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Prey Preferences of the Snow Leopard (Panthera uncia): Regional Diet Specificity Holds Global Significance for Conservation
PLOS One
Abstract and Figures
The endangered snow leopard is a large felid that is distributed over 1.83 million km(2) globally. Throughout its range it relies on a limited number of prey species in some of the most inhospitable landscapes on the planet where high rates of human persecution exist for both predator and prey. We reviewed 14 published and 11 unpublished studies pertaining to snow leopard diet throughout its range. We calculated prey consumption in terms of frequency of occurrence and biomass consumed based on 1696 analysed scats from throughout the snow leopard's range. Prey biomass consumed was calculated based on the Ackerman's linear correction factor. We identified four distinct physiographic and snow leopard prey type zones, using cluster analysis that had unique prey assemblages and had key prey characteristics which supported snow leopard occurrence there. Levin's index showed the snow leopard had a specialized dietary niche breadth. The main prey of the snow leopard were Siberian ibex (Capra sibrica), blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur), Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus), argali (Ovis ammon) and marmots (Marmota spp). The significantly preferred prey species of snow leopard weighed 55±5 kg, while the preferred prey weight range of snow leopard was 36-76 kg with a significant preference for Siberian ibex and blue sheep. Our meta-analysis identified critical dietary resources for snow leopards throughout their distribution and illustrates the importance of understanding regional variation in species ecology; particularly prey species that have global implications for conservation.
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... It normally feeds mostly on wild ungulates, especially caprine, with the addition of birds and smaller mammals like marmots and pikas [12]. Typically, the specific prey species hunted by these predators at specific locations are wild sheep and goats such as blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur), Siberian ibex (Capra sibirica), markhor (Capra falconeri), and Tibetan argali (Ovis ammon); however, their diet may also encompass pikas, hares, and various game birds like chukar partridge (Alectoris chukar) and snowcock (Tetraogallus sp.) [7,13]. In Nepal, Chetri et al. [14] observed wild prey such as blue sheep, Himalayan tahr, Tibetan argali, Himalayan marmot, wooly hare, Royle's pika, different species of rodents, and birds. ...
... The prey selection was carried out by comparing the sample of prey consumed through the diet with the available prey captured through camera traps. Jacobs' index (D) [58] was employed to examine the prey selectivity, as adopted by Lyngdoh et al. [13]. The formula used for this analysis was: ...
... The blue sheep remained the dominant prey choice even when the livestock density was about 10 times higher than the blue sheep density. Also, Lyngdoh et al. [13] found blue sheep (D = 0.43 ± 0.17) and Himalayan tahr (D = 0.32 ± 0.29) to be highly preferred by SLs during the regional-level diet study. Both of them are major wild prey species in SLs' habitats. ...
Limited information exists on the diet of snow leopards (SL), factors affecting livestock mortality, and local attitudes toward SL conservation in the Manaslu Conservation Area (MCA), Nepal. Therefore, we aim to investigate the dietary preferences of SL, the factors influencing livestock mortality, and local conservation attitudes. From November 2021 to January 2022, 23 SL scats were collected along 24 transects (total length: 21.6 km) in MCA. Camera traps, set within 4 km × 4 km grids at 28 stations for 661 trap nights, were used to assess prey availability. Jacobs’ index calculated prey preference, while a Generalized Linear Mixed Model (GLMM) assessed factors linked to livestock depredation. Additionally, 65 households from two villages were randomly selected in a survey on depredation and conservation attitudes. Scat analysis identified six wild prey species, including pika (Ochotona sp.), Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus), and blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur), as well as three domestic species: ox/cow, yak, and horse. Himalayan tahr had the highest presence in the SL diet (40%). Despite pika having the highest Relative Abundance Index (RAI), SL strongly preferred horses and avoided pika. Larger prey, such as horses, Himalayan tahr, and blue sheep, were highly preferred. Households with more livestock experienced higher depredation rates. Local attitudes toward SL conservation were generally positive, with an average score of 2.59. We recommend an integrated SL conservation plan in MCA, incorporating local participation, income diversification, and employment programs to mitigate conflicts and promote coexistence.
... w leopard (Panthera uncia), Himalayan wolf (Canis lupus chanco), red fox (Vulpes vulpes), and free-ranging dog (Canis lupus familiaris) exemplifies the complex interactions between apex predators and mesopredators (Justa & Lyngdoh, 2023 of free-ranging dogs-a new and increasingly dominant mesopredator in the region (Home et al., 2017;Lyngdoh, 2020;S. Lyngdoh et al., 2014;Shrotriya, et al., 2018). Free-ranging dogs, frequently sustained by human-provided resources such as livestock waste and garbage, appear to have broadened their spatial, dietary, and temporal niches. This expansion has the potential to disrupt ecological balance, posing a threat to both native wildlife and livestock. The phenomenon of m ...
... Given the increasing anthropogenic impacts reshaping carnivore communities, it becomes imperative to factor in these impacts while studying carnivore community dynamics (Easter et al., 2020). (Lyngdoh et al., 2014(Lyngdoh et al., , 2020. In such regions, where human activity, domestic dogs, and apex predator dynamics intersect, understanding the ecological implications of niche selection and mesopredator release is essential for informing wildlife conservation strategies. ...
... The elusive nature of snow leopards poses challenges in accurately determining their average lifespan in the wild (Montsion, 2014). (Lyngdoh et al., 2014). ...
Understanding the competitive dynamics among carnivores given increasing human pressures is critical for effective conservation. This report examines niche partitioning among snow leopards and Himalayan wolves, the apex predators, alongside red foxes and free-ranging dogs, native and introduced mesopredators in Spiti Valley, Himachal Pradesh. Using camera traps, scat analysis, and telemetry data, it highlights how dietary overlap intensifies competition while spatio-temporal niche partitioning supports predator coexistence. The report provides the first SECR-based red fox density estimates and employs telemetry to study this native mesopredator in the Valley. It identifies the rising population of free-ranging dogs as a major threat to native carnivores. Overall, this work enhances our understanding of community dynamics in increasingly human-altered ecosystems.
... Wolves and big cats come into conflict with humans due to livestock depredation. The level of conflict caused by wolves and big cats, respectively, varies regionally (Farhadinia et al. 2017;Kusi et al. 2019;Lyngdoh et al. 2014). Nevertheless, pastoralist communities in many regions often perceive wolves to cause greater economic loss, a perception contributing to negative attitudes toward wolves. ...
... In mountainous regions, wolves prefer rolling valley floors and hillslopes, which are also favored pasturelands and can lead to higher livestock depredation rates by wolves (Kabir et al. 2017). In contrast, snow leopards prefer rugged, inaccessible areas and cliffs (Lyngdoh et al. 2014). And, unlike big cats, wolves occasionally forage on human refuse, which makes them more visible and brings them into more interaction with humans around dump sites (Mohammadi et al. 2022;Bonsen et al. 2024). ...
In Asia, carnivore conservation is often focused on charismatic big cats. Opportunities to conserve the entire carnivore guild are frequently overlooked by channeling conservation and mitigation efforts into single‐species conservation. We synthesize experiences across Asia to explore these challenges and propose mitigations to maximize conservation benefits for the entire carnivore guild. Seven challenges for wolves (Canis lupus) in Asia are highlighted: wolves (1) have been neglected over decades of single‐species conservation, (2) receive less cultural appreciation in many regions, (3) are subject to lax legislation and law enforcement, (4) are often blamed disproportionately for livestock depredation, (5) are often considered more abundant than they are, (6), receive disproportionately little attention from the scientific and conservation communities relative to their ecological importance, and (7) are threatened ecologically and genetically by increasing feral dog populations. As a result, the status of wolves across Asia is poorly documented, there is an enhanced risk of losing significant evolutionary lineages, and it detracts from research and conservation opportunities to preserve the entire carnivore guild. We propose various remedies, such as widening the scope of existing conservation programs, building awareness and knowledge of communities and law enforcement agencies, and more research to inform conservation and legislation.
... The snow leopard (Panthera uncia) has a broad distribution across 12 countries: Afghanistan, Bhutan, China, India, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Nepal, Pakistan, Russia, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan (McCarthy et al. 2017). As a keystone species in the mountainous ecosystems of Central Asia, the survival status of the snow leopard is indicative of the overall health of these environments (Lyngdoh et al. 2014). Recognized as both the apex predator and a flagship species , it plays a crucial role in maintaining the stability of food webs and ecosystem balance across Central Asia and the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (Cardillo et al. 2004;Li, McCarthy et al. 2016;Li, Yu et al. 2016). ...
... Among their primary prey species, the Siberian ibex (Capra sibirica) is also widely documented (Nyhus et al. 2016), covering almost the entirety of the snow leopard's range. Lyngdoh et al. (2014) identified several key wild prey species for snow leopards across their distribution, including blue sheep, Siberian ibex, Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus), argali (Ovis ammon), and Himalayan marmot (Marmota himalayana). Dietary composition varies significantly by region: in Nepal, snow leopards predominantly prey on blue sheep and Himalayan tahr (Aryal et al. 2014;Thapa et al. 2021), while in Pakistan, approximately 70% of their diet consists of domestic animals, with blue sheep and markhor (Capra falconeri) comprising the remainder (Anwar et al. 2011). ...
Climate change is significantly altering the distribution of large carnivores and their primary prey species, with particular emphasis on the changing prey distribution in high‐altitude regions. The Qinghai‐Tibet Plateau, known for its rich biodiversity, is highly sensitive to climate change, affecting the habitats of snow leopards (Panthera uncia) and blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur). Our study identified blue sheep as the primary prey of snow leopards through metagenomic analysis and used bioclimatic data and Land Use/Cover Change (LUCC) information to model habitat suitability under three climate scenarios (RCP 2.6, RCP 4.5, and RCP 8.5). Projections showed that under RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5, snow leopard habitats will decrease by 13.0% and 23.4%, while blue sheep habitats will decrease by 38.3% and 49.7%, respectively. These habitats are expected to shift to higher altitudes, with snow leopards experiencing a more significant shift. Based on these findings, we recommend adjusting protected area boundaries for S1 (Ideal distribution range), establishing ecological corridors for S2 (stepping stone), and implementing targeted measures to mitigate human‐wildlife conflicts in S3 (potential conflict area). To protect these species, international efforts to reduce carbon emissions, cross‐administrative cooperation, and community‐based conservation strategies are essential.
... Multiple studies have investigated population-level dietary patterns and prey selection for both snow leopards (Anwar et al. 2011;Aryal et al. 2014;Bagchi and Mishra 2006;Devkota, Silwal, and Kolejka 2013;Hacker et al. 2021;Lu et al. 2021;Lyngdoh et al. 2014;Oli, Taylor, and Rogers 1993;Shrestha, Aihartza, and Kindlmann 2018;Thapa et al. 2021) and Himalayan wolves (Balajeid Lyngdoh, Habib, and Shrotriya 2020;Tiralla, Holzapfel, and Ansorge 2021;Werhahn et al. 2019). More recently, many studies have also assessed diet overlap between them, highlighting the potential for resource competition (Bocci et al. 2017;Chetri, Odden, and Wegge 2017;Hacker et al. 2022;Jumabay-Uulu et al. 2014;Kachel, Karimov, and Wirsing 2022;Pal et al. 2022a;Wang et al. 2014;Zhong et al. 2022). ...
... In these equations, Y represents the mass of mammalian prey consumed, and X is the mean mass of individual prey species. The mean mass of individual prey species was taken from previous studies (Lyngdoh et al. 2014;Shrestha, Aihartza, and Kindlmann 2018). ...
Understanding species' dietary ecology and interspecific interactions is crucial for multi‐species conservation planning. In Central Asia and the Himalayas, wolves have recolonized snow leopard habitats, raising considerable concern about resource competition between these apex predators. Using micro‐histological analysis of prey species remains (e.g., hair) in their fecal samples, we determined the prey composition, dietary niche breadth, and the extent of diet overlap between these two apex predators in Shey Phoksundo National Park, Nepal. We analyzed 152 scat samples collected along 89 survey transects from April to June 2021. Our findings reveal a significant overlap in their diets (Pianka's index = 0.93), with snow leopard and wolf scats containing the remains of 11 and 10 prey species, respectively. However, the interspecific difference in prey selection was apparent, with significant deviations between observed and expected prey use indicating non‐random prey selection relative to availability: Snow leopards exhibited a higher occurrence of wild prey items in their diet (55.28%), primarily blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur) (24.83%), whereas wolves relied predominantly on domestic livestock (67.89%), with goats (Capra hircus) accounting for over one‐fourth of their diet (29.15%). Yaks (Bos grunniens) comprised a significant portion of the biomass consumed by both predators, with higher for wolves (43.68%) than snow leopards (36.47%). Overall, the narrow dietary niche breadth with high overlap indicates potential resource competition between snow leopards and wolves. However, a comprehensive understanding of resource competition will require further study on other axes of niche partitioning, including habitat and time. Nevertheless, the region's low prey richness means that, with increasing human influence, any reduction in wild prey or increase in livestock could intensify competition between snow leopards and wolves, which could have implications for livestock depredation.
... Yak death has increased in the Himalayas, particularly due to snowstorms (Joshi et al. 2020, Qi et al. 2023). In addition, increased conservation efforts in the Himalayas may also increase livestock depredation as domesticated animals comprised up to forty per cent of the snow leopard's diet (Lyngdoh et al. 2014). ...
Mountain pastoralism is at risk of extinction due to changing socio-economic contexts. Though animal husbandry in mountainous area is one of the oldest economically valuable traditions and practices, herders are gradually shifting towards other occupations due to higher opportunities for income generation. High mortality rate of livestock is one of the main causes of increased costs of animal husbandry in the high mountains as they do not have adequate veterinary facilities and livestock are among the main prey of wild predators. Although insurance shares the risk of losses, existing insurance schemes are not favourable to mountain herders, as the claims process is lengthy, leading to higher transaction costs that discourage herders from using the insurance scheme. To address this issue, a community-based insurance scheme is proposed to bring insurance coverage to herders. This study aims to determine the preferences of yak herders in Kanchenjunga landscape of Nepal about participating in the community-based insurance scheme. The rangelands here share borders with India. The herders are from diverse ethnic groups and have linked yak herding with tourism. Interviews were conducted with sixty yak herders using a contingent valuation method. Data were analysed using a linear model. The results suggest that herders’ willingness-to-pay at subsidised rates covers the expected payout. The excess amount collected can be utilised to enhance the welfare of herders through a comprehensive fund mobilisation plan.
This article was published open access under a CC BY-NC 4.0 licence: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ .
... The short rostrum and low speed of occlusion lead to a relatively slow bite. This is in accordance with the fact that P. uncia predates mainly on Caprini bovids (3,(46)(47)(48), which have short metapodial bones. The short distal limbs in mammals are correlated with a low speed but higher strength (49,50). ...
How snow leopard gradually adapted to the extreme environments in Tibet remains unexplored due to the scanty fossil record in Tibet. Here, we recognize five valid outside-Tibet records of the snow leopard lineage. Our results suggest that the snow leopard dispersed out of the Tibetan Plateau multiple times during the Quaternary. The osteological anatomy of the modern snow leopard shows adaptation to the steep slope and, to a lesser extent, cold/high-altitude environment. Fossils and phylogeny suggest that the snow leopard experienced a gradual strengthening of such adaptation, especially since the Middle Pleistocene (~0.8 million years). Species distribution modeling suggests that the locations of the fossil sites are not within most suitable area, and we argue that local landscape features are more influential factors than temperature and altitude alone. Our study underscores the importance of integrating morphology, fossil records, and species distribution modeling, to comprehensively understand the evolution, ecology, and inform conservation strategies for endangered species.
... Potential prey items were identified via a literature search of prey common to predator species residing on the QTP and consultation with local experts [35,[46][47][48]. MT-RNR1 reference sequences for potential prey items were pulled from NCBI GenBank (https://www.ncbi.nlm. ...
Understanding of predator feeding ecology, interactions among co-occurring predator species, and seasonal changes is critical for conservation management given the important role that predators play in shaping their ecosystems, but is lacking for most regions of the world. Dietary studies have demonstrated varying conclusions in the role that resource partitioning plays in the maintenance of predator communities due to complex inter-related factors that may shape prey use. We used DNA metabarcoding on 581 scat samples to determine the dietary composition, similarity, diversity, and niche overlap of eight predator species (Tibetan wolf (Canis lupus), snow leopard (Panthera uncia), Tibetan brown bear (Ursus arctos pruinosus), Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx), Tibetan fox (Vulpes ferrilata), red fox (V. vulpes), Pallas’s cat (Otocolobus manul), and beech marten (Martes foina)) across four sampling periods (September 2019, December 2019, March 2020, July 2020) in the Gouli Nature Reserve located in Dulan County, Qinghai Province, China. We identified 26 unique prey items, with blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur) and pika (Ochotona spp.) being most common. Small mammals had the highest frequency of occurrence, while domestic and wild ungulates contributed the most biomass. No significant differences in diet were detected across months, with the exception of March and December for the red fox (p = 0.010). Dietary niche overlap was greater than expected when considering all species (p < 0.001) across seasons and between the Tibetan wolf and snow leopard in March (p = 0.007) when compared for species pairs by season. This study contributes to understanding of fine-scale temporal changes in predator diet, and offers methodological and management strategies that may have applicability to other predator guilds living in complex landscapes.
... The average weights for adult females and males are 36 and 42 kg, respectively (Johansson et al. 2022). Snow leopards are known to prey predominantly on wild sheep and goats such as ibex Capra sibirica, bharal Pseudois nayaur and argali Ovis ammon, but also prey on domestic goats Capra hircus, sheep Ovis aries and yaks Bos grunniens (Lyngdoh et al. 2014, Mallon et al. 2016 The Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx (hereafter lynx) has one of the largest distribution ranges of any of the medium-sized felids and is found across Europe, West, Central and East Asia (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002). The ecology and behavior of lynx are not well known in many Asian countries and population status and trends are uncertain with density estimates available for Turkey only (Avgan et al. 2014). ...
Interspecific competition, a fundamental ecological process characterized by negative interactions between species, plays a vital role in shaping ecological communities. Despite the co‐occurrence of the snow leopard Panthera uncia and the Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx across vast landscapes in Asia, their interactions remain poorly understood. In this study, we investigated how the presence of snow leopards affected site‐use by lynx and whether the presence of snow leopards resulted in behavioral adaptations by the lynx. Between 2017 and 2022, we conducted camera trap‐based surveys across six sites in southern Mongolia and evaluated species co‐occurrence by snow leopards and lynx using the occupancy framework. We assumed snow leopards to be the dominant species while using topographical and land cover variables as covariates. Our results show that the presence of snow leopards influenced site‐use by lynx, leading to a shift in space use when snow leopards were present. Specifically, lynx used the entire range of ruggedness and did not select for shrubby areas in the absence of snow leopards, whereas they avoided rugged areas and had a strong preference for shrubby areas when snow leopards were present. Our findings emphasize the influence a larger predator can have on the space use of a smaller predator, and how the presence of snow leopards can alter the space‐use of lynx. Understanding these interactions and behavioral adaptations can be useful for developing effective conservation strategies in the region.
Snow leopard (Panthera uncia) is an elusive endangered carnivore found in remote mountain regions of Central Asia, with sparse distribution in northern Pakistan, including Chitral and Baltistan. The present study determined the food habits of snow leopard, including preferred prey species and seasonal variation in diet. Fifty-six scat samples were collected and analyzed to determine the diet composition in two different seasons, i.e. summer and winter. Hair characteristics such as cuticular scale patterns and medullary structure were used to identify the prey. This evidence was further substantiated from the remains of bones, claws, feathers, and other undigested remains found in the scats. A total of 17 prey species were identified; 5 of them were large mammals, 6 were mesomammals, and the remaining 6 were small mammals. The occurrence of wild ungulates (10.4%) in the diet was low, while livestock constituted a substantial part (26.4%) of the diet, which was higher in summer and lower in winter. Mesomammals altogether comprised 33.4% of the diet, with palm civet (Paguma larvata) as a dominant (16.8%) species, followed by golden marmot (Marmota caudate) (8.8%), which was higher in winter. There was a significant difference in seasonal variation in domestic livestock and small mammals. The livestock contribution of 26.4% observed in the present study indicates a significant dependence of the population on livestock and suggests that the study area is expected to be a high-conflict area for snow leopards. The results of the current study would help improve the conservation efforts for snow leopards, contributing to conflict resolution and effective management of this endangered cat.
The Himalaya is the youngest, loftiest and most dynamic yet most delicate mountain
ecosystems in the world. Though it has enormous biological, ecological, geo-hydrological,
socio-cultural and aesthetic significance, it is being depleted at an alarming pace. The
eastern Himalaya noticeably differs from the western Himalaya in terms of terrain, climate
as well as floral and faunal community composition. Sikkim, one of the smallest States of
India, is situated at the western extremities of the Eastern Himalaya. The Khangchendzonga
Biosphere Reserve (BR) in Sikkim Himalaya falls among the most important protected areas
in the eastern Himalaya. There have been no surveys or studies dealing with the aspects such
as the distribution, abundance and ecology of mammals, particularly carnivores and their
prey populations (Ungulates) in Khangchendzonga NP and BR. Similarly, there is no
information on distribution, relative abundance, and ecology of Galliformes (prey for
carnivores) of Khangchendzonga BR. In the context of highly diverse yet highly fragile
ecological features of eastern Himalaya, this major information gap can be proved as the
major hindrance in the way of proper conservation and better management in current as well
as in future scenario. From the foregoing, it is evident that development of baseline
information on the distribution and relative abundance of carnivores, their prey, and wildlife
habitats in Khangchendzonga BR is extremely crucial for the monitoring of the selected
species/taxa. This would help in detecting the significant changes by comparing with
baseline data and help plan suitable management interventions.
The Khangchendzonga BR is located in Sikkim, between 27o 30’ to 27o 55’ N and 88o 02’ to
88o 37’ E and covering North Sikkim, West Sikkim and a small portion of South Sikkim
district. It is the highest protected area in the country and the third highest in the world. The
Khangchendzonga BR covers an area of 2619.92 km2, 36.92% of the land area of Sikkim. The
entire landscape is enormously rich in biodiversity, highly important as hydrological,
environmental and recreational resources and also represents a unique amalgamation of
different cultures of several ethnic communities along with their traditional livelihood
practices. Using Geographic Information System (GIS) tools, physiographic features such as
elevation, aspect, slope and drainage along with land cover maps were prepared for
Khangchendzonga BR. Six distinct land cover classes were categorized as mixed subtropical
forest (2%), mixed temperate forest (25%), subalpine forest (23%), alpine zone (6%) as forest
classes and rock and snow cover (44%) as non-forest class. For simplicity, the area of
Khangchendzonga National Park (NP) has been divided into seven watersheds or river
subsystems (Figure 2.1B) namely Lhonak (15%), Zemu (23%), Lachen (5%), Rangyong
(36%), Rangit (6%), Prek (8%) and Churong (7%). A total of 73 glacial lakes occur within
the BR covering an area of about 3.34 km2. The intensive field work of the present study was
majorly carried out in Prek chu (chu=river) catchment area.
The study period extended from 1st February 2008 till 31st January 2013. All field activities
were carried out in the form of field expeditions - camping in different areas of the intensive
study area. Different conventional field methods such as scan sampling, trail sampling, dung
count and vegetation sampling were used to achieve the objectives. Camera traps were also
used for the first time in Sikkim to investigate the distribution and abundance of carnivores,
ungulates and galliformes.
Occurrence of 42 species (19 carnivores, 8 Ungulates, 2 Primates, 7 Rodents, 4 Lagomorphs,
1 Insectivore and 1 Chiropteran) of mammals belonging to 7 orders and 16 families in the
Khangchendzonga BR out of which we confirm the presence of 40 species through visual
encounters, photo-captures, signs and trails, and the rest two based on the information from
the locals was recorded. A total of 21 photo-captures (6 right and 15 left flanks) were
recorded, the SECR models estimated densities as 4.25±2.55 individuals/100 km² for
Maximum-likelihood estimation and 4.77±1.81 individuals/100 km² for Bayesian with
Markov-Chain Monte Carlo simulations (MCMC). The number of leopard cat individuals
identified was 13 using right flank, the SECR models estimated densities as 17±5.33
individuals/100 km² for Maximum-likelihood estimation, hazard rate model was selected
based on minimum AICc value and 17.52±5.52 individuals/100 km² for Bayesian with
MCMC. A total of 23 photo-captures (20 right and 15 left flanks) were recorded, the SECR
models estimated densities as 9.75±5.80 individuals/100 km² for Maximum-likelihood
estimation, and 10.67±3.71 individuals/100 km² for Bayesian with MCMC simulations.
Overall photo-capture rates (photographs/100days) were calculated for each carnivore
species present in Prek chu catchment of Khangchendzonga BR. Details of their relative
abundance in different habitats in terms of photo-capture rates are also calculated. In the
alpine zone maximum photo-capture rate was observed for red fox (8.16±2.85) followed by
stone marten (2.11±1.49) and snow leopard (0.85±0.35). In sub-alpine zone maximum photocapture
rate was recorded in case of Himalayan yellow throated marten (3.5±0.8) followed
by Asiatic golden cat (0.43±0.13). In case of temperate zone maximum photo-capture rate
was observed again for Himalayan yellow throated marten (8.51±2.38) followed by leopard
cat (2.86±0.87), Himalayan masked palm civet (1.9±0.78) and large Indian civet (1.47±0.66),
respectively. During scan sampling encounter of 71 blue sheep clusters of 883 blue sheep
were encountered. The overall density (#/km2) of blue sheep in Prek chu catchment of KBR
was 5.25. Occupancy and abundance results derived from the Royle-Nichols heterogeneity
model analyses for different ungulate species present in Prek chu catchment area of KBR
depicted detection probability corrected density (#/100km2) for goral, serow, barking deer
and blue sheep were 21.44±6.48, 8.71±3.94, 16.93±5.56 and 498.67±211.60 respectively.
Blood pheasant was the most visually encountered galliformes, overall density of blood
pheasant in the study area was estimated at 13.64±2.78 individuals/km2. Himalayan monal
was visually encountered on 21 occasions and its density was estimated at 1.38±0.45
individuals/km2. Snow partridge was sighted on 33 occasions, it was mostly found in groups
ranging from 1 to 15 individuals. During the study period, kalij was sighted on 32 occasions.
Satyr tragopan was visually encountered 23 times of during the study period with an overall
density of 1.02±0.52 individuals/km². Photo-capture rate (#/100 days) were used to estimate
the relative abundance of small mammals such as rodents and pika recorded in the study
area. Overall photo-capture rate (2.53±1.19) for pika was highest followed by rats (2.27±
0.95). Spatial distribution pattern of carnivores depicted specific distribution for some
species such as snow leopard and red fox which were confined in the alpine zone of the Prek
chu catchment as well as continuous distribution for some species such as yellow throated
marten which were present in temperate and subalpine habitats. Blue sheep distribution was
strictly confined within the rocky areas, alpine and krummholdz vegetation of Prek chu
catchment area. Distribution of musk deer was confined in krummholdz and subalpine
vegetation; spatial distribution pattern of serow depicted that the species was widely
distributed in the Prek chu catchment area. Both subalpine as well as temperate forests were
well occupied by serow. Spatial distribution of goral in Pek chu catchment of Khangchendzonga BR depicted similar pattern to serow distribution. Barking deer was distributed only in the temperate forests of the intensive study area. Spatial distribution patterns of wild pig and Himalayan tahr in Prek chu catchment area were depicted on the basis of photo-captures and lone sightings of each species. All the snow partridge evidences
were found at the alpine zone, evidences of Himalayan monal were also encountered chiefly
in the alpine zone. Blood pheasant evidences were recorded in sub-alpine, krummholdz and
alpine zone. Satyr tragopan evidences were found mainly in the transition zone of temperate
and sub-alpine habitats. Presence of kalij was encountered in the temperate zone. Evidences
of hill partridge were distributed in temperate and subalpine zone.
Ungulates significantly differ with each other in their use of different elevation categories
(Kruskal-Wallis χ2=261.11, df=4, p=0.00). It was found that barking deer (n=27) used lower
elevations (2000m- 2500m) and goral (n=95) used both lower and middle altitudes (2000m-
3500m). Serow (n=57) used a wide range of altitude classes (2500m-4000m), whereas the
musk deer (n=16) and blue sheep (n=130) both used exclusively high altitude category
(>4000m). Occupancy modelling results showed that higher elevation and less tree/shrub
cover and the alpine habitat, these three sampling variables significantly affected the
presence of blue sheep at a camera site. Higher elevation and krummholdz habitat, these two
sampling variables significantly affected the presence of musk deer. Results of occupancy
modelling showed that detection probability of both serow and goral were negatively related
with human presence at camera site. Denser tree cover, higher elevation and warmer aspect
were determined as the best predictors for the occupancy of serow. Denser tree cover,
warmer aspect and distant sites from regularly used tourist trails were the best predictors for
the occupancy of goral. Steep slopes, high tree cover, cooler aspects, absence of trekking
trails and broadleaved forests significantly affected the presence of barking deer at a camera
site. In contrast to the results of barking deer, only broadleaved forests significantly affected
the presence of wild boar at a camera site. Kalij and hill partridge being temperate species
were present in wet-temperate habitat. Snow partridge was present only in alpine-scrub
habitat. Satyr tragopan used wet-temperate, fir-birch-Rhododendron and Rhododendronscrub
habitats according to their availability. Blood pheasant and monal both used alpine,
Rhododendron scrub and subalpine habitats but blood pheasant preferred fir-birch-
Rhododendron dominated subalpine habitat whereas monal showed preference for Juniper
and Rhododendron dwarf scrub habitat. The field data on micro-habitat characters were
analyzed for three different zones—temperate, subalpine-krummholdtz and alpine.
In snow leopard scats frequency of occurrence of pika was highest (0.56±0.09) followed by
blue sheep (0.42±0.09), rodent (0.30±0.08) and cattle (0.28±0.08). In red fox scat, frequency
of occurrence of pika was highest (0.58±0.06) followed by rodent (0.54±0.06), beetles
(0.33±0.06) and blue sheep (0.25±0.05). Among all dhole scats, rodent was the most
frequently found prey item (32%), followed by serow (27%) and Himalayan tahr (22%).
Small mammals (rodents and pika) comprised 82% of the mammalian prey consumed by the
leopard cats. Murids were the most dominant prey items occurring in 89.2% of the scats
followed by pikas (21.62%) and birds (10.81%). Frequency of occurrence of pika was highest
(0.64±0.11) in Himalayan yellow-throated marten and beech marten scats followed by rodent
(0.47±0.12), beetles (0. 10±0.06) and langur (0.07±0.06). In weasel(s) scats, the frequency of
occurrence of pika was highest (0.75±0.12) followed by rodent (0.27±0.13) and blue sheep
(0.12±0.09).
To carry out presence only species distribution modelling, GIS data-layers for nine Eco-
Geographic Variables believed to possibly influence distribution of carnivores, ungulates and
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galliformes in KBR were generated. McArthur’s broken-stick model was followed to select
the number of factors to be used in preparing the habitat suitability (HS) model. Geometric
mean algorithm was used for the computation of habitat suitability index. The predictive
power and accuracy of HS models was evaluated by a Jack-knifed 10-fold cross-validation
procedure. All these six ungulates exhibited high global marginality values (0.85 to 1.2),
indicating that they occupied a relatively small portion of the set of environmental conditions
available in Khangchendzonga BR. The HS map of blue sheep identified two main zones as
favourable habitats—one in the northern part and another in the South-Western part of
Khangchendzonga BR. Total area of suitable habitats for blue sheep as calculated from this
HS map was 502.35 km2 and area of medium suitable habitats (with 30 to 60 % probability of
species occurrence) was greater than the areas of less and highly suitable habitats. The HS
map of musk deer identified a single favourable patch at the Southwestern part of
Khangchendzonga BR. Among the total predicted suitable area of 860.99 km2, this HS map
clearly depicted that most of the habitats were less suitable (10-30% chance of species
occurrence) for musk deer and only 57.27 km2 area was highly favourable for musk deer. HS
map for serow showed a continuous distribution throughout the lower temperate to upper
subalpine forests of KBR. Particularly the subalpine forests of Khangchendzonga BR were
predicted as medium to highly suitable (163.9 km2) for occurrence of serow. HS map for
goral predicted a vast area of 1150.69 km2 (43% of the entire area of BR) as suitable for
goral in Khangchendzonga BR. HS maps for both barking deer and wild pig showed the
lower temperate forests as the only suitable habitat (510.41km2 for barking deer and 463.42
km2 for wild pig). All the six galliformes exhibited high global marginality values (0.64 to
1.13), indicating that they occupied a relatively small portion of the set of environmental
conditions (defined by the EGVs) available in Khangchendzonga BR.
The HS map of snow partridge identified the alpine habitats and the HS map of Himalayan
monal identified the high altitude, alpine and subalpine areas as favourable habitats mostly
at the Southwestern part of Khangchendzonga BR. HS map for blood pheasant showed a
continuous distribution throughout the mid temperate to upper subalpine forests and alpine
areas of Khangchendzonga BR. HS map for blood pheasant depicted total 650.84 km2 area as
suitable habitat and 116.88 km2 area as highly favourable. HS map for Satyr tragopan
predicted an area of 773.77 km2 as suitable habitat in Khangchendzonga BR.
HS maps for both kalij and hill partridge showed the lower temperate forests as the only
suitable habitat. All the nine carnivores showed high marginality values (0.84-1.85) which
indicated about the preference for specified habitats or food resources. On the other hand,
yellow-throated marten and Asiatic black bear were generalist in distribution as indicated by
their specialization indices. The specific specialization values for snow leopard, large Indian
civet and masked palm civet were very low thus indicating about their very specialist nature
of distribution. The HS map of snow leopard identified the alpine habitats of Southwestern
part of Khangchendzonga BR. Total area of suitable habitats for snow leopard as calculated
from this HS map was 1250.59 km2 and area of highly suitable habitats (with 60 to 100 %
probability of species occurrence) was 138.65 km2 situated in the alpine zone or above.
The HS map of red fox identified the high altitude, alpine and subalpine areas as favourable
habitats mostly at the Southwestern part and at Zema valley of northern part of
Khangchendzonga BR. HS map for stone marten showed a continuous distribution
throughout upper subalpine forests and alpine areas of Khangchendzonga BR.
HS maps of Asiatic black bear and yellow-throated marten depicted wide distributions for
these two species. Highly suitable area (322.45 km2) for yellow-throated marten was highest
among the carnivores of Khangchendzonga BR. The lower temperate habitats at the
Biosphere Reserve part were predicted as suitable for thee lesser carnivores such as leopard
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cat, large Indian civet and masked palm civet. For all these three carnivores, predicted
highly suitable areas were very less in comparison with the predicted total suitable area.
For snow leopard population, to detect 5% annual decline with 70% power, 1000 effective
camera days/ year would be the minimum sampling effort required for 13 years and to detect
10 % annual decline with 70 % power, 800 effective camera days/ year were required for 7
years. For blue sheep, power to detect annual population declines of up to 10% per year
changed little when survey effort was increased from 21 surveys/year to 24 surveys/year or
more. To detect annual 5% decline in blue sheep population with 70% power; 33 scans/year
would be required for 10 consecutive years. However, to detect 10% annual decline with the
same power level of 70%; only 9 scans/year would be required. For goral population, to
detect 5% annual decline with 70% power, 390 effective camera days/year were the minimum
sampling effort required for 9 years and to detect 10 % annual decline with 70 % power, 260
effective camera days/year would be required for 7 years. For barking deer population, to
detect 5% annual decline with 70% power, 500 effective camera days/year would be the
minimum required sampling effort for 10 years, however, 10 % annual decline with the same
power level can be detected with 400 effective camera days/year for 8 years. For blood
pheasant, power to detect annual population declines of up to 10% per year changed little
when survey effort was increased from 80 surveys/year to 100 surveys/year or more. To
detect annual 5% decline in blood pheasant population with 70% power; at least 100
surveys/year would be required for 10 consecutive years. However, to detect 10% annual
decline with the same power level of 70%; only 40 surveys/year would be required.
In the alpine zone, the grids where the Important Habitat Index is 60-100, are situated in the
Southwestern part of Khangchendzonga BR. The trans-Himalayan habitats of Zanak, Rasum
and Dolma along with the Green lake area were depicted as the most important habitats for
threatened carnivores and their prey in Northern part of Khangchendzonga BR. In the
subalpine and temperate forest, most important habitats for threatened carnivores and their
prey are situated mainly along the junction of BR and National Park. Most of these grids are
situated in the BR part connecting or buffering the villages situated just outside the
Khangchendzonga BR boundary and hence are also very important for regular monitoring.
The transition zone of subalpine and alpine area such as dwarf Rhododendron vegetations of
Dzongri, Thansing, upper Yambong, Panchpokhri and Thepala are most important habitats
for the threatened carnivores and their prey.
The present study generated baseline information on distribution, abundance, habitat use and
co-existence of carnivores and their prey at spatial scale. However, major ecological issues
such as diet overlap and niche breadth at dietary scale among these species is yet to be
studied in Eastern Himalayan landscape. Such study also can help to elucidate the impact of
pack animal grazing on ungulates inside the National Park. The response of these ungulates
to anthropogenic factors such as extractive disturbances due to eco-tourism is yet to be
studied. In the trans-Himalayan part of the Khangchendzonga BR, more intensive camera
trapping is necessary to get the complete scenario of mammal assemblage there. Future
endeavours to study these remaining aspects can definitely help the managers to delineate a
thorough and effective management plan for the conservation of carnivores and their prey
ensuring their long term survival in Khangchendzonga landscape.
In the Langu Valley, W Nepal, average daily distances travelled by 3 radio-collared males were c1.3 km compared with 1.0 km for 2 females, but the difference was not significant. Snow leopards were crepuscular, bedding in different places each day unless on a kill. Home range size varied widely among individuals, from c12-39 km2 but not significantly. Ranges of the 5 animals overlapped almost entirely, although use of a particular areas was temporally separated. On average, individual snow leopards were separated by distances of 1.9-3.2 km, verifying the species' solitary social structure. Some 42-60% of home range use occurred within only 14-23% of the total home area. These individuals shared a common core-use area, located at a major stream confluence in an area where topography, habitat, and prey abundance appeared to be very favourable for snow leopards. Core areas were marked significantly more than non-core sites. -from Authors
Diets of cougars (Felis concolor) were studied from December 1978 to August 1981, on a 4,500-km2 study area near Escalante, Utah. Prey eaten by cougars was estimated from analysis of 112 animals consumed as prey and from 239 cougar scats. Composition of diet was corrected based on feeding trials using captive cougars. Mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) were found to be the major prey item, 81% of biomass consumed. Lagomorphs, large rodents, and smaller predators were also important components of the diet. Cattle comprised less than 1% of the diet, although they were abundant on the cougars' summer range. Age structure of deer killed by cougars indicated that older (>7 years) deer were killed more often than expected (P < 0.005).
1. Large carnivores are a critical component of Africa’s biodiversity, and their
conservation requires a clear understanding of interactions between large
carnivores and people.
2. By reviewing existing literature, we identify 14 key factors that influence large
African carnivore conservation, including ecological (biodiversity conservation,
interspecific competition, ranging behaviour, ecological resilience, prey availability,
livestock predation, disease and population viability), socio-economic (people’s
attitudes and behaviours and human costs and benefits of coexistence with
large carnivores) and political (conservation policy development and implementation,
conservation strategies and land use zoning) factors.
3. We present these key factors in a model illustrating the levels of impact on large
African carnivore conservation.
4. We identify the key principle that underpins each factor and its implications
for both large carnivore conservation and human–carnivore conflict.
5. We provide a synthesis of the key factors and related principles in large African
carnivore conservation and highlight the importance of the site-specific and
species-specific context in conservation policy and implementation, formulated
through an interdisciplinary and adaptive approach.
Broad-scale models describing predator prey preferences serve as useful departure points for understanding predator-prey interactions at finer scales. Previous analyses used a subjective approach to identify prey weight preferences of the five large African carnivores, hence their accuracy is questionable. This study uses a segmented model of prey weight versus prey preference to objectively quantify the prey weight preferences of the five large African carnivores. Based on simulations of known predator prey preference, for prey species sample sizes above 32 the segmented model approach detects up to four known changes in prey weight preference (represented by model break-points) with high rates of detection (75% to 100% of simulations, depending on number of break-points) and accuracy (within 1.3±4.0 to 2.7±4.4 of known break-point). When applied to the five large African carnivores, using carnivore diet information from across Africa, the model detected weight ranges of prey that are preferred, killed relative to their abundance, and avoided by each carnivore. Prey in the weight ranges preferred and killed relative to their abundance are together termed "accessible prey". Accessible prey weight ranges were found to be 14-135 kg for cheetah Acinonyx jubatus, 1-45 kg for leopard Panthera pardus, 32-632 kg for lion Panthera leo, 15-1600 kg for spotted hyaena Crocuta crocuta and 10-289 kg for wild dog Lycaon pictus. An assessment of carnivore diets throughout Africa found these accessible prey weight ranges include 88±2% (cheetah), 82±3% (leopard), 81±2% (lion), 97±2% (spotted hyaena) and 96±2% (wild dog) of kills. These descriptions of prey weight preferences therefore contribute to our understanding of the diet spectrum of the five large African carnivores. Where datasets meet the minimum sample size requirements, the segmented model approach provides a means of determining, and comparing, the prey weight range preferences of any carnivore species.
Twenty-five years ago, the snow leopard Uncia uncia, an endangered large cat, was eliminated from what is now Sagarmatha National Park (SNP). Heavy hunting pressure depleted that area of most medium–large mammals, before it became a park. After three decades of protection, the cessation of hunting and the recovery of wild ungulate populations, snow leopards have recently returned (four individuals). We have documented the effects of the return of the snow leopard on the population of its main wild prey, the Himalayan tahr Hemitragus jemlahicus, a 'near-threatened' caprin. Signs of snow leopard presence were recorded and scats were collected along a fixed trail (130 km) to assess the presence and food habits of the snow leopard in the Park, from 2004 to 2006. Himalayan tahr, the staple of the diet, had a relative occurrence of 48% in summer and 37% in autumn, compared with the next most frequent prey, musk deer Moschus chrysogaster (summer: 20%; autumn: 15%) and cattle (summer: 15%; autumn: 27%). In early summer, the birth rate of tahr (young-to-female ratio: 0.8–0.9) was high. The decrease of this ratio to 0.1–0.2 in autumn implied that summer predation concentrated on young tahr, eventually altering the population by removing the kid cohort. Small populations of wild Caprinae, for example the Himalayan tahr population in SNP, are sensitive to stochastic predation events and may be led to almost local extinction. If predation on livestock keeps growing, together with the decrease of Himalayan tahr, retaliatory killing of snow leopards by local people may be expected, and the snow leopard could again be at risk of local extinction. Restoration of biodiversity through the return of a large predator has to be monitored carefully, especially in areas affected by humans, where the lack of important environmental components, for example key prey species, may make the return of a predator a challenging event.
Five methods for studying food habits of large African carnivores are evaluated. Fecal analysis is useful for a basic description of the diet, provided that an adequate sample of scats can be obtained. However, it is impossible to quantify the amount eaten and to determine the proportions of killed versus scavenged food. Tracking spoor in restricted habitats is useful for most species, except the brown hyena (Hyaena brunnea). Opportunistic, and for most species, radio-location observations are biased towards large prey animals, because small animals are eaten quickly, leaving no trace. However, the data can be used to study sex and age selection of adult prey. Direct observations provide accurate measurements of consumption rates, killing frequency, and prey selection, provided they can be carried out without disturbing predator or prey. Mixing data from incompatible techniques must be avoided.
Tigers Panthera tigris continue to decline despite the best efforts of the worldwide scientific and conservation communities. Prey depletion has been linked to this decline, but a clear definition of what constitutes preferred prey and preferred prey weight range does not exist. This is critical information if we are to assess tiger reintroduction potential, monitor unforeseen poaching of predators and prey, and successfully conserve the species. Here we reviewed the available literature on tiger diet and prey availability and calculated Jacobs's electivity index scores from 3187 kills or scats of 32 prey species. We found that wild boar and sambar deer are significantly preferred by tigers, with red deer and barasingha likely to be significantly preferred also with a larger sample size. Prey body mass was the only variable that related to tiger prey preference with species weighing between 60 and 250 kg preferred by tigers yielding a ratio of predator to preferred prey of 1:1, which is similar to other solitary felids. This information can be used to predict tiger diet, carrying capacity and movement patterns, as it has been for Africa's large predator guild, and has important implications for tiger conservation throughout its distribution.