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Dog attachment to man: A comparison between pet and working dogs
... Research on different populations of dogs can be helpful in determining the effect of life experiences and social environment on their motivation to interact with humans. Although working dogs could be informative in this regard (e.g., Lazarowski et al., 2020;Mariti et al., 2013), selective breeding for particular roles can be a confounding factor, so we focus on studies of shelter and free-ranging dog populations. ...
... Indeed, in addition to the "safe haven effect" (Gácsi et al., 2013;Schöberl et al., 2016), dogs exhibit other behavioural components distinctive of the attachment system. Dogs stay close to and avoid separation from their caregiver, they experience discomfort when isolated from him/her, and greet him/her enthusiastically when reunited (Gácsi et al., 2013;Konok et al., 2011;Mariti et al., 2013;Mongillo et al., 2013;Palestrini et al., 2005;Prato-Previde et al., 2003;Ryan et al., 2019;Scandurra et al., 2016;Topál et al., 1998Topál et al., , 2005. Specifically, during separation from their owner, dogs' HRV increased significantly (Gácsi et al., 2013). ...
... Specifically, during separation from their owner, dogs' HRV increased significantly (Gácsi et al., 2013). Furthermore, in novel environments or situations the caregiver provides a secure base, as demonstrated by studies in which dogs explored and played more when the caregiver was present than in the presence of a stranger or alone (Horn et al., 2013;Mariti et al., 2013;Palestrini et al., 2005;Palmer and Custance, 2008;Prato-Previde et al., 2003;Scandurra et al., 2016;Topál et al., 1998). For example, dogs experienced a significantly less pronounced HR increase in the presence of their owner during a threatening approach of a stranger than when alone (Gácsi et al., 2013).Although dogs can display a preference for and greater responsiveness to their caregiver, confirming that they indeed constitute the attachment figure (e.g., Horn et al., 2013;Kerepesi et al., 2015;Mariti et al., 2013;Palmer and Custance, 2008;Prato-Previde et al., 2003;Scandurra et al., 2016;Topál et al., 1998Topál et al., , 2005, in other cases they do not seem to discriminate between their caregivers and other humans (Rehn et al., 2013;Topál et al., 1998) or quickly shift these attachment behaviours to a novel human (Gácsi et al., 2001). ...
... In HAI research, attachment theory has been applied to various types of humandog relationships, including relationships with companion dogs (Mariti, Ricci, Carlone, et al., 2013;Topál, Miklósi, Csányi, & Dóka, 1998), assistance dogs (Fallani, Previde, & Valsecchi, 2006, 2007 and other working dogs (Mariti, Ricci, Carlone, et al., 2013), but with some deviations from the original context. Normally, the theory is used to describe a child's level of attachment to an adult caregiver (Lowenstein, 2010), however in human-dog studies, attachment has been measured bi-directionally, both as a measure of human attachment to dogs, and as a measure of dog attachment to humans (Amiot & Bastian, 2015). ...
... In HAI research, attachment theory has been applied to various types of humandog relationships, including relationships with companion dogs (Mariti, Ricci, Carlone, et al., 2013;Topál, Miklósi, Csányi, & Dóka, 1998), assistance dogs (Fallani, Previde, & Valsecchi, 2006, 2007 and other working dogs (Mariti, Ricci, Carlone, et al., 2013), but with some deviations from the original context. Normally, the theory is used to describe a child's level of attachment to an adult caregiver (Lowenstein, 2010), however in human-dog studies, attachment has been measured bi-directionally, both as a measure of human attachment to dogs, and as a measure of dog attachment to humans (Amiot & Bastian, 2015). ...
... Demonstrating this dual application, first in the context of the owner as 'caregiver', owners have been shown to represent a 'secure base' and 'safe haven' for their dogs (Mariti, Ricci, Zilocchi, & Gazzano, 2013). Meanwhile, dogs have been shown to demonstrate proximity seeking (Fallani et al., 2006(Fallani et al., , 2007Mariti, Ricci, Carlone, et al., 2013) and separation anxiety (Mariti, Ricci, Carlone, et al., 2013). Reversing these roles, dogs have also been shown to represent a 'safe haven' (Zilcha-Mano, Mikulincer, & Shaver, 2012) and 'secure base' for an individual human (Kurdek, 2008;Kwong, 2008;Zilcha-Mano et al., 2012), with the human also demonstrating proximity seeking behavior (Kurdek, 2008) and separation anxiety (Purewal et al., 2017). ...
The relationship formed between a human and a dog can be transformative. Human-Animal Interaction (HAI) research aims to understand why these relationships are so important. Within this field, human-dog relationships have been explained through various theoretical constructs, of which the ‘biophilia hypothesis’, ‘attachment theory’ and ‘social support’ are the most common. However, none of these constructs completely explain the benefits that human-dog relationships can provide. In this paper, a new theory, the Thriving Through Relationships (TTR) theory, is applied to human-dog relationships, in order to ascertain its capacity to further explain the benefits that dogs can provide to humans. The TTR theory proposes mechanisms for immediate and long-term indicators of thriving, which may add new insight into how human-dog relationships are beneficial. Multiple dimensions of thriving are used to explain how a supportive other could assist an individual to thrive, both in the face of adversity and during times of relative normalcy. The TTR theory may, therefore, enhance understanding of the transformative potential of human-dog relationships.
... Since the late 1990s, when the landmark study of attachment behavior in dogs was published (Topál et al., 1998), several canine-related studies have replicated and extended the application of attachment theory, in general, and the Strange Situation test, in particular (e.g., Mariti et al., 2013bMariti et al., , 2013aPrato-Previde et al., 2003;Rehn et al., 2013;Topál et al., 2005;Valsecchi et al., 2010;White et al., 2017). Overall, attachment theory and the Strange Situation test have been used to study human-dog relationships across different canine occupations (e.g., pet dogs and search and rescue dogs; Mariti et al., 2013b) and caregivers (e.g., puppy walker, trainer and blind owner; Valsecchi et al., 2010). ...
... Since the late 1990s, when the landmark study of attachment behavior in dogs was published (Topál et al., 1998), several canine-related studies have replicated and extended the application of attachment theory, in general, and the Strange Situation test, in particular (e.g., Mariti et al., 2013bMariti et al., , 2013aPrato-Previde et al., 2003;Rehn et al., 2013;Topál et al., 2005;Valsecchi et al., 2010;White et al., 2017). Overall, attachment theory and the Strange Situation test have been used to study human-dog relationships across different canine occupations (e.g., pet dogs and search and rescue dogs; Mariti et al., 2013b) and caregivers (e.g., puppy walker, trainer and blind owner; Valsecchi et al., 2010). Overall, studies have found that companion dogs, guide dogs, and search and rescue dogs develop healthy attachments to different caregivers as the dogs reach maturity, and those attachments stay intact across time even if disrupted by brief separations (Mariti et al., 2013b;Valsecchi et al., 2010; for a review see Rehn & Keeling, 2016). ...
... Overall, attachment theory and the Strange Situation test have been used to study human-dog relationships across different canine occupations (e.g., pet dogs and search and rescue dogs; Mariti et al., 2013b) and caregivers (e.g., puppy walker, trainer and blind owner; Valsecchi et al., 2010). Overall, studies have found that companion dogs, guide dogs, and search and rescue dogs develop healthy attachments to different caregivers as the dogs reach maturity, and those attachments stay intact across time even if disrupted by brief separations (Mariti et al., 2013b;Valsecchi et al., 2010; for a review see Rehn & Keeling, 2016). ...
Mounting interest in the evolutionary and contemporary aspects of human-dog association has resulted in growing research efforts from different disciplines with differing methodologies and areas of emphasis. Despite its potential to contribute to the understanding of human-dog interactions, behavior-analytic research efforts are scarce. We are illustrating how the behavior-analytic three-level selection by consequences framework could be applied to inform research on human-dog interactions. Therefore, the notions of interlocking behavioral contingencies and metacontingencies are applied to interpret specific interactions and suggest potential lines of research. We first analyze the development of cooperative hunting of prehistoric humans and dogs, and its implications for interspecific social-communicative skills. Second, we discuss contemporary family practices that involve the interactions between parents, children and family dogs via an analysis of a prototypic social episode. Lastly, we provide an overview of the main approaches that have contributed to the understanding of the human-dog interactions (e.g., anthrozoological), and show how their findings can be placed within the behavior-analytic framework. We conclude that the coherence of the selectionist framework is a major strength that not only can contribute to synthesize a large amount of scattered research on human-dog relationships conducted across various fields, but can also inform further research and applications.
... Activity directed towards physical aspects of the environment, including sniffing, close visual inspection, distal visual inspection, and gentle oral examination, such as licking [48][49][50] Locomotion (SE) Walking, running, pacing around without exploring the environment or playing [46] Attention oriented to the door (SE) Staring fixedly at the door, either when close to it or from a distance [48] ...
... Activity directed towards physical aspects of the environment, including sniffing, close visual inspection, distal visual inspection, and gentle oral examination, such as licking [48][49][50] Locomotion (SE) Walking, running, pacing around without exploring the environment or playing [46] Attention oriented to the door (SE) Staring fixedly at the door, either when close to it or from a distance [48] ...
... All active behaviors resulting in physical contact with the door, including scratching the door with the paws, jumping on the door, pulling on the door handle with the forelegs or mouth [48,51] Barking (SE) Sharp explosive vocalization [46,51] Howling (SE) Low-pitched, long-duration vocalization [46,52] Whining/Yelping (SE) ...
