2013).
Interpretations of these and other Mode 1 industries provide
evidence that: 1) hominins made discriminate selection of raw
materials even though rocks were generally collected near or on-
site and 2) flake production methods were surprisingly system-
atic and relatively sophisticated (Semaw et al., 1997; Stout et al.,
2005). This has led some authors to propose that there was an
earlier phase wherein hominins used stones without intentionally
modifying them (Panger et al., 2002; Carbonell et al., 2009).
Through accidental breakage and opportunistic testing, hominins
could have inadvertently discovered advantages in using sharp
stone cutting edges to obtain or process resources (Fig. 1,n
1). This
could have led them to select intentional stone reduction as an
adaptively viable behaviour. This initializing phase, referred to as
Mode 0 or Homogeneity (Carbonell et al., 2009) therefore consti-
tutes the emergence of stone tool technology and its elemental
techno-functional relationship may be illustrated as such (Fig. 1,
n
2).
From around 1.8 Mae1.6 Ma, ever more numerous African sites
bear witness to a series of diachronic, yet analogous and revolu-
tionary changes, wherein toolkits come to include elements
reflective of increasingly more complex chaînes opératoires fore-
going the emergence of the Acheulian in Africa from around
1.75 Ma (Kenya, Kokiselei 4, Texier et al., 2006; Lepre et al., 2011;
Ethiopia, Konso Gardula, Asfaw et al., 1992; Beyene et al., 2013). Key
sites document the overall tendencies described below, which
should be perceived as interrelated (Olduvai Gorge, Melka Kunturé,
Omo, Peninj, Leakey, 1971; de la Torre and Mora, 2005; de la Torre
et al., 2003):
1) Technological innovation and the invention of hierarchical
knapping strategies ¼formal product predetermination.
2) Standardization through the systematic reproduction of specific
morphologies ¼the innovation of heavy and light-duty tool
types.
3) Higher mobility and petro-typological specificity ¼wide-
ranging hominins exploring raw material suitability in accor-
dance with the newly emerging tool types.
Each of the above techno-functional achievements was likely to
have been selected if it offered long-term economic (energy-
saving) advantages, regardless of the correspondingly costly
learning, transitive phase it entailed for its achievement. We illus-
trate these (Pre-Mode 2) techno-behavioural acquisitions as fol-
lows (Fig. 2):
The use of stone was intensified with the advent of intentional
reduction and the evolutionary potential latent within each newly
produced morpho-type was tested and developed. The capacity to
transform lithic raw materials into effective cutting edges through
acquired technique was learned and transmitted, thus increasing
its complexity with each generation (Tomasello, 1999). Economic
concerns accompanied the need to effectively produce small cut-
ting tools and so flakes presenting natural ventral convexities
served as makeshift cores with increasing regularity. Each
emerging morpho-type enlarged typological variability which, at
first, was based on the heavy-duty/light-duty tool dichotomy. The
appreciation of raw material variability also grew in pace with
Fig. 1. (1.) Schema of a hypothetical phase wherein stones were acquired and used
without intentional modification (>3 Ma in Africa); (2.) Schema of the first intentional
lithic reduction methods developed to obtain useable products (2.6e1.9 Ma in Africa).
Note that in both cases the acquisition of raw materials was local.
Fig. 2. Schema illustrating the relationships between the different phases of the
reduction, re-use and recycling process (1.8 Mae1.6 Ma in Africa). Materials were used
directly or reduced into products which were themselves used or transformed. This
cycle may have been repeated (re-use). Transformation is therefore the key element
precluding both re-use and recycling. Note that raw material acquisition begins to
diversify to include a wider range of materials in response to the techno-functional
requirements dictated by newly created morpho-types.
D. Barsky et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2014) 1e132
Please cite this article in press as: Barsky, D., et al., Use and re-use: Re-knapped flakes from the Mode 1 site of Fuente Nueva 3 (Orce, Andalucía,
Spain), Quaternary International (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.01.048
developing petro-functional needs. Looking beyond Africa, an
analogous model may be transposed to fit the situation of the
earliest Western European toolkits in general; and Fuente Nueva 3
in particular. A handful of Western European Mode 1 sites have
yielded a numerically significant lithic sample including second-
arily modified flakes characterized by denticulate morphologies
such as notches, becked tools and Tayac points (Barsky et al., 2013).
We test the validity of this hypothesis by examining the flint
products (flakes and cores) from Fuente Nueva 3, keeping in mind
this specific perspective. Because the notion of recycling is so
closely linked to product transformation for re-use, we more spe-
cifically examine questions related to the innovation of light-duty
tools- (absent at Fuente Nueva 3, Toro-Moyano et al., 2010a,
2010b)efrom this unique viewpoint. Data for comparison on a
broader scale is provided by some other Western European Mode 1
sites, situated mainly around the Mediterranean basin (Fig. 3).
2. The Fuente Nueva 3 site and its stone industries
Along with Barranco León, Fuente Nueva 3 (heretofore BL and
FN3) is a Lower Pleistocene archeological site situated in the
Guadix-Baza basin in Orce, southern Spain (Toro-Moyano et al.,
2010a, 2010b). During the time of the occupation of these two
sites, the basin was occupied by the saline lake Baza (Anadón et al.,
1994; Anadón and Gabàs, 2009) which existed within an endorheic
system from the Upper Miocene to until around 0.2 Ma, at which
time its waters were drained by the changing course of the Gua-
dalquivir river and its affluents. Today, the basin preserves a suc-
cession of alluvial (Guadix) and colluvial deposits (Baza: lacustrine
clays, silts and sands with evaporitic limestone crusting) reaching
up to 100 m thick and covering a timescale ranging fromthe Upper
Miocene to the Upper Pleistocene. Over the last half century,
numerous fossiliferous and archeological localities have been
documented from this unique accumulation of layered, calcareo-
evaporitic deposits. Since their discovery, the BL and FN3 sites
have yielded spectacular faunal and lithic assemblages registered
within a precise stratigraphical and archeo-chronological context.
Ongoing excavations and research at these two important Lower
Pleistocene sites have confirmed that the stone industries are in
close association with the faunal remains and they continue to yield
interesting results concerning the behaviour and lifestyle of the
first inhabitants of Europe (Toro-Moyana et al., 2003, 2009, 2010a,
2010b, 2011; Espigares et al., 2012).
The age of the FN3 site has been evaluated using relative and
absolute dating methods: by calibrating micro and macro verte-
brate biochronology with magnetostratigraphical data (Agusti
et al., 1987, 1996, 2007, 2010; Martinez Navarro et al., 1997, 2003,
2010; Oms et al., 1999, 2000a, 2000b; Agusti and Madurell, 2003;
Blain, 2003; Scott et al., 2007) and by applying combined U-se-
ries/ESR dating to quartz grains and tooth enamel (Duval et al.,
2011a, 2012a, 2012b). Consequently, the site’s stratigraphical
sequence (Fig. 4) is correlated to the Matuyama Chron, between the
Olduvai and Jaramillo subchrons (1.78e1.48 Ma 1.07e0.98 Ma,
Gradstein et al., 2005). More precisely, an age close to 1.4 Ma is
accepted for the site of BL (Toro-Moyano et al., 2013), while the
derived features of Allophaiomys lavocati at the FN3 site suggest
that it is slightly younger: around 1.2 Ma (Agustí and Madurell,
2003). Recently, an infant hominin milk tooth- presently the old-
est hominin remain in Europe- has been recovered from BL (Toro-
Moyano et al., 2013). These two sites continue to provide some of
the most complete and well documented evidence of the first
hominins in Western Europe (Fig. 3).
The faunal assemblage at FN3 comprises abundant carnivore
remains: Ursus sp., Canis mosbachensis, Lycaon lycaonoides, Vulpes cf.
praeglacialis, Pachycrocuta brevirostris, Felidae indet., Lynx sp., Meles
sp., Pannonictis cf. nestii, Mustelidae indet., and large herbivores:
Mammuthus meridionalis, Stephanorhinus hundsheimensis, Equus
altidens, Hippopotamus antiquus, Bison sp., Ammotragus europaeus,
Hermitragus cf. albus, Praemegaceros cf. verticornis, Metacervocerus
rhenanus. The microfauna includes: Erinacenae indet., Crocidura sp.,
Fig. 3. Map showing the location of Fuente Nueva 3 in Orce (Southern Spain) and other Western Eurasian Mode 1 sites. Sites with a numerically significant lithic sample including
secondarily modified flakes. 1. Dmanisi (1.8 Ma, Georgia, Gabunia et al., 20 00, 2002; Lumley et al., 2002; Vekua et al., 2002; Lordkipanidze et al., 2007); 2. Bizat Ruhama (1.6e1.2 Ma,
Zaidner, 2013; Zaidner et al., 2010); 3. Korolevo level VII (0.95 Ma, Ukraine, Koulakovska et al., 2010); 4. Kozarnika Cave (1.6e1.4 Ma, Bulgaria, Sirakov et al., 2010); 5. le Vallonnet
(1.07e0.984 Ma, France, Lumleyet al., 1988); 6. Pont-de-Lavaud in the Loire river basin (>1 Ma, France, Despriée et al., 2006); 7. Bois-de-Riquet at Lézignan-la-Cèbe (1.57 Ma, France,
Crochet et al., 2009); 8. Arce, Colle Marino, Fontana Liri (>0.78 Ma, Itay, Biddittu, 1984; Cauche et al., 2004); 9. Ca’Belvedere di Montepoggiolo (1 Ma, Italy, Peretto et al., 1998;
Gagnepain et al., 1992; Yokoyama et al., 1992; Falguères, 2003); 10. Pirro Nord (1.6e1.3 Ma, Italy, Arzarello et al., 2007); 11. Atapuerca, Gran Dolina, level TD6 (>0.8 Ma, Spain,
Carbonell et al., 1995; Parés and Pérez-González, 1999; Falguères et al., 1999, 2001; Berger et al., 2008) and Atapuerca, Sima de l’Elefante, level TE9 (1,2 Ma, Spain, Rosas et al., 2001;
Carbonell et al., 2008; Parés et al., 2006); 12. Vallparadís (1.2e0.6 Ma, Spain, Madurell-Malapeira et al., 2010; Martínez et al., 2010; Duval et al., 2011b); 13. Barranco León and Fuente
Nueva 3 at Orce (1.4 and 1.2 Ma, Spain, Agusti et al., 1987,1996; Agusti and Madurell, 2003; Duval et al., 2011a,; 2012; Martinez Navarro et al., 1997, 20 03; Oms et al., 1999, 200 0a,
2000b; Toro-Moyano et al., 2003, 2010a, 2010b, 2011); 14. Happisburgh 3 (0.95e0.7, England, Parfitt et al., 2010).
D. Barsky et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2014) 1e13 3
Please cite this article in press as: Barsky, D., et al., Use and re-use: Re-knapped flakes from the Mode 1 site of Fuente Nueva 3 (Orce, Andalucía,
Spain), Quaternary International (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.01.048
Sorex minutus, Sorex sp., Galemys sp., Asoriculus gibberodon, Allo-
phaiomys aff. lavocati, Allophaiomys sp., Mimomys savini, Castillomys
crusafonti, Apodemus aff.mystacinus, Hystrix sp., (Martínez-Navarro
et al., 2010 and references therein).
Paleontological remains were first reported from BL in 1983. In
1994, the discovery of some flint artifacts prompted the first ex-
cavations at this site a year later. In 1991, some flint tools were also
found at FN3 by a local resident. The following year, more flint ar-
tifacts were found at the site in sediment that had been mechani-
cally removed during the installation of a telephone pole. Sieving of
the sediment yielded more lithics and large mammal fossils, giving
rise to the first soundings in 1994 and then to systematic excava-
tions in 1995. The initial findings concerning the lithics were
published in pace with ongoing discoveries (Gibert et al., 1992;
Tixier et al., 1996; Turq et al., 1996; Martinez Navarro et al., 1997).
Around the same time, the first results from the Lower Pleistocene
site of Dmanisi were made known to the world; with hominin
fossils (Homo georgicus) stone tools and fauna attesting to a human
presence outside of Africa (Republic of Georgia) as early as 1.81 Ma
(Gabunia et al., 2000, 2002; Lumley et al., 2002; Vekua et al., 2002;
Lordkipanidze et al., 2007). These discoveries further fueled the
already heated debate between supporters of a “short chronology”
hypothesis upholding that Western Europe was not successfully
colonized until around 0.5 Ma (Roebroeks and Van Kolfschoten,
1995) and proponents of the so-called ‘Old Europe’claiming that
hominins had colonized at a much earlier date; at least around 1 Ma
(Lumley, 1971;Lumley et al., 1988; Bosinski, 1992; Rolland, 1992;
Aguirre, 2000).). In the 1990s, the discovery of Homo antecessor
(Bermúdez de Castro et al., 1997) with stone tools and butchered
faunal remains in the Aurora Stratum of the Sierra de Atapuerca’s
Gran Dolina site- in a precise chrono-stratigraphical position clearly
older that the Matuyama-Bruhnes paleomagnetic event-
buttressed growing evidence in favour of an early colonization of
Western Europe (Carbonell et al., 1995, 1995, 1999, 1999; Falguères
et al., 1999; Parés and Pérez-González, 1999). Throughout the next
decade, discoveries and intensified research in France, Italy, Spain
and even England followed suit (Fig. 3), establishing that hominin
groups were successfully implanted in much of the Mediterranean
basin by at least 1.2 Ma. Today, evidence from BL and FN3 continues
to provide exceptionally rich lithic and faunal samples for this little
known period of early human ancestry. Ongoing research exam-
ining different aspects of the lithics from an interdisciplinary
standpoint contribute to better understanding the technological
and cognitive capacities of the hominins present at these and other
Western European Mode 1 sites (Toro-Moyano et al., 2003, 2009,
2010a, 2010b, 2011; Barsky et al., 2010).
2.1. Materials and methods: the stone industries from Fuente Nueva 3
The FN3 toolkit clearly belongs to a Mode 1 type techno-
complex (Table 1). All of the artifacts were knapped from local
flint and limestone of varying quality (Toro-Moyano et al., 2010a,
2010b, 2011). The majority of the limestone artefacts are volumi-
nous, summarily knapped or roughly shaped objects. Many present
traces of percussion testifying to their use as heavy-duty tools,
perhaps for breaking bones and certainly also for bipolar and direct
hammer knapping (percussors, anvils). While most of the lime-
stone is ascribed to the category of “macro”tools, the assemblage
also includes cores, flakes and fragments (Table 1). The lightly
rolled and more or less altered cortical surfaces of the limestone
pebbles and cobbles contribute to difficulties in deciphering
removal negatives and other percussion-related stigmata. A
considerably high percentage of the FN3 “macro”limestone
(L¼>5 cm) displays traces of percussion (¼43% of the non-
modified limestone and 61% of the worked limestone, Barsky
et al., in progress). Traces of percussion include: stigmata, cupula,
accidental removal negatives and/or crush marks. Irregular retouch
is often observed on removal negative or fracture crests. Impact
points evidencing bipolar fracture on an anvil are recognizable on
many broken cobbles. Quantitative data buttressed by experi-
mental work is, at present, yielding interesting results about the
percussive activities going on at the Orce sites (Barsky et al., in
progress). The limestone was apparently also used for flake pro-
duction and documented recurrent core technologies include
unidirectional-unifacial, orthogonal and multiplatform (poly-
hedral). A few of the cores display short knapping episodes
Fig. 4. (left) General view of excavations in 2013 at Fuente Nueva 3 (Orce, Spain) (Photo Jordi Mestre, IPHES) and (right) schematic stratigraphical log of the Fuente Nueva 3 site
(after Oms et al., 2000b).
D. Barsky et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2014) 1e134
Please cite this article in press as: Barsky, D., et al., Use and re-use: Re-knapped flakes from the Mode 1 site of Fuente Nueva 3 (Orce, Andalucía,
Spain), Quaternary International (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.01.048
organized around a relatively acute and sinuous edge, suggesting
the beginnings of bifacial technologies. Both direct hammer and
bipolar on an anvil methods were used to knap limestone and
sometimes both methods are detected on the same piece. Because
of the sedimentary situation of the site, all of thelimestone artifacts
have, up to now, been attributed to manuports (Toro-Moyano et al.,
2010a, 2010b).
The flint assemblage shows a very different profile, most
remarkably by its mean small dimensions (most of the flakes are
only 2e4 cm long). Cores are scarce and much of the knapping was
apparently carried out using bipolar on an anvil reduction strate-
gies. By carrying out knapping experiments, this method was found
to leave clearly identifiable stigma on the cores while the resulting
flakes only rarely displayed prognostic traces (bullet-like mor-
phologies or opposite impact points on ventral surfaces). We
conclude that, although the aforementioned flake morphologies
are present in the assemblage, exact quantification of the number
of flakes produced by bipolar on an anvil knapping would be
erroneous. Suffice it to say that experimental bipolar on an anvil
knapping of Orce flint allowed us to reproduce identical flakes and
cores as those present in our archeological samples. The use of a
recurrent, peripheral knapping gesture on flint cores placed in the
centre or on the edge of a limestone anvil is in fact an extremely
efficient way to obtain numerous sharp-edged flakes from small,
cube-shaped cores. It is to be noted that some of the large, flat
limestone artifacts show the same kinds of stigma and breakage
patterns as those typically observed on our experimental anvils.
While none of the flakes or fragments are clearly retouched into
tool “types”such as notches, scrapers or denticulates (Barsky et al.,
2010; Toro-Moyano et al., 2010a, 2010b, 2011), there is evidence of
‘secondary flake knapping’(Zaidner, 2013). This activity is thought
to be linked to bipolar on an anvil production of tiny flakes from
small-sized cores. The presence of intentionally retouched tools is
considered to be a trademark characterizing the shift from Mode 1
towards Mode 2 (Acheulian). In the latter technological phase
shaping and standardization come to represent important cogni-
tive advances. Intentionally retouched tools are absent or
extremely rare in the earliest stone industries across the globe.
When they are present, they generally display irregular, denticulate
morphologies which are at the root of divergent interpretations (de
la Torre and Mora, 2005; Hovers, 2012; Barsky et al., 2013). A higher
frequency of intentionally retouched tools is one of the main factors
defining Mode 2, alongside: an enlarged area for raw material
collection, large flake production, shaped cutting tools (picks,
handaxes, cleavers), systematic bifacial discoid flake production
and the increased standardization of heavy-duty tools. The absence
of these features at FN3 therefore underlines the archaic nature of
the assemblage. All of these techno-typological traits most
certainly reflect behavioural changes that motivated and facilitated
more complex social organization. It is likely that time gained by
the perfection of a more efficient toolkit would have allowed
hominins to increase the range of their activities (Barsky et al.,
2013).
3. A second life: evidence of flake ‘re-use’
Keeping this problematic in mind, we have re-examined the
flint material from FN3. In the interest of the reduction, re-use,
recycling process discussed above, we propose specific morpho-
technical criteria in order to identify whether any of the in-
dustries from Orce might translate one or more of these processes
and, if so, to what end (technical constraint, raw material economy,
energy saving). These include: flakes with double ventral surfaces
and/or posterior removal negatives (Figs. 5e7). Overall, evidence
for the ‘re-use’of flakes is scarce at FN3 but there are a few,
intentionally re-knapped flakes and also some flakes showing
double ventral surfaces attesting to their origin from larger flakes.
This (occasional) use of flakes as cores adds another link in oper-
ational schemes recorded at this site. The pieces illustrated and
described below constitute some of the clearest examples of flaked-
flakes and of flakes obtained from other flakes. Flint types corre-
spond to codes listed in Toro-Moyano et al., (2010a, 2010b).
-(Fig. 5,n
1) Large-sized, thick flake with a cortical distal plane.
The flake is slightly altered and has a homogeneous, grey patina.
Its ventral convexity (bulb) has been eliminated by at least four
unidirectional removals (mean length ¼20 mm). A final
extraction was effectuated on the dorsal surface of the flake-
core’s proximal angle (20 22 mm). Its platform was the surface
of a previous removal negative and part of the convex ventral
surface. This surface was a suitable matrice for obtaining at least
five small-sized flakes. Apart from its use as a core, parts of the
flake’s thinned edge display flat, irregular retouch and crushing,
suggesting that it also served as a tool. Isolated areas of
denticulate retouch are also present on the lateral edges of the
flake-core.
-(Fig. 5,n
2) Desilicified flake with covering white patina and a
broken lateral edge. The flake, clearly displaying two ventral
surfaces with orthogonally oriented striking directions, was
obtained from another, distally outrepassé flake.
-(Fig. 5,n
3) Short, thick and distally hinged flake with a ho-
mogenous beige patina. The dorsal surface has several removal
negatives translating a relatively long knapping sequence with
at least three directional changes. The left lateral bord is the
plane surface of the original core. The left distal cortical plane
served as a platform for two small removals preceding the
flake’s extraction (length ¼20 mm). The right lateral edge dis-
plays an intentional fracture (with impact point) perpendicular
to the main knapping plane that was effectuated after the flake’s
extraction. The convex ventral surface (bulb) may have served to
obtain another flake (20 22 mm), although this negative
could be a knapping parasite. Finally, the right distal cutting
edge shows a few, irregular, denticulate inverse retouch (mean
length ¼8 mm).
-(Fig. 5,n
4) Slightly altered flake with distal cortex and covering
white patina. Previous removals are bipolar (n¼2). The plat-
form is smooth and slightly convex. An inverse removal from the
lateral edge (22 16 mm) thinned the flake’s distal extremity.
The resulting cutting edge shows crush marks, as does a portion
of the opposing lateral edge.
-(Fig. 6,n
1). Short, thick, trapezoidal flake with striated beige
patina. This non-cortical flake truncated the summital portion of
a small, polyhedron-shaped core. It presents a smooth, inclined
platform and multidirectional removal negatives on a thick
lateral bord as well as on the dorsal surface. A flat, inverse
removal was effectuated on the ventral surface from the left
Table 1
Limestone and flint tools from Fuente Nueva 3 included in this study.
Tool type FN3
Limestone Limestone non modified macro 189
Limestone knapped 98
Limestone flakes and fragments 180
Total limestone 467
Flint Flint non modified macro 3
Flint knapped 14
Flint flakes and fragments 374
Total flint 391
Total industry 858
D. Barsky et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2014) 1e13 5
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lateral edge (9 20 mm). The impact point is clearly visible, as
are tiny crush marks on both surfaces of the cutting edge.
-(Fig. 6,n
2) Broken flake with a beige patina and residual cortex
on the striking platform and proximal bord. An inclined fracture
on the distal edge reveals partial desilicification. Previous neg-
atives (at least 5) translate a series of recurrent orthogonal re-
movals prior the flake’s extraction. The pointed distal extremity
displays irregular retouch. A large, invasive removal originating
from the distal extremity occupies the entire length of the
flake’s ventral surface (53 mm).
-(Fig. 6,n
3) Flake knapped from fine quality flint with a striated,
beige-white patina. It has a wide, open angled platform and two
previous, longitudinal removal negatives occupy about half of
the distal surface. The remaining surface indicates the ventral
face of a larger flake (oriented transversally to the present one).
-(Fig. 6,n
4) Slightly patinated flake in fine quality, greenish-
brown colored flint. The dorsal surface shows that at least two
opposite transversal removal negatives were effectuated prior
to its extraction. Three small denticulated removals (or retouch)
with a mean length of 10 mm originate from the partial ventral
Fig. 5. Flint flakes from Fuente Nueva 3 displaying traces of secondary transformation and/or re-use. 1.- FN3’02.O87.Nivel inferior.n49 (flint type SFN3, 72 50 14 mm); 2.-
FN3’03.M88.Nivel inferior.n1(flint type SFN3, 44 42 15 mm); 3.- FN3’02.P88.Nivel superior. n2(flint type SFN3, 37 58 16 mm); 4.- FN3.S9.30.2P.Y41 (flint type SFN1,
29 23 9 mm). (Photos Jordi Mestre, IPHES).
D. Barsky et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2014) 1e136
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Spain), Quaternary International (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.01.048
surface. The series is truncated by an abrupt removal that was
made from the dorsal surface, perhaps using an anvil.
-(Fig. 7,n
1) Tiny flake with a beige patina. The striking platform
is barely visible and there is a partial, longitudinal (Siret) frac-
ture. About half of the dorsal surface is occupied by a single,
longitudinally oriented removal negative, while the remaining
surface shows the ventral convexity of the transversely oriented
flake-core.
-(Fig. 7,n
2) Small-sized, white patinated flake with a dihedral
striking platform and a single longitudinally oriented removal
negative. The distal portion of the flake displays the partial
remnant of the original flake-core’s ventral surface.
Fig. 6. Flint flakes from Fuente Nueva 3 displaying traces of secondary transformation and/or re-use. n1eFN3.O93.Nivel intermedio.n50254 (flint type SFN3, 31 39 14 mm);
2.- FN3a.TP2.Y93 (flint type SFN1, 53 40 13 mm); 3.- FN3’02.O88. n4(flint type SNF3, 44 37 14 mm); 4.- FN3’95.n50314 (flint type SFN4, 32 33 18 mm). (Photos Jordi
Mestre, IPHES).
D. Barsky et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2014) 1e13 7
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-(Fig. 7,n
3) Patinated grey flake with a Siret fracture and a
cortical striking platform. A single previous removal negative
departing from the same platform is visible on the distal surface
which is occupied mainly by the remaining ventral convexity of
the original flake-core which was oriented transversally.
-(Fig. 7,n
4) Partially desilicified flake fragment with a white
patina and some cortical residu on its distal portion. Previous
removal negatives (n¼2) are oriented orthogonally but the
flake is partial and lecture is difficult. Likewise, the ventral
surface displays a removal negative that could be contemporary
with the flake’s extraction (parasite) but that may have been
effectuated secondarily; crush marks are present on the striking
area. In any case, the fracture (lateral, longitudinal) is posterior.
There is a single, marginal retouch on the edge opposite to the
fracture.
-(Fig. 7,n
5) Large flake on grey-colored, striated plate flint. The
striking platform is nul (cortical surface) and the flake may have
been obtained by bipolar on an anvil method. The distal surface
shows two, relatively large, longitudinally oriented removal
negatives. The flake was truncated perpendicularly on one
Fig. 7. Flint flakes from Fuente Nueva 3 displaying traces of secondary transformation and/or re-use. n1.- FN3’03.S96.Nivel superior.n16 (flint type SFN2, 23 13 3 mm); 2.-
FN3’03.M87. Nivel inferior. n11 (flint type SFN1, 11 21 2 mm); 3.- FN3’02.P92.Nivel superior.n19 (flint type SFN3, 23 28 7 mm); 4.- FN3.S11.CB.Y42 (flint type SFN3,
37 18 10 mm); 5.- FN3’03.O93.Nivel inferior.n1(flint type SFN3; 60 63 29 mm). (Photos Jordi Mestre, IPHES).
D. Barsky et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2014) 1e138
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lateral bord whose surfaces present opposite, removal-type
impacts as well as crush marks.
4. Discussion and conclusions: re-use and recycling of stone
refuse within the context of the European Mode 1
The concept of recycling is generally linked to economic con-
cerns and the ways in which human technology may be best
adapted towards minimal expenditure- in both energy and raw
materials. Looking at first technologies, it is interesting to situate
the first indications of concerns that led humans to discover ways
to avoid waste and thus maximize the fruits of their efforts. The
emergence of such concerns for economy is noteworthy since it
occasioned changes in early human behaviour: most notably in the
longer sequencing of technological chains. However, this additional
link in chaînes opératoires may be closer to the notion of re-use than
to that of recycling even though, in the case of flake re-knapping,
there is transformation of the original matrix. We propose that
during Mode 1, the occasional transformation and ‘re-use’of
knapping waste reflects a behaviour which, in the face of expedi-
ency, was to find its way into the praxis of human culture at an early
stage of its development.
The earliest toolkits in Africa and Eurasia are palpable reflections
of the human choice to use-reduce stone into sharp-edged products
using non-randomized and socially transmitted knapping methods.
While the products themselves are not standardized, the means for
their production were in fact dictated by basic flake extraction
mechanics and were thus limited to only a few basic technological
notions. They are flake-core industries without significant typo-
logical categories- apart from the macro (core)/micro (flake or
fragment) dichotomy. However, they do occasionally contain ele-
ments revelatory of additional gestural links in chains of produc-
tion where simply knapped products were secondarily transformed
to create new morphologies. One of the clearest manifestations for
this kind of behaviour is the secondary use of flakes with the aim of
producing more flakes or shaping tools. In the earliest toolkits there
is a fine, interpretative line separating the ways in which we may
define such “flaked flakes”: as cores or as retouched tools (Barsky
et al., 2013; Zaidner, 2013). Earliest African assemblages contain
few such items: as in the Ethiopian sites of Kada Gona EG-10, EG-12
and Ounda Gona OGS-7 (2.6 Ma, Semaw, 2000; Semaw et al., 1997,
2010) and AL666 and AL894 (2.3 Ma, Kimbel et al., 1996; Goldman-
Neuman and Hovers, 2009). Also in Ethiopia, Omo 71 has yielded an
industrial complex including only cores and non-modified flakes
(2.34 Ma, Howell et al., 1987; de la Torre, 2004). The industries from
Lokalelei 1 and Lokalelei 2C, in Kenya, likewise include few
retouched flakes (2.4e2.3 Ma, Kibunjia, 1994;Roche et al., 1999;
Delagnes and Roche, 2005). At Lokalelei 2C, some of these: .are
cores recycled for use as tools after debitage was completed (Delagnes
and Roche, 2005). These authors distinguish retouch from debitage
by techno-morphological considerations such as the size and
disposition of the scars, as well as their position (at the end) of the
gestural sequencing of the manufacture process. Further economic
features are documented at Lokalelei 2C, including the transport of
partially reduced cores to the site and the “recycling”of larger-sized
chunks and flakes for use as cores (Delagnes and Roche, 2005).
At the above mentioned African sites, economy seems to be
related to obtaining a relatively high number of flakes per-core
without the need for intermediary phases involving surface prep-
aration, by applying formal and qualitative selective strategies in
the first links of the operative chain, i.e. the selection of supports.
Before around 1.8e1.5 Ma in Africa, the intentional shaping of flakes
and fragments by retouch does not seem to acquire the numerical
and formal significance as it does in later sites, for example at Melka
Kunturé Garba IV (1,5 Ma, Chavaillon and Piperno, 1975; Piperno
and Bulgarelli-Piperno, 1975; Gallotti, 2013) and Gadeb (1.5 Ma,
Clark and Kurashina, 1976, 1979; de la Torre, 2011) in Ethiopia, or at
the eponymous Olduvai Gorge sites in Tanzania (Bed I, 1.8 Ma,
Leakey,1971; de la Torre and Mora, 2005). During this “pre-Mode 2”
phase of hominin technological development, the elements
required for defining appropriate typological classifications remain
blurred in most cases and discussions aiming to determine the real
significance of this transformed- re-used or recycled- material are
far from resolved. However, the incremental intensification and
standardization of these secondarily modified products gives way
diachronically to truly retouched tool types; finally effacing the
problematic frontier between knapping and shaping.
Evidence from the oldest European occurrences indicates a great
antiquity for the emergence of the notion of re-use after trans-
formation as a first step in economising lithic products (higher
productivity to avoid waste in both energy and raw materials). At
Dmanisi, for example, retouched flakes are extremely rare and
typically lack standardization (Lumley et al., 2005; Mgeladze et al.,
2011). The proportion of notch or denticulate morphologies is
pronounced and there are also some cases of invasive removals on
ventral flake surfaces. These characteristics are shared by most of
the other Western European Mode 1 sites having yielded numeri-
cally significant lithic samples: Barranco León and Fuente Nueva 3
(Toro-Moyano et al., 2010a, 2010b), Montepoggiolo (Peretto et al.,
1998), Atapuerca level TD6 (Carbonell et al., 1999, 2001; Ollé
et al., 2011), Pont-de-Lavaud (Despriée et al., 2006, 2009), le Val-
lonnet (Lumley et al., 1988), Korolevo levels VI, VII (Koulakovska
et al., 2010). Cores from these sites are generally knapped from
cobbles carefully selected for their petrographical qualities but also
for their formal attributes which allow for flakes to be easily
extracted from natural, non-prepared surfaces. Physical constraints
were overcome when necessary through intentional cobble
breakage and fragments were used either directly or as cores for
further flake production.
Our examination of secondarily modified flint flakes at the Mode
1 site of FN3 reveals that the concept of transformation is a key
feature contributing to the emergence of the notion of recycling in
the early Western European toolkits. At FN3, the overall scarcity of
flint cores suggests that some of the knapping took place off-site
(Toro-Moyano et al., 2010a, 2010b). Meanwhile, the presence of
some re-flaked flakes shows that at least some of these products
were transformed into cores and probably re-used on-site. That
flint was introduced to the site not only as brute chunks but also as
readily knapped flakes entails interesting connotations about
hominin planning and foresight for raw material transport, and for
the use and re-use of blanks at FN3. It should be remembered that
the FN3 site probably represents only one of several points in time
and space scattered around the paleo-lake Baza which was
certainly a privileged location for hominins as it was for other
species of carnivores and herbivores. Hominins used the raw ma-
terials immediately available to them to cut meat off carcasses in
competition with the other large carnivores present in the area.
While limestone was the most abundant material directly available
to them, it was clearly preferred for percussive activities. In the
meantime, the comparatively sharper cutting edges provided by
flint were certainly favoured for meat cutting activities (requiring
small-sized, sharp-edged flakes). Since the flint was not so readily
available in the environment around the lake (secondary sources:
detrital) then it is possible that hominins carried flakes with them
which were occasionally re-knapped to produce more of the
needed small, sharp-edged tools.
Evidence for the occasional re-knapping of flakes indicative of
advanced productive efficiency is broadly linked to an incremental
consciousness of the management of relationships between the
D. Barsky et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2014) 1e13 9
Please cite this article in press as: Barsky, D., et al., Use and re-use: Re-knapped flakes from the Mode 1 site of Fuente Nueva 3 (Orce, Andalucía,
Spain), Quaternary International (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.01.048
different phases of the emerging reduction, re-use and recycling
process. The sites discussed in this paper precede the advent of Mode
2 wherein hierarchical core management, large flake production and
the intentional shaping and standardization of both small and large
tools became widespread. These activities involved an ever widening
range of complex processes of product transformation, re-use- and
recycling. The development of more effective techno-economic
practices leads us to reflect upon the former concept: recycling,
and the ways in which this behaviour may be identified in early
Paleolithic operative schemes. While the examples from FN3 and
other Mode 1 sites show that flakes were only occasionally trans-
formed, this behaviour indicates that, in the face of expediency,
hominins were capable of adapting available lithic resources to im-
mediate needs. At FN3, however, it has not been possible to deter-
mine whether or not the re-knapped items had been discarded prior
to their re-use and, if so, for how long. This time-factor, evident at
some Middle Paleolithic sites, is considered by some authors to be
essential to identifying truly ‘recycled’objects (Vaquero et al., 2012).
In some cases, double patina, refitting and/or the re-knapping of
previously burnt artifacts provide precious indices of such a time
interval separating phases of discard transformation and re-use.
Over time, intensification of such processes as shaping and stan-
dardization had repercussions on artefact curation and land-use
patterns, resulting in the exploitation of a larger variety of raw ma-
terials to best respond to the needs of newly created morpho-types.
Greater hominin mobility of is one of the hallmarks of Mode 2
achievement that may be connected in some ways to thisspecifically
human behavioural trait of transformation and re-use in the interest
of economic concerns (Féblot-Augustin, 1997).
In Western European Mode 2 lithic assemblages, distances in
excess of 100 km are recorded to have been covered by hominins
seeking out fine quality lithic materials (Despriée et al., 2010). This
capacity to cover large distances is coincident with greater techno-
typological variability, suggesting that innovated toolkits gave
hominins greater freedom to occupy territories even if they were
distant from the fine quality raw material sources needed for
elaborating the more complex tool types. Fine quality exogenous
materials brought from distant sources were generally thoroughly
reduced, and not all elements relating to different reduction events
are necessarily found on-site (Barsky and de Lumley, 2010).
Throughout Mode 2 and especially into Mode 3, widening land-
scape use appears intimately linked to the segmentation of oper-
ative schemes in relation to typological variability and the ensuing
enlargement of petrographical diversity (Féblot-Augustin, 1997).
Concepts connecting raw material quality and availability to the
intensity of retouch (notably Quina) are useful for understanding
the “ramification”or complex life-cycle of the standardized toolkits
of the Middle Paleolithic and also for defining the role of recycling
(Jelinek, 1976; Dibble, 1984; Geneste, 1991; Dibble and Rolland,
1992; Bourguignon et al., 2004; Turq et al., 2013). We consider
the capacity demonstrated by the occasional re-use of flint flakes in
the Mode 1 site of FN3 to be an example for the early existence of a
potential or latent behaviour that was to develop synchronously
with multiple changes in technology and tool function following
the advent of Mode 2.
Acknowledgements
The research at the sites of Orce and the Guadix-Baza basin
presented here has been carried out within the General Research
Program “Primeras ocupaciones humanas del Pleistoceno inferior de
la cuenca de Guadix-Baza (Granada, España)”(First human settlement
from the Early Pleistocene in the GuadixeBaza basin (Granada, Spain).
Contract dossier number B090678SVI8BC, funded by the regional
government of the Junta de Andalucía, Consejería de Educación,
Cultura y Deporte.
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