This pilot study aimed at investigating how salivary oxytocin levels are affected by human interaction and isolation in eight guide dogs (six Labrador retrievers and two golden retrievers; four males and four females, 21.87 ± 1.36 months old) just before assignment to the blind person. Each dog engaged, at one-week intervals, in a positive (5 min of affiliative interaction with their trainer) and a negative (5 min of isolation) condition. Saliva samples used for Enzyme Immunoassay (EIA) quantification of salivary oxytocin were collected before and immediately after both experimental conditions. In order to assess potential hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis activation that could have affected oxytocin levels, saliva samples were collected 15 min after both experimental conditions for EIA quantification of salivary cortisol and a behavioral assessment was performed during the negative condition. The results were compared using the Wilcoxon test (p < 0.05). Oxytocin concentrations showed a statistically significant increase after the positive interaction (p = 0.036) and no difference after the negative one (p = 0.779). Moreover, no difference (p = 0.263) was found between the cortisol concentrations after each experimental condition and no signs of distress were observed during the isolation phase. These preliminary findings support the hypothesis that stroking dogs has positive effects on their emotional state independently of hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis activation.
... Both humans and dogs are highly social mammals who develop selective forms of sociality, in which are embedded lasting relationships defined as social bonds or attachments [1]. An attachment bond may also link dogs and owners [2], the latter becoming the animals' reference point in the environment, influencing their welfare [3]. The attachment relationship between dogs and owners is one of the primary reasons why people keep dogs as companion animals [4]. ...
... Studies throughout the last decade have explored dogs' attachment-related behavioral reactions to separation from and reunion with the owner [2,3,5], while little is known about concomitant physiological reactions. Physiological changes, which include increased secretion of glucocorticoids and/or adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), as well as altered cardiovascular or immune parameters, have been described in dogs during laboratory testing [4,6]. ...
... A Cronbach's α of 0.80 or higher was considered acceptable for this study. According to a study by Mariti et al. [2], the behaviors were divided into social and non-social, and each social behavior towards the owner and the strangers was analyzed (Table 1). Behavior definitions were formulated on the basis of a literature review [2][3][4][32][33][34][35][36][37]. ...
Simple Summary
Oxytocin and vasopressin have been shown to have opposite effects on the expression of anxiety and fear responses in rodents. In the present study, we analyzed the salivary fluctuations of these neuropeptides in both behaviorally normal dogs and dogs with separation distress in response to a three-minute separation from the owner, in a new environment. Dogs with a previous diagnosis of separation distress showed more anxiety-related behaviors and higher concentrations of vasopressin than control dogs when separated from the owner. Further research is needed on the potential use of salivary vasopressin as an early, non-invasive biomarker of anxiety-related disorders in pet dogs.
Abstract
Physiological biomarkers of canine anxiety have not been extensively investigated to date. To identify new biomarkers in dogs, we compared behaviorally normal dogs (Control group, N = 13) to dogs diagnosed with separation problems (Case group, N = 13) as they were introduced into a novel environment in the presence of two strangers and subjected to a short episode of separation and reunion with the owner. During the separation phase, dogs in the Case group explored significantly less than controls and were significantly more persistent in expressing passive stress-coping strategies aimed at seeking proximity to their owners. When the owners returned, dogs with separation distress spent significantly more time jumping up on the strangers than control dogs did. Salivary oxytocin and vasopressin concentrations did not differ between samples taken before and after the separation. However, vasopressin concentrations immediately after separation were significantly higher in the Case than in the Control group and remained higher, although not significantly so, 10 min later. These results indicated that dogs with separation distress became more anxious than typical dogs when separated from their owner in an unfamiliar environment and provided preliminary support for the use of salivary vasopressin as a possible biomarker for anxiety-related responses in dogs.
... Infant attachment patterns are grouped using an insecure-secure spectrum: secure (the infant is clearly more orientated to the caregiver than the stranger, is distressed during separation, positively greets the caregiver upon return, seeks to maintain contact with caregiver, and returns to play or exploration after reunion); insecure-avoidant (the infant shows minimal distress at separation, does not greet the caregiver upon return, actively avoids or ignores the caregiver after reunion, and the stranger is treated similar to the caregiver), insecure-ambivalent/resistant (the infant shows high levels of distress during separation, greets the caregiver upon return but cannot be comforted and may resist contact after reunion) and disorganized (the infant's behavior is not consistent with a pattern, appears disordered or may be contradictory, includes display of stereotypies, confusion, or stilling). Remarkably, the same pattern of attachment behaviors has been shown in dogs, demonstrating that dogowner attachment can be successfully analyzed using a modified version of the ASST (Topál et al., 1998;Prato-Previde et al., 2003;Topál et al., 2005;Palmer and Custance, 2008;Mariti et al., 2013a, b;Mongillo et al., 2013;Scandurra et al., 2016). In addition, dogs were shown to span a variety of attachment styles along the secure-insecure dimension, which is similar to human attachment classifications (Topál et al., 1998). ...
... One of the main influences on infant attachment patterns is argued to be caregiver reciprocity and sensitivity to infant signals, as high caregiver sensitivity and reciprocity are associated with securely attached infants (Bowlby, 1969;Ainsworth et al., 1978;Egeland and Farber, 1984;Goossens and Van Ijzendoorn, 1990;Bretherton, 1992;Yan-Hua et al., 2012). Related literature in dogs includes some work on attachment in the context of training (Fallani et al., 2006;Mariti et al., 2013a;Scandurra et al., 2016). Specifically, attachment-related behaviors have been studied in companion versus working dogs, namely guide dogs (Fallani et al., 2006), search and rescue dogs (Mariti et al., 2013a) and water rescue dogs (Scandurra et al., 2016). ...
... Related literature in dogs includes some work on attachment in the context of training (Fallani et al., 2006;Mariti et al., 2013a;Scandurra et al., 2016). Specifically, attachment-related behaviors have been studied in companion versus working dogs, namely guide dogs (Fallani et al., 2006), search and rescue dogs (Mariti et al., 2013a) and water rescue dogs (Scandurra et al., 2016). Overall, these studies suggest that the professional training requirements for these dogs do not interfere with attachment. ...
The use of aversive-based training methods has been suggested to negatively affect dog-human attachment. However, the scientific evidence for this claim is relatively limited. Previous studies relied upon owner reports of training methods or on potentially confounded measures of attachment (e.g., eye gaze). The aim of the present study was to comprehensively and objectively investigate the relationship between aversive- and reward-based training methods and dog-owner attachment. Companion dogs (n = 34) recruited from 6 different dog training schools (3 reward-based and 3 aversive-based) were given a counterbalanced version of the Ainsworth Strange Situation Test. The presence and absence of the owner and a stranger in a room with the dog was manipulated over different episodes. Dogs’ behavior was then analyzed for attachment-related behaviors: contact-maintenance, separation-distress and secure-base effect, as well as following upon separation and greeting upon reunion. Results showed no significant differences between groups for contact-maintenance and separation distress behaviors. However, dogs trained with reward-based methods, but not dogs trained with aversive-based methods, played more in the presence of the owner than in the presence of the stranger, and they also followed and greeted the owner more than the stranger, although these differences were found for only one procedure order. Our study is the first to investigate the relationship between training methods and attachment using a standard and well-validated method for the assessment of dog-owner attachment.
... Similar to humans, dogs exhibit behavioral manifestations of attachment by showing a preference for owners over strangers. Compared to non-owners, dogs spend more time in close proximity, pay more attention, i.e., gaze duration (e.g., Mongillo et al., 2010;Horn et al., 2013;Kerepesi et al., 2015), and react more to the absence of their owners (e.g., Tuber et al., 1996;Konok et al., 2011;Mariti et al., 2013). Researchers have investigated human-dog attachment using Ainsworth's Strange Situation Test [SST; 3], a procedure for assessing attachment styles of young children to their parents [i.e., secure or insecure; (Ainsworth, 1979)]. ...
... Researchers have investigated human-dog attachment using Ainsworth's Strange Situation Test [SST; 3], a procedure for assessing attachment styles of young children to their parents [i.e., secure or insecure; (Ainsworth, 1979)]. This behavioral protocol subjects a dependant to a series of separation and reuniting events from her/his attachment figure and introduces dependants to a stranger to determine responses to separation and reunion, and strength of the attachment relationship (Tuber et al., 1996;Topál et al., 1998Topál et al., , 2005Gácsi et al., 2001;Prato-Previde et al., 2003;Palestrini et al., 2005;Fallani et al., 2007;Palmer and Custance, 2008;Konok et al., 2011;Mariti et al., 2013;Mongillo et al., 2013;Rehn et al., 2013Rehn et al., , 2014Schöberl et al., 2015). Although most canine modifications of the SST involve quantifying dog and owner behaviors, the qualitative infant-parent attachment classifications (e.g., secure vs. insecure) also have been used to describe this relationship in several studies (e.g., Schöberl et al., 2015;Solomon et al., 2018;Wanser and Udell, 2019). ...
... These relative preferences for the owner compared to the stranger were not influenced by whether or not the owner reported the dog to have separation anxiety. Owner preference has been a common finding in the dog-amended Strange Situation literature (Topál et al., 1998(Topál et al., , 2005Gácsi et al., 2001;Prato-Previde et al., 2003;Palestrini et al., 2005;Fallani et al., 2007;Palmer and Custance, 2008;Mariti et al., 2013;Rehn et al., 2013Rehn et al., , 2014. Preference is usually defined as the degree of contact seeking and maintenance, gaze orientation, searching behaviors (e.g., waiting by the door after the owner exited) and the relative occurrence of passive (e.g., laying down) and play behaviors in the presence of the owner versus the stranger. ...
Behaviorally, attachment is demonstrated when one individual maintains close proximity to another individual and shows distress upon separation. For 29 owner-dog dyads, we employed a modified Ainsworth’s Strange Situation Test (SST) to investigate whether both members would show a physiological reaction to separation. Dogs experienced a series of separation from and reuniting events with their owners and were introduced to a stranger. Before and after the SST, saliva samples were taken from each dyad to measure stress-related analytes: cortisol (CORT) and chromogranin A (CgA). Dogs exhibited attachment behaviors toward owners as evidenced by more time spent in close proximity, more contact initiated and less time spent near the door, compared to episodes with the stranger. Dogs that initiated more contact with their owners in re-uniting episodes had lower CgA than dogs that initiated less contact, but their owners had higher CgA levels. Also during re-uniting episodes, dogs and owners spent more time near each other when owner CgA levels were low, owner CORT levels were high, and the dog had owner-reported separation anxiety. During the episodes alone with the stranger, dogs with higher CORT spent more time with the stranger. Finally, dogs’ initial CgA levels were correlated with their owner’s initial CORT levels, and dog final CORT levels were correlated with their owners’ final CORT levels, suggesting some hormonal synchrony within the dyad. As all owner-dog dyads were assessed as securely attached, attachment style differences could not explain variation in hormonal or behavioral results. These results suggest that dogs may respond to owner hormonal state and/or behavior and demonstrate that individual differences in responses to a behavioral challenge reflect the stress physiology of both dogs and their owners.
... The impact of companion animal attachment on an individual's quality of life emphasizes the need to understand the underlying mechanisms that drive this connection [2,15,33,36]. Previous research has primarily focused on the effects of companion animal attachment. ...
... General attachment positively influences both cognitive and affective empathy, which significantly impact human quality of life. These results align with previous research highlighting the interconnectedness of empathy, attachment, and animal welfare [4,15,36,50,51]. ...
Simple Summary
This study examines the relationship between human–dog attachment, empathy, and human quality of life. The findings suggest that attachment to dogs and concerns for empathy have a significant double-mediation effect on human quality of life. However, cognitive empathy does not show a significant effect. The study highlights the importance of attachment and empathy towards dogs in enhancing the quality of life of both humans and dogs and suggests a shift in perceiving dogs as independent individuals. Future research should focus on affective empathy to improve relationships and the quality of life of both humans and dogs.
Abstract
This study investigates the impact of empathy on the relationship between human–dog attachment and human quality of life. A survey involving 263 dog owners was conducted to gather data on attachment to dogs, empathy, and human quality of life in Korea. The findings indicate significant correlations between attachment to dogs, human empathy, and quality of life. Specifically, both general attachment and concerns for animal rights/welfare demonstrate meaningful parallel double-mediation effects. However, cognitive empathy does not show a significant double-mediation effect on human quality of life. These findings emphasize the importance of attachment and empathy towards dogs in enhancing the quality of life of both humans and dogs. The study suggests a shift in perceiving dogs as independent individuals rather than mere substitutes for humans. Future research should focus on emotional factors, particularly affective empathy, to further enhance the quality of life for both humans and dogs through improved relationships.
... Moreover, untrained companion dogs were more anxious, sought more proximity (Fallani et al., 2006(Fallani et al., , 2007, and vocalized more when separated from the owner than guide dogs during an attachment test (Fallani et al., 2006). However, other studies found no effects of advanced training on the attachment bond of dogs to their handlers (Mariti et al., 2013;Scandurra et al., 2016). Unfortunately, no studies have examined the bond that AAI dogs have with their owners compared to companion dogs. ...
... In particular, a brief social positive experience with an unfamiliar person was found to be enough for shelter dogs to develop attachment behaviors (Gácsi et al., 2001). Moreover, the lack of differences according to training levels observed in this study are in line with prior research featuring tests of attachments in which trained and untrained dogs did not differ (Mariti et al., 2013;Scandurra et al., 2016). ...
The still-face effect has been extensively studied in human infants and comprises the reduction in affiliative behaviors and increased stress that occurs after a sudden interruption of social interaction with a caregiver. Domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) are model candidates for showing this effect, as they form deep bonds with their owners and interspecific social interaction is reinforcing to them. The aim of these studies was to assess if companion dogs exhibit the still-face effect and whether prior experiences during ontogeny modulate this effect. To this end, Study 1 compared dogs with different levels of training (untrained, intermediate, and advanced), while Study 2 assessed dogs that participated in Animal Assisted Interventions (AAIs) and companion dogs (CDs). The procedure was carried out virtually and comprised three phases lasting 1 min: interaction, still-face (the owner turned suddenly indifferent), and reunion (the interaction was resumed). Dogs exhibited a decrease in proximity to and contact with the owner, as well as an increase in begging and stress behaviors during the still-face phase. Moreover, this was not observed in a control condition in which the interaction continued in the same way during all three phases, discarding alternative explanations for these changes. These results show that dogs experience a still-face effect in a similar way to infants, highlighting the value interspecific social interaction has for dogs. Nevertheless, the absence of differences according to their training level or participation in AAIs suggests this is a robust phenomenon, which appears to be less susceptible to the influences of ontogenetic experiences.
... The quality of the bond between a working dog's handler and its welfare is higher when the handler and dog live together and are physically active together. The relationship of dogs trained using the positive method is better than dogs trained using the contrasting method, according to Mariti et al. [2013]. In Poland, dogs working in the uniformed services are trained using the contrastive method. ...
... Nowadays, the dog is most often used as a companion animal; however, dogs are also used as herding animals, guard dogs, defense dogs, therapy dogs, guide dogs, tracking dogs, hunting dogs, sporting dogs, draft dogs and dogs in uniformed services. A good working dog should be confident, courageous, adaptable, easy to train, persistent and confident with strangers [Mariti et al. 2013]. In the uniformed services, they are used by customs, police, border guards, prison service, fire and emergency services. ...
The dog is a diverse species both in terms of behavior, size and lifespan. There are many factors that affect the lifespan of dogs. This paper examines, among others, the effect of breed on the length and quality of a dog's life, the effect of owner and social environment on a dogs quality of life, the effect of utility on a dogs quality of life, and the effect of nutrition on a dog's length and quality of life. The size of a dog is a well-known factor affecting the length of its life. Purebred dogs are known to have higher health burdens and shorter life spans than non-breed dogs and inter-breed hybrids of the same size. The length and quality of life of dogs is also affected by the quality of the bond with the owner and the owner's awareness of preventive veterinary care. A stimulating environment, and proper nutrition taking into account the dogs specific breed or health requirements, are also important for the quality and length of canine life.
... neurobiology of non-human species (e.g., Insel & Young, 2001;Remage-Healey, Adkins-Regan & Romero, 2003), as well as at least one type of interspecific relationship, i.e., that between humans and their pets. Petowner attachment has been examined from the standpoints of the owner, typically with questionnaires (e.g., Archer & Ireland, 2011;Bagley & Gonsman, 2005;Kurdek, 2009;Sable, 2013) and the pet, primarily dogs, Canis familiaris, using behavioral observations in specific testing situations (e.g., Gácsi, Topál, Miklósi, Dóka & Csányi, 2001;Mariti et al., 2013;Prato-Previde, Fallani & Valsecchi, 2006;Topál et al., 2005;Wanser & Udell, 2018). ...
... The child (or dog's) behavior during these episodes of being together, separated, and reunited is observed and quantified. The canine version of the test, hereafter referred to as the Strange Situation Test (SST), assesses attachment-related behaviors that indicate the dog's preference for the owner vs. a stranger (relative time dog spends near or in contact with each), whether the owner is used as a secure base for exploration (frequency of approach to owner, proximity), and the dog's reaction to separation from the owner and subsequent reunion (Fallani, Prato-Previde, & Valsecchi, 2007;Gácsi et al., 2001;Mariti et al., 2013;Palestrini, Prato-Previde, Spiezio & Verga, 2005;Palmer & Custance, 2008;Prato-Previde, Custance, Spiezio & Sabatini, 2003;Rehn, Lindholm, Keeling & Forkman, 2014;Rehn, McGowan & Keeling, 2013;Schöberl et al., 2016;Siniscalchi, Stipo & Quaranta, 2013;Solomon, Beetz, Schöberl, Gee & Kotrschal, 2018;Topál et al., 2005;Topál, Miklósi, Csányi & Dóka, 1998). ...
Much of the literature on owner-dog attachment and the influence of personality on the owner-dog relationship has originated in Europe, with few studies in North America. To address this imbalance, 29 owner-dog dyads from a Canadian population were tested in the Strange Situation Test (SST) and owners completed assessments of their own personalities (NEO-FFI-3), the personalities of their dogs (MCPQ-R), and their level of attachment to their dogs (DAQ). Attachment scores were comparable to those in previous research, and all owner-dog dyads were deemed to be securely attached. However, no predicted “matching” of seemingly analogous personality traits (e.g., human and dog Neuroticism) was found, and there was no relationship between dog personality and attachment behaviours during the SST. In contrast, owners with higher Extraversion scores initiated more contact with their dogs in the first reunion episode of the SST (following separation). Owners scoring low on Openness and/or Neuroticism had dogs with higher scores for Training Focus, suggesting that these dogs could more easily attend to a calm, stable owner. Owners who scored high in Openness had dogs with lower Amicability scores, possibly indicating more tolerance of a less desirable dog trait by such owners. Differences between the findings of this study and those conducted in Europe suggest that more emphasis should be given to the possible impact of cultural variation on the behaviours of and perceived relationships between owners and their dogs.
... Per ottenere un buon cane da lavoro ed evitare l'insorgere di disturbi comportamentali o di insuccessi in addestramento, al cucciolo deve essere garantita una gestione molto attenta e puntuale durante le fasi di sviluppo, soprattutto in relazione al periodo di socializzazione, mentre a partire dal primo distacco e, successivamente da adulto, deve essere favorito l'instaurarsi di un legame affettivo di tipo "simil infantile" con il proprio conduttore, che rappresenta una base sicura (sicure base effect) 16,17 . Nonostante sia ancora dibattuto se vi siano differenze statisticamente significative tra il grado di attaccamento in cani da utilità e il conduttore rispetto a cani da compagnia ed il proprietario 18 , sarebbe comunque opportuno consentire e incentivare la possibilità di tenere il cane presso l'abitazione del conduttore, come un qualunque cane da compagnia, per consolidare il legame affettivo e per dargli la libertà di espletare l'etogramma di specie (inteso come l'intero repertorio di comportamenti normali che l'animale metterebbe in atto trovandosi nella libertà di farlo). L'intero repertorio comportamentale non potrebbe infatti essere completamente messo in pratica se il cane venisse lasciato in box. ...
... In seguito a queste situazioni, esiste la possibilità che i cani maturino patologie comportamentali quali fobia e panico o addirittura, come supposto da alcuni autori americani 24 , sviluppare il Disturbo Post-traumatico da stress (DPTS). Non tutti gli animali, nonostante siano esposti agli stessi stimoli, sviluppano questa patologia, così come succede in generale per le altre patologie comportamentali, e questo è dovuto a fattori genetici e a fattori predisponenti riconducibili al modo con cui viene trascorso il periodo di socializzazione 38 , nonché al tipo di legame affettivo che si sviluppa con il proprio conduttore, che dovrebbe rappresentare una base sicura 16,17,18,21 . ...
It is now clear from the observation of canine behavior that there is a great degree of variation in the behavior patterns that are
considered normal and abnormal not only with respect to the wolf but also to different breeds and even between single animals of
the same breed. The commitment of dogs in working contexts must take into account these differences and, since this entails a dif�ferent lifestyle, specific management and intensity of physical and mental effort, by breeders, first, and trainers or of the owners,
then, it would be necessary to know well both the racial characteristics of the stick used and the most suitable breeding and ma�nagement methods to use. This article lists the methods of breeding and managing of the working and sporting dogs, more suita�ble for preventing the onset of behavioral or resistance disorders in training, taking into account racial characteristics and refer�ring to existing literat
È ormai appurato, dall'osservazione del comportamento canino, che esiste un grande grado di variabilità delle espressioni comportamentali considerate normali o anormali, non solo rispetto ai comportamenti del lupo ma an-che rispetto a cani appartenenti a diverse razze. Persino tra singoli animali della stessa razza, si possono riscontrare molte differenze significative nei loro pattern comportamentali. L'impiego di cani in contesti lavorativi deve te-ner conto di queste differenze e, dal momento che questo comporta un di-verso stile di vita, una gestione e un'intensità di sforzo fisico e mentale spe-cifici, da parte degli allevatori, prima, e degli addestratori o dei proprietari, poi, sarebbe necessario conoscere bene sia le caratteristiche di razza del cane utilizzato che le modalità di allevamento e gestione più idonee da adottare in questi casi. Nel presente articolo sono riportate le modalità di allevamento e di gestio-ne del cane da utilità e sportivo, più idonee per prevenire l'insorgenza di di-sturbi comportamentali o di resistenze in addestramento tenendo anche con-to delle caratteristiche di razza e facendo riferimento alla letteratura esistente.
... Conversely, guide dogs that had long been living with their handler showed greater levels of human-directed gazing during the UT than those recently completing training and still residing at the facility's kennel, who spent a greater proportion of time attempting to independently solve the task (Scandurra, Prato-Previde, Valsecchi, Aria, & D'Aniello, 2015). Differences in dog-human communicative behaviors between dogs with different levels of training do not appear to be due to the degree of the attachment bond, leading researchers to conclude that the training that working dogs undergo does not enhance the human-dog attachment bond any more than that of typical owner-pet interactions (Mariti et al., 2013;Scandurra, Alterisio, & D'Aniello, 2016). Rather, effects of training on sociocognitive behavior in dogs likely depends on the specific nature of the task, with differential effects between training involving cooperation with people and training promoting working independently Scandurra et al., 2015). ...
... Taken together, training and experience appear to influence humandirected gazing during the unsolvable task, with differential effects depending on the nature of the training and corresponding degree of human interaction involved. Although past studies suggest that level of attachment does not differ substantially between pet dogs and privately owned dogs trained for working roles (Mariti et al., 2013;Scandurra, Alterisio, & D'Aniello, 2016), future research could examine whether individual level of attachment to the owner, particularly in working dogs with less human-involved work, mediates differences in humanoriented behavior in the UT. ...
Interspecific communication between dogs and humans enables dogs to occupy significant roles in human society, both in companion and working roles. Dogs excel at using human communicative signals in problem-solving tasks, and solicit human contact when unable to solve a problem. Dogs’ sociocognitive behavior likely results from a selection for attention to humans during domestication, but is highly susceptible to environmental factors. Training for particular tasks appears to enhance dog–human communication, but effects may depend on the nature of the relationship determined by their role. Our aim was to examine two types of social cognition (responsiveness to human gestures, and human-directed communicative behavior in an unsolvable task) in pet dogs (n = 29) and detection dogs (n = 35). The groups did not differ in their ability to follow human signals, but pets were less responsive to signals given by a stranger than by their owner. Pets also exhibited more human-directed gazing in the unsolvable task, showing a bias for gazing at their owner compared with the stranger, whereas detection dogs showed greater persistence in attempting to solve the task compared with pets. Thus, different aspects of dogs’ sociocognitive behavior may differentially vary as a function of selection or training for particular roles.
... Eğitimcilerin beceri ve yetenekleri, köpeklerle en işlevsel bağları oluşturarak en iyi sonuçları almayı sağlamaktadır. Eğiticisinin değiştirilmesi neticesinde, köpeklerin ciddi şekilde azalmış motivasyon gösterdikleri de bildirilmiştir (62,63). Aramalar sırasında köpeklerde bazı yaralanmalar meydana gelebilmekte olup bunların çoğu çizik, kesik, bağ ve kas dokusu hasarından oluşmaktadır. ...
... IMS, uygulanan bir elektrik alanının etkisi altındaki iyonların hareketindeki farkın tespitine dayanmaktadır. Teknik, 241 Am veya 63 Ni gibi, radyoaktif izotoplar kullanarak iyonlar yaratmakta ve sonuç olarak, ortam koşulları altında çalışabilmekte, kütle spektrometresi gibi diğer tekniklerde bulunan vakum ihtiyacını ortadan kaldırmaktadır (65). Bununla birlikte düşük ayırt etme yetenekleri IMS kullanımını sınırlamaktadır. ...
Uyuşturucu, patlayıcı maddeler veya insan vücudu tarafından serbest bırakılan uçucu organik birleşiklerin kokusunun belirlenebilmesi kaçakçılığın, terörün, canlı veya ölü bireyin varlığını gösterebileceği gibi bir kişiyi belirli bir yer veya nesneyle ilişkilendirebileceği için ceza soruşturmalarında artan bir öneme sahiptir. Her ne kadar koku tespitinde kullanılan araç ve gereçler son yıllarda önemli ölçüde iyileşmiş, biyolojik detektörler olan köpekler ile rekabet edebilecek seviyeye yaklaşmış olsalar da, köpeklerin hız, çok yönlülük, kokuyu takip etme becerisi ve ayırt edici özelliklerinden dolayı hala koku kaynağının tespitinde ilk tercih olarak kullanıldıkları kabul edilmektedir. Uçucu organik birleşiklerin tespitinde kaydedilen ilerlemelerin yanı sıra, cihazlar ve köpekler için standardize uygulamaların geliştirilmesi, kokunun kanıt olarak güvenilirliğini sürekli olarak artırmaktadır. İyi uygulama kılavuzlarının geliştirilmesi, ilgilenilen uçucu organik birleşiklerin tespit edilmesindeki duyarlılık, seçicilik ve güvenilirliğinin artması ile bugün için sadece takip ve yakalamada kullanılan yöntemin ceza yargılamasında kabul edilebilir bir adli kanıt olarak kullanımını olanaklı kılacaktır. Bu çalışmada koku algılamasında rolü olan anatomik yapılar, histolojik ve fizyolojik mekanizma ile halen bu süreçte kullanılan temel aktörler olan köpeklerin anatomik, fizyolojik, genetik farklılıkları, eğitimleri ve eğiticileri ile olan ilişkileri, sınırlamaları, bu alanda kullanılan analitik cihazların temel prensip ve kapasiteleri ile kaydedilen ilerlemeler araştırılmış ve okuyucuya derli toplu bir şekilde sunulması amaçlanmıştır.
... The roles include guiding for the blind, search and rescue, assistance for people with disabilities, and police detection work [12,13]. Despite working dogs serving a different role than companion animals, they may have similar attachment levels to their handlers as pets do to their guardians [14]. Assistance dogs serve important roles for their handlers, especially for handlers who cannot see or are visually impaired [12]. ...
... Guide dogs play an important role for their handlers, serving as companions, security detail, and safety officers. After World War I, many German troops returned home with no physical injuries besides the loss of their eyesight [14]. In the U.K., many guide dog users expressed social and psychological benefits from having a guide dog, as well as increased confidence and socialization with other people [16]. ...
Little is known about the ways in which puppy raisers engage in disaster preparedness for their puppies (or “guide dogs in training”). The aim of this research is to understand disaster preparedness among service dog puppy raisers. A web-based survey was distributed to people raising puppies in a service dog training program (n = 53 complete survey responses). Questions in the survey included items about disaster preparedness and plans for canine safety in hazards events. Out of those who said they had an evacuation plan for their puppy in training, 59% stated they would put the dog in their vehicles for evacuating to safety in the event of a hurricane or other disaster. The odds of first-time puppy raisers who considered evacuation for Hurricane Irma in 2017 was 15.3 times the odds of repeat raisers. Over half the raisers reported that they did not have a disaster kit. Additionally, 82% of respondents indicated that having a service puppy in training makes them feel safer. These results can be used as a foundation for service dog organizations in disaster preparedness among their puppy raiser volunteers and in designing recruitment messages for new volunteers.
... To determine the effect of the dog's role as a working dog, this factor was analysed on a reduced data set. While other studies detected multiple behaviour differences between working and non-working dog breeds (Eken Asp et al., 2015;Lofgren et al., 2014;Mariti et al., 2013), the working dog status was only associated with a single trait (Excitability) for the within-breed comparison conducted in this study. However, because the Swedish cohort encompassed dogs selected as working dogs (although not all were used as working dogs) while the UK dogs were mainly pets (only 5.6% working dogs), the cohort factor might partly reflect this selection and thus also account for the working vs non-working status of the dogs in this study. ...
... Higher levels of daily exercise were associated with higher scores for Separation anxiety and Attention seeking. This is in agreement with a study by Mariti et al. (2013), which showed a trend across breeds for higher attachment of search and rescue dogs to their owners compared to non-working dogs. Parthasarathy and Crowell-Davis (2006) suggest that dogs that spend more time with their owners in intensive activities may be more prone to show separation-anxiety than dogs that spend less time in intensive activities with their owners, due to a specific attachment style of the former. ...
As companion animals, a dog's lifestyle is mainly determined by its owner. Discrepancies between the dog's preferences and the owner's lifestyle might lead to the occurrence of unwanted behaviours that affect both the owner-dog relationship and the dog's welfare. The aim of this study was to identify behavioural traits that are characteristic of German Shepherd dogs (GSDs), and to analyse the relation between behavioural traits and demographic and management factors. Dog owners from the UK and Sweden were asked to complete two surveys, the established C-BARQ behavioural survey and a lifestyle survey developed for the study. A principal component analysis was applied to determine behavioural components for GSDs. Fifteen components were found to sufficiently explain the variance in the responses to C-BARQ, with the components Stranger-directed aggression and Dog-directed aggression explaining the greatest proportion of the variance in the data (12% and 10%, respectively). Linear models were then applied to assess the relationship between behaviour components and lifestyle factors using backward elimination to identify the model that best predicted the behaviour component. The cohort (UK or Sweden) and the age of the dog were associated with the highest number of behaviour components. This study showed that various demographic and management factors were associated with the expression of behavioural traits in GSDs. Results from this analyses may help to understand the interaction between the expression of external factors and dog behavioural traits and thus, improve the well-being of dogs and owners by reducing problem behaviours.
... In large urban centers, many dogs-especially those from traditionally active breeds-are deprived of opportunities for natural behaviors such as regular physical activity, exploration, and social interaction with conspecifics. This lifestyle can lead to frustration, obesity, and behavioral disorders (Chiara et al., 2013). Moreover, the increasing anthropomorphizing of dogs in urban settings, while often well-intentioned, may result in management practices that fail to meet the species-specific needs of dogs, further compromising their welfare. ...
... Dogs may be a special case, as the Hypersociability Hypothesis suggests they, compared to socialized wolves, not only seek more often social interactions with conspecifics, but also with humans [53]. In fact, dogs benefit from the presence of their caretakers in stressful situations [54][55][56][57][58][59] and evidently use them as a safe base [56,60,61]. Furthermore, it has been proposed that the selection for reduced fearfulness supported the development of certain cognitive skills in dogs compared to wolves, enabling them to use human communicative cues (Emotional Reactivity Hypothesis, [62]). ...
A basic mechanism of domestication is the selection for fearlessness and acceptance of humans as social partners, which may affect risk-taking behavior and the ability to use humans as social support, both at the behavioural and physiological levels. We combined behavioural observations with heart rate parameters (i.e., HR and heart rate variability, HRV) in equally raised and housed wolves and dogs to assess the responses to food offered in the vicinity of a potential stressor (an unknown spinning object) with and without social support from a familiar human. Based on previous studies on neophobia in wolves and dogs, we expected dogs to be less scared of the object, approach more quickly, show less ambivalent behaviour, lower HR, and higher HRV, than wolves, especially at the presence of a human partner. However, we found that mainly age and the presence of a familiar human affected the behaviour of our subjects: older wolves and dogs were generally bolder and faster to approach the food and the familiar human’s presence increased the likelihood of taking it. HR rate parameters were affected by age and the stage of the test. Wolves and dogs showed particularly high HRs at the beginning and end of the test sessions. We conclude that in our paradigm, wolves’ and dogs’ risk-proneness varied with age, rather than species. Additionally, the presence of a familiar human increased the motivation of both, dogs and wolves to take the food.
... The enduring companionship between dogs and humans over millennia has fostered the development of a profound bond between them (Pӧrti et al., 2017;Jung et al., 2018). As demonstrated by numerous studies (Carlone et al., 2019;Mariti et al., 2013a;Mariti et al., 2013b;Mariti et al., 2014;Mariti et al., 2017;Mariti et al., 2018;Mariti et al., 2020;Riggio et al., 2021;Riggio et al., 2021a;Riggio et al., 2021b;Riggio et al., 2021c), this attachment underscores the unique and enduring nature of the human-dog relationship, adding a layer of complexity and emotional significance to the understanding and management of cognitive decline in our canine companions. The diagnosis and management of CDS in ageing dogs present a significant challenge due to the wide array of nonspecific clinical symptoms and pathological signs associated with the condition. ...
Canine Cognitive Dysfunction Syndrome (CDS) represents a progressive neurodegenerative disease primarily studied in elderly dogs. CDS manifests various clinical signs within the behavioural realm, ranging from alterations in social interaction to disorientation and anxiety. This paper provides an in-depth exploration of CDS, encompassing its epidemiology, pathophysiology, and diagnosis. The diagnosis and management of CDS in ageing dogs present a significant challenge due to the wide array of nonspecific clinical symptoms and pathological signs associated with the condition. Recognising CDS as a neurobehavioral disease, where neurological signs and behavioural symptoms are intricately linked, is imperative, and early detection of cognitive impairment is crucial for successful treatment. Various screening questionnaires could play a pivotal role in objectively assessing cognitive decline, aiding in the identification and management of CDS. Further studies should investigate deeper the results of such tools, comparing the methods and reliability in both research and clinical environment.
... The profound bond between dogs and humans, nurtured over millennia, has been underscored by the enduring companionship they share (Pӧrti et al., 2017;Jung et al., 2018). This connection, as evidenced by a plethora of studies (Carlone et al., 2019;Mariti et al., 2013a;Mariti et al., 2013b;Mariti et al., 2014;Mariti et al., 2017;Mariti et al., 2018;Mariti et al., 2020;Riggio et al., 2021;Riggio et al., 2021a;Riggio et al., 2021b;Riggio et al., 2021c), highlights the enduring and unique nature of the human-dog relationship. This bond adds complexity and emotional significance to our comprehension and management of age-related neurodegenerative diseases since they are a common pressing concern in both humans and pets. ...
Aging” represents the broad spectrum of changes associated with the passage of time. Among domestic
animals, dogs have been extensively studied as a model for neurodegenerative human diseases due to their similarities,
especially in terms of pathological alterations. Canine Dysfunction Syndrome (CDS) is still under investigation
from diagnostic, clinical, anatomopathological, and therapeutic perspectives. Consequently, numerous authors have
developed and validated various rating scales to assess geriatric animals for early and non-invasive diagnosis of
CDS. The objective of this review is to offer a comprehensive overview of existing rating scales and to discuss their
strengths and limitations.
... Various studies have confirmed through the standardised Strange Situation Test (SST) that the human-dog bond can be compared to the parent-offspring attachment bond in humans (66)(67)(68)(69)(70)(71). In these tests, dogs' affiliative, distress and exploratory behaviours are compared in social situations with a caregiver and a stranger. ...
While dogs represent an exceptional resource for studying ecological, behavioural and evolutionary processes, they are severely under-represented within these fields due to the anthropomorphisation of dog behaviour, and the view that dog domestication was solely human-driven. These widespread misconceptions have not only led to significant problems in understanding dog behaviour, but also inhibited the use of dogs as valuable study systems to advance diverse areas of biological sciences. Here we argue that dogs should be studied using the same fundamental principles of ecology and evolution applied to other species. Specifically, two of Tinbergen’s four questions remain critical, yet understudied, in understanding dog behavioural traits: 1) What is the current value of these behaviours, and 2) How did they arise and subsequently evolve? We address dog behaviour in a range of ecologies beyond just the pet niche. In doing so three main facts emerge: 1) dogs show a wide range of behavioural adaptations to human proximity, 2) the behaviour of dogs has changed rapidly over time within human niches, and 3) the behaviour of dogs can be understood as modifications of pre-existing variation in their ancestral species, wolves. As this point is commonly overlooked in the majority of the dog behavioural literature, the result is a growing body of biassed research that cannot be meaningfully integrated with, for example, canine functional genomic studies. Resituating dogs within biological research will: 1) advance behavioural genetics and genomics, 2) help establish how certain species are able to adapt to anthropogenic environments where so many fail, 3) enable dogs to serve as model organisms in a range of sciences.
... A strong relationship meant handlers prevented them from working in dangerous circumstances such as when it was too hot, or the tsetse challenge (and therefore the risk of contracting trypanosomiasis) was too high. Most studies on the relationship between working dogs and their handlers have found dogs to be in an improved welfare state, have less behavioral problems and for humans provide emotional and psychological benefits (37)(38)(39)(40)(41). ...
Introduction
Dogs are increasingly being employed for conservation purposes worldwide. In Africa, they work in challenging environments with unique health risks which have not been investigated until now.
Methods
To understand the health challenges faced by the dogs, semi-structured interviews were conducted with participants from 14 organisations that used working dogs in their conservation programmes. The data was qualitatively analysed by thematic analysis.
Results
Five themes were generated. Three affective themes influenced how participants responded to the challenges associated with having a successful conservation dog programme. A strong handler-dog attachment, proficient handler training, and the acknowledgement of the challenging environment were pivotal to maintaining dog health. Two themes related to the difficulties in managing these programmes and how veterinary support interacts with the management choices being made.
Discussion
To have healthy conservation dogs, current and future programmes should focus on fostering the handler-dog relationship and provide continuous handler training. The management of conservation dogs’ health should adopt an evidence-based approach. Future research should focus on areas where the evidence base is lacking, particularly in the areas of prevention and treatment of African canine trypanosomiasis. Programmes should develop a good working relationship with a veterinarian that has access to evidence-based veterinary medical information.
... There may or may not be visual orientation toward the environment. The puppy may change posture in place but does not show any displacement [46] × Frozen The puppy is completely still while in any posture or position [22] × × Exploration Activity directed toward physical aspects of the environment that could include sniffing, or examination such as licking or pawing [45,[47][48][49] × × ...
Simple Summary
Puppies from commercial breeding kennels (CBKs) are transported by ground from their facilities of origin to a distributor at approximately 8 weeks of age, which is a sensitive period in dogs’ early development. Experiencing high levels of fear and stress during this transition potentially jeopardizes their short- and long-term welfare. However, no research has explored the effect of transportation on puppy welfare. Therefore, we tested 383 puppies at 12 CBKs and again approximately 48 h after transportation to a distributor. We measured puppies’ behaviors in isolation and during a stranger-approach test, and conducted a physical health assessment. Feces were also collected from each litter and from one focal puppy per litter for insight into their stress response, immune function, and presence of intestinal parasites. Overall, puppies were physically healthy before and after transportation. However, behavioral and physiological findings suggest puppies experienced an increase in distress after transportation. Results also suggest that puppies may have solicited more contact from an unfamiliar person as a coping strategy following an acute stressor after transportation. Future studies should investigate risk factors associated with transportation protocols and identify interventions to help optimize puppy welfare during this transition.
Abstract
Many puppies from commercial breeding kennels (CBKs) are transported by ground from their kennels of origin to a distributor. This experience may elicit fear and stress during a sensitive developmental period, which may in turn negatively impact the puppies’ short- and long-term welfare. This study aimed to measure short-term effects of transportation on puppy welfare metrics. Eight-week-old puppies (n = 383) from 12 CBKs were tested at their kennels (pre-trans) and ~48 h after arriving at a distributor (post-trans). At each location, puppies underwent an isolation test, a stranger-approach test, and a physical health assessment. Behavioral responses to testing were scored from videos. Fecal glucocorticoid metabolites (FGM), fecal secretory immunoglobulin A (sIgA), and presence of intestinal parasites were also analyzed. Linear mixed-effects models identified decreased exploration (p < 0.001), and increased locomotion (p < 0.001) and escape attempts (p = 0.001) during the post-trans isolation test. Increased affiliative behavior (p < 0.001), FGM (p < 0.001) and sIgA (p = 0.014) were also observed post-trans. Findings support good physical health both pre- and post-trans, while behavioral and physiological changes suggest increased puppy distress post-trans. Higher post-transport affiliative behavior may indicate that puppies sought social support as a coping strategy after experiencing transport-related distress. Future studies should explore the efficacy of transportation-related interventions to mitigate puppy distress.
... Dogs and humans have coexisted for at least 15,000 years [1], developing close attachment relationships [2]. The development of behavioral issues, which could prompt the owner to surrender the dog to a shelter, can occasionally have a negative impact on Vet. ...
Simple Summary
The multiple implications of serotonin in behavior manifestations have shaped the goal of the present study, which was to evaluate the variation of serum serotonin levels in different experimental groups of dogs to establish whether serum serotonin levels could serve as indicators of aggressive behavior, especially when adoption is considered. The experimental groups were divided into three variants: Variant 1—two groups of medium (n = 6) and small (n = 4) breed shelter dogs; Variant 2—dogs with owners (n = 15) and dogs without owners but in foster care (n = 10), after administration of pre-spaying/neutering anesthesia; and Variant 3—dogs in different behavioral states (n = 8), classified as follows: M1—happy, M2—aggressive, M3—calmed status, post-exposure to a stressful situation, compared to the reference time referred to as M0. Significant results were found between M1 and M2 (p ≤ 0.05, decrease of serotonin by 89.61 ng/mL), as well as between M2 and M3 (p ≤ 0.008, increase by 112.78 ng/mL). Following anesthesia, the average mean serotonin values were significantly lower (p ≤ 0.003), by 63.85 ng/mL, in stray dogs compared to dogs with owners, leading to a presumptive conclusion that serotonin levels could serve as indicators for potentially aggressive behaviors.
Abstract
Serotonin is considered to be the neurotransmitter that controls several types of behavior: aggressiveness, impulsivity, food selection, stimulation, sexual behavior, reaction to pain, and emotional manifestations. The aim of this study was to determine the serotonin values in 43 dogs, divided into three different experimental variants: (1) between two groups of medium (n = 6) and small (n = 4) breed shelter dogs; (2) in dogs with (n = 15) and without (n = 10) owners after administration of pre-spaying/neutering anesthesia; (3) in different behavioral states (n = 8) classified as follows: M1—happy, M2—aggressive, M3—calmed status, post-exposure to a stressful situation, compared to the reference time referred to as M0. There were no significant differences (p ≥ 0.05) regarding the serotonin values between the two groups of medium and small breed shelter dogs. Following anesthesia, the average mean serotonin values were significantly lower (p ≤ 0.003), by 63.85 ng/mL, in stray dogs compared to dogs with owners. No significant differences (p ≥ 0.05) were found when comparing the reference time M0 to M1, M2, and M3. The differences decreased significantly (p ≤ 0.05), by 89.61 ng/mL, between M1 and M2 and increased significantly (p ≤ 0.008), by 112.78 ng/mL, between M2 and M3.
... [SST]) was first performed in a study just over 20 years ago (Topál et al., 1998), wherein the authors, based on the attachment behaviors shown in the SSP, suggested that the human-dog bond is comparable to that of a parent-child attachment bond. Since then multiple studies (Gácsi et al., 2001;Mariti et al., 2013;Solomon et al., 2019;Valsecchi et al., 2010) have used the SST to confirm that dogs express more affiliative behaviors toward their human caregiver, engage in more explorative behaviors in the presence of their human caregiver and express distress behavior upon separation from their human caregiver when compared to a stranger. In 2005, Topál et al. were also the first to compare attachment in dogs and hand-raised wolves using the SST, finding that wolves did not discriminate between a familiar person and a stranger at 16 weeks of age. ...
Domesticated animals are generally assumed to display increased sociability toward humans compared to their wild ancestors. Dogs (Canis familiaris) have a remarkable ability to form social relationships with humans, including lasting attachment, a bond based on emotional dependency. Since it has been specifically suggested that the ability to form attachment with humans evolved post-domestication in dogs, attempts to quantify attachment behavior in wolves (Canis lupus) have subsequently been performed. However, while these rare wolf studies do highlight the potential for wolves to express human-directed attachment, the varied methods used and the contrasting results emphasize the need for further, standardized testing of wolves. Here, we used the standardized Strange Situation Test to investigate attachment behavior expressed in wolves and dogs hand-raised and socialized under standardized and identical conditions up until the age of testing. We found that 23-week-old wolves and dogs equally discriminated between a stranger and a familiar person, and expressed similar attachment behaviors toward a familiar person. Additionally, wolves, but not dogs, expressed significantly elevated stress-related behavior during the test, but this stress response was buffered by the presence of a familiar person. Together, our results suggest that wolves can show attachment behaviors toward humans comparable to those of dogs. Importantly, our findings demonstrate that the ability to form attachment with humans exists in relatives of the wild ancestor of dogs, thereby refuting claims that this phenotype evolved after dog domestication was initiated.
... The dog is a good communicator (Mariti et al., 2017b), and it exhibits a strong attachment bond with the human (Riggio et al., 2021;Mariti et al., 2013;Mariti et al., 2018;Mariti et al., 2020b;Carlone et al., 2019). All family members tend to bond with their companion animals, particularly children. ...
... Secure attachment refers to a persisting relationship between two individuals (in this case a dog and a human owner, handler, or trainer) that promotes proximity seeking, contact exploration balance, and stress reduction in unfamiliar environments or situations (219). While attachment is the product of a mutual bidirectional relationship, it can be assessed from both the perspective of the human (through behavioral evaluation or surveys) and the dog (through behavioral evaluation). ...
During two retreats in 2017 and 2020, a group of international scientists convened to explore the Human-Animal Bond. The meetings, hosted by the Wallis Annenberg PetSpace Leadership Institute, took a broad view of the human-dog relationship and how interactions between the two may benefit us medically, psychologically or through their service as working dogs (e.g. guide dogs, explosive detection, search and rescue, cancer detection). This Frontiers’ Special Topic has collated the presentations into a broad collection of 14 theoretical and review papers summarizing the latest research and practice in the historical development of our deepening bond with dogs, the physiological and psychological changes that occur during human-dog interactions (to both humans and dogs) as well as the selection, training and welfare of companion animals and working dogs. The overarching goals of this collection are to contribute to the current standard of understanding of human-animal interaction, suggest future directions in applied research, and to consider the interdisciplinary societal implications of the findings.
... Owners' secure base effect on their dogs has been shown mainly using a modified version of an experimental task originally designed to measure toddlers' attachment towards their caregivers: the Ainsworth's Strange Situation Test (SST, [1]). In this task, consisting of a series of separations and reunions from/with the caregiver and an unfamiliar person, dogs play and explore more in presence of the owner than when alone or in presence of an unfamiliar experimenter [3,[7][8][9]. These differing behaviours in presence of the owner vs. a stranger have been interpreted as a sign that owners can provide their dogs with a secure base and that the dogowner bond is an individualized relationship that makes the caregiver uninterchangeable with others [1]. ...
Domestic dogs display behavioural patterns towards their owners that fulfil the four criteria of attachment. As such, they use their owners as a secure base, exploring the environment and manipulating objects more when accompanied by their owners than when alone. Although there are some indications that owners serve as a better secure base than other human beings, the evidence regarding a strong owner-stranger differentiation in a manipulative context is not straightforward. In the present study, we conducted two experiments in which pet dogs were tested in an object-manipulation task in the presence of the owner and of a stranger, varying how the human partner would behave (i.e. remaining silent or encouraging the dog, Experiment 1), and when alone (Experiment 2). Further, to gain a better insight into the mechanisms behind a potential owner-stranger differentiation, we investigated the effect of dogs’ previous life history (i.e. having lived in a shelter or having lived in the same household since puppyhood). Overall, we found that strangers do not provide a secure base effect and that former shelter dogs show a stronger owner-stranger differentiation than other family dogs. As former shelter dogs show more behavioural signs correlated with anxiety towards the novel environment and the stranger, we concluded that having been re-homed does not necessarily affect the likelihood of forming a secure bond with the new owner but might have an impact on how dogs interact with novel stimuli, including unfamiliar humans. These results confirm the owner’s unique role in providing security to their dogs and have practical implications for the bond formation in pet dogs with a past in a shelter.
... The ZA scores in the previous study (32.89 ± 2.6) were lower than the average scores presented for this study but were within the range reported here (Figure 4), though clearly toward the bottom end of that range. The PA scores in our sample are comparable with those of pet owners reported in the dogs (Banks et al., 2007), 56.5 for dog walkers (Stephens et al., 2012), and 55.4 for dog owners (Mariti et al., 2013b). These figures are comparable with the mean PA score of our respondents (50.87), suggesting that zookeepers do not differ from the rest of the population in the strength of their attachment to their pets. ...
Keeper-animal relationships (KARs) appear to be important in zoos, since they can enhance the well-being of both the animals and the keepers, can make animal husbandry easier, but conversely might risk inappropriate habituation of animals and possible risks to the safety of keepers. It is, therefore, important to know more about the variables involved in relationship formation. Here we use a modified version of the Lexington Attachment to Pets Scale (LAPS) to measure the strength of KARs between keepers and animals in their care, both in the zoo and in the home. LAPS questionnaires were completed by 187 keepers in 19 different collections across three countries. LAPS scores for attachment to zoo animals (ZA) were significantly lower than for pet animals (PA). There was no significant difference in ZA scores between different taxa, but there were significant taxon differences between PA scores. There were significant differences in both ZA and PA scores between different collections. Female respondents scored more highly than males for both ZA and PA. Multiple regression revealed that location, gender, and time spent with animals were significant predictors for ZA, while only gender and taxon were significant predictors for PA. It was concluded that PA scores were comparable with those for the general public, and reflected strong attachment of keepers to their pets, while ZA scores, although also reflecting attachment, were influenced by differences in institutional culture.
... In the latter category, guide dogs for blind individuals are examples of animals that must excel in terms of learning ability but also in terms of emotional balance and being able to cope with emotional distress (Naderi et al., 2001). Indeed, their main purpose is to accompany a visually impaired person everywhere they go (Mariti et al., 2013). Calm, initiative and control when facing attractions are therefore essential characteristics for being a good guide dog and guaranteeing the safety of the visually impaired person in any situation (Koda et al., 2011). ...
In some guide dog organisations, future guide dogs for blind individuals are required to undergo separation from their foster family from Monday to Friday as part of their training. These separations and the constantly changing environment may induce stress, thus impacting the welfare of these dogs and their performance. The aim of this study was therefore to evaluate this stress through physiological and behavioural measures. The results showed a significant increase in salivary cortisol levels at the time of separation (GLMM; DF = 2; F = 10.31; p < 0.0001). Additionally, the dogs were more passive on Friday than on other days (GLMM; DF = 2; F = 7.53; p = 0.0090), and “head movements” were expressed less frequently on Fridays (GLMM; DF = 2; F = 5.12; p = 0.0141). Performance increased across weeks, despite a lower “focused” score on Mondays (GLMM; DF = 2; F = 4.39; p = 0.0243).
These results showed both adaptation to life in the kennel and that the dogs need to readapt to the situation each week. The increase in serotonin levels during the 3 weeks of testing (GLMM; DF = 2; F = 4.87; p = 0.0224) may also indicate that the dogs can adapt to the kennel environment.
Therefore, this study questions the relevance of noncontinuous training programmes. In future research, it would be interesting to compare these results with those of a group of dogs staying at school on weekends.
... Another study suggested that search and rescue dogs may have stronger attachments to their caregivers compared to pet dogs, perhaps due to the amount of time these working dogs spend with their human partner (Mariti, Ricci, Carlone, et al., 2013). The SBT has also been used to evaluate attachment bonds between dogs in shelter and foster environments and their caretakers. ...
The capacity for dogs to form attachment bonds to humans has been recognized by scientists for over two decades. However, evaluations of dog-human attachment styles, including to what extent dogs experience attachment security with their human caregivers, are relatively new. In humans, the development of secure attachments is considered a predictor of social wellbeing and positive cognitive outcomes including future relationship success, persistence, mental wellbeing and executive functioning. A better understanding of dog-human attachment relationships could have important scientific and applied implications. Here we provide an overview of attachment research as it relates to the dog-human bond, and take a closer look at one experimental approach, the Secure Base Test (SBT), currently used to evaluate dog-human attachment styles.
... Dogs have shared their lives with humans for at least 15,000 years [1] and they can develop a strong attachment bond with humans [2]. However, this relationship is sometimes negatively influenced by the onset of behavioral problems that may force the owner to relinquish the dog to a shelter [3]. ...
These proceedings contain oral and poster presentations from various experts on animal behaviour and animal welfare in veterinary medicine presented at the conference.
... One of the bestknown methods to empirically explore attachment behaviors is the "Strange Situation Test" (SST), introduced to study the infant-mother attachment bond in humans (Ainsworth and Bell 1970;Ainsworth et al. 1978). Indeed, the behavior expressed by dogs in adapted versions of the SST fulfills attachment criteria, including proximity seeking to the owner, distress and protest behavior upon short-term separation from the owner (Prato-Previde et al. 2003;Topál et al. 1998), quickly returning toward the owner in the presence of perceived threats (safe-haven effect: Gácsi et al. 2013) and exploring within a wider range when the owner is present (secure-base effect: Horn et al. 2013;Mariti et al. 2013a;Palmer and Custance 2008). ...
Sex differences in the behavioral responses of Labrador Retriever dogs in the Strange Situation Test were explored. Behaviors expressed by dogs during seven 3-min episodes were analyzed through a Principal Component Analysis (PCA). The scores of factors obtained were analyzed with a Generalized Linear Mixed Model to reveal the effects of the dog’s sex and age and the owner’s sex. In Episode 1 (dog and owner) and 5 (dog alone), the PCA identified three and two factors, respectively, which overall explained 68.7% and 59.8% of the variance, with no effect of sex. In Episodes 2 (dog, owner, and stranger), 3 and 6 (dog and stranger), and 4 and 7 (dog and owner), the PCA identified four factors, which overall explained 51.0% of the variance. Effects of sex were found on: Factor 1 (distress), with lower scores obtained by females in Episode 2 and higher in Episode 3; Factor 2 (sociability), which was overall higher in females; Factor 3 (separation-distress), with females, but not males, obtaining higher scores when left with the stranger than when with the owner. Therefore, females were overall more social but seemed more affected than males by the owner’s absence. Parallels can be traced between our results and sex differences found in adult human romantic attachment, suggesting that the dog-owner bond has characteristics that are not found in the infant-mother relationship.
... Secure attachment refers to a persisting relationship between two individuals (in this case a dog and a human owner, handler, or trainer) that promotes proximity seeking, contact exploration balance, and stress reduction in unfamiliar environments or situations (219). While attachment is the product of a mutual bidirectional relationship, it can be assessed from both the perspective of the human (through behavioral evaluation or surveys) and the dog (through behavioral evaluation). ...
Dogs are trained for a variety of working roles including assistance, protection, and detection work. Many canine working roles, in their modern iterations, were developed at the turn of the 20th century and training practices have since largely been passed down from trainer to trainer. In parallel, research in psychology has advanced our understanding of animal behavior, and specifically canine learning and cognition, over the last 20 years; however, this field has had little focus or practical impact on working dog training. The aims of this narrative review are to (1) orient the reader to key advances in animal behavior that we view as having important implications for working dog training, (2) highlight where such information is already implemented, and (3) indicate areas for future collaborative research bridging the gap between research and practice. Through a selective review of research on canine learning and behavior and training of working dogs, we hope to combine advances from scientists and practitioners to lead to better, more targeted, and functional research for working dogs.
... excreted by animal reservoirs or indirectly through contaminated water and soil (Adler et al., 2010). Aside from being pets, dogs were trained for tasks such as herding livestock, aiding the disable, hunting etc (Mariti et al., 2013). This will potentially expose them to the pathogen. ...
The incidence of leptospirosis seems to be on the rise and could be an alarming indirect indication of a global re-emergence. It is a potential public health threat when dogs are speculated to be involved in the transmission of leptospirosis through possible subclinical harbouring of Leptospira spp. and subsequent shedding into the environment. This study aimed to detect anti-leptospiral antibodies among dogs and their handlers using the microscopic agglutination test (MAT). Blood samples from 266 apparently healthy dogs and 194 dog handlers were collected at four working dog organisations and four dog shelters. Serum samples were tested using MAT against 20 leptospiral serovars with a cut-off titre >=1:100 (dog) and >=1:50 (dog handlers). Seventy dogs (70/266; 26.3%) were seropositive mainly against serovars Icterohaemorrhagiae, Ballum, Bataviae and Javanica (titres ranged: 1:100-1:800). Sixty-seven dog handlers (67/194; 34.5%) were seropositive mainly against serovars Grippotyphosa, Icterohaemorrhagiae and Malaysia (titres ranged: 1:50-1:200). Dogs were seropositive due to exposure, vaccination or active infection. Seropositive dog handlers could indicate exposure or active infection. This shows the potential of dogs in maintaining and spreading the infection in Malaysia. Due to the occupational risk as a result of frequent contact with dogs and exposure to contaminated environments, dog handlers should be made aware of the presence of this zoonotic disease.
... This might be due to the semipermanent nature of their relationship. Similarly, attachments between handlers and their search and rescue dogs, those who lived and worked together indefinitely, appeared to be stronger than companion dogehuman relationships (Mariti et al., 2013). Assistance dog puppies, on the other hand, tend to be less attached to their puppy raisers (Valsecchi et al., 2010). ...
Problem behaviours are the most common reason to reject young dogs from entering advanced training and obtaining certification for work as an assistance dog. Therefore, working towards preventing undesirable behaviours should be prioritised to reduce failure rates. The development of problem behaviours in puppies, such as those associated with fearfulness and anxiety, result from the interplay between their genetic predisposition, puppyhood experiences, and other factors in their raising environment. This paper uses an adapted general systems model as a framework to review relevant literature, following its three-stage structure, i.e. input, throughput, and output. To produce desirable behavioural traits (output), much effort has been devoted to optimising puppy breeding and selection (input) and developing training and socialising protocols (throughput). However, findings are mixed and the effects generally small. In this paper we suggest that, although it is critical that the industry enrol suitable puppies (input) and adopt evidence-based program designs (organisational levels of throughput), it is the puppy raisers that play a central role in program implementation (individual level of throughput). Puppy raisers’ individual differences will likely influence their adherence to programs developed by assistance dog provider organisations. Specifically, puppy raisers with prior experience will likely be more competent at puppy handling and therefore raise behaviourally favourable puppies. When lacking experience and competency in dog handling skills, novice puppy raisers may rely on methods associated with their existing parenting and attachment styles when addressing puppies’ undesirable behaviours. Future research should therefore investigate these human factors, so as to inform puppy training and behavioural management protocols to ensure they are effective in spite of puppy raiser differences.
... Handlers should use humane, positive reinforcement training techniques that do not involve force or coercion as this will build a dog's confidence for the complex nature of AAT. The handler is seen as a secure base for the dog from which to operate [75] and using training techniques that harm or frighten the dog can damage that secure base. Allowing dogs to have autonomy and choice in the training and practices of AAT will likely improve the dogs' engagement as they will learn on their own terms how to overcome the things they may not be sure of, or empower the dog to leave a situation entirely. ...
Simple Summary
Benefits for humans participating in animal-assisted therapy (AAT) have been long documented; however, welfare considerations for the animal counterparts are still quite non-specific, often relating to more general concerns associated with animal-assisted interventions (AAIs). Providers of AAT have a moral and ethical obligation to extend the “Do No Harm” tenet to the animals with whom they work. Companion animals do not ask or voluntarily sign up to be a part of a therapeutic team and their natural traits of love and sociability can easily be misinterpreted and exploited. This article reviews the current state of animal-assisted interventions; it highlights the lack of sufficient evaluation processes for dogs working with AAT professionals, as well as the risks associated with not protecting the dogs’ welfare. Finally, the authors make recommendations for determining the suitability of specific dogs in the clinical setting and ensuring that the population, environment, and context of the work is amenable to the dogs’ welfare and well-being.
Abstract
Health care and human service providers may include dogs in formal intervention settings to positively impact human physical, cognitive and psychosocial domains. Dogs working within this context are asked to cope with a multitude of variables including settings, populations, activities, and schedules. In this article, the authors highlight how both the preparation and operation of dogs within animal-assisted therapy (AAT) differs from less structured animal-assisted activities (AAA) and more exclusive assistance animal work; the authors highlight the gaps in our knowledge in this regard, and propose an ethically sound framework for pragmatic solutions. This framework also emphasizes the need for good dog welfare to safeguard all participants. If dogs are not properly matched to a job or handler, they may be subjected to unnecessary stress, anxiety, and miscommunication that can lead to disinterest in the work, overt problematic behavioral or health outcomes, or general unsuitability. Such issues can have catastrophic outcomes for the AAT. The authors propose standards for best practices for selection, humane-based preparation and training, and ongoing evaluation to ensure the health, welfare and well-being of dogs working in AAT, which will have concomitant benefits for clients and the professionalism of the field.
... While it is generally acknowledged that pet owners mostly like their pets (e.g., Greenebaum, 2004;Mariti et al., 2013) and believe that they have a positive impact on their SWB (e.g., Bushman, 2014), it is not clear whether having a pet actually improves one's SWB and, if it does, under which circumstances. Researchers exploring the effects of pets on owners' SWB usually clearly declare their mission to potential respondents; thus, it is possible that this biases the responses given. ...
The aim of this study was to provide deeper insight into the relationship between pet-related life events and the subjective wellbeing of pet owners, as well as to analyze definitions of happiness that included reference to pets. This research was conducted online as a part of the Croatian Longitudinal Study on Wellbeing (CRO-WELL). For the purposes of this study, the following variables were selected: overall happiness, life satisfaction, subjective ratings of health, and the occurrence and parameters (positivity, negativity, importance, anticipation) of two pet-related life events: acquiring a pet and the death of a pet during the previous year. Additionally, of a pool of lay people’s definitions of happiness (n = 4,059), those containing a reference to pets (n = 89) were analyzed. The total sample consisted of 5,034 participants, of whom 658 acquired a pet in the past year, 272 experienced the death of a pet, and an additional 221 experienced both events. Participants who experienced the death of a pet during the previous year were significantly less happy and satisfied compared with those who did not obtain a pet and did not experience the death of a pet in the previous year. Overall happiness was weakly positively correlated with positive evaluations of obtaining a pet and the importance of obtaining a pet. The anticipation of the death of a pet was positively related to positive evaluations of the death of the animal, suggesting an adaptation process took place before the death. Participants who attributed less importance to an event were more likely to experience positive events (obtaining a pet) as less positive and negative events (death of a pet) as less negative. Participants who anticipated an event evaluated it as more positive and less negative. Out of 4,059 participants who provided definitions of happiness, 89 (2.2%) of them included pets in these definitions. Over half of them referred to the pet as the most important member of the family or was equal to other family members, while in the remaining definitions pets were only a part/fragment of a broader definition of happiness. Participants referred mostly to dogs or used the generic word “pet,” while cats, the only animal named beside dogs, were mentioned in only a few cases. Greeting the owner was the most frequently mentioned activity, while the joy of a pet and unconditional love were the most frequently mentioned emotions.
... The consequence was that dogs evolved to treat humans almost as conspecifics [47]. Regardless of training and life stories, dogs can form a very strong attachment bond with their human companions [48][49][50][51], whereas there is limited support for the horse-human attachment [42]. In a communicative context, dogs developed a high sensitivity to human gestures [52][53][54], being able to also learn human words [55][56][57]. ...
Simple Summary
Human body odors contain chemosignals that make species-specific communication possible. Interspecies communication studies were conducted on dogs and horses subjected to human chemosignals produced in happiness and fear emotional states. Dogs showed behaviors consistent with human emotions, while horses exhibited differential activation of the autonomic nervous system. These results are leading the way for further studies on human–animal communication through emotional chemosignals.
Abstract
Human body odors contain chemosignals that make species-specific communication possible. Such communication is without communicative intent and is generally below the threshold of consciousness. Human recipients of these chemosignals produced during emotional conditions display a simulacrum of the emotional state under which the chemosignal was produced. The investigation of an inter-species transfer of emotions via chemosignals was initiated by considerations of the historically anchored interdependence between humans and domesticated species, such as dogs and horses. Indeed, experiments with dogs have demonstrated that human body odors produced under emotional conditions of happiness and fear led dogs to manifest corresponding emotions to those experienced by humans. Preliminary data from horses also show that human body odors collected under fear and happiness conditions activate the autonomic nervous system of horses differentially. These studies indicate the possibility of a road to open our understanding of inter-species emotional communication via chemosignals.
... Avoidant adult attachment styles have been associated with owning dogs with separation-related disorders (Konok et al., 2015), and this could be quite problematic in a foster care situation where there would be an even greater need for the carer to guard against an inevitable loss. While previous work by Mariti et al. (2013) showed that there was no difference in behaviors indicating an attachment bond between pets and search-and-rescue dogs who live with their "handlers, " these differences have not been investigated in pets versus fostered dogs. ...
The neuropeptide oxytocin (OT) has been shown to enhance dogs’ ability to perform an object choice task (OCT) involving the use of human pointing cues, when delivered intranasally. This study aimed at further investigating whether OT enhances task performance by increasing choices made, or by increasing correctness of choices made, and to compare these treatment effects to dog appeasing pheromone (DAP), known to balance emotional activation in dogs. Hence, we compared OCT performance between three groups of dogs: (i) dogs administered OT and a sham collar, (ii) dogs administered a saline placebo and a DAP collar, and (iii) control dogs administered a saline placebo and a sham collar. All three groups consisted of a combination of male and female pet dogs and assistance-dogs-in-training currently living with a volunteer carer. The study also evaluated the effect of intranasal OT and/or DAP on plasma levels of OT, and prolactin; which has previously been linked with anxiety in dogs. The dogs’ emotional state was measured using the Emotional Disorders Evaluation in Dogs (EDED) scale. The owners’/carers’ degree of anxious- and avoidant-style attachment to their dogs was accessed using the Pet Attachment Questionnaire (PAQ). Interesting descriptive data appeared for both treatment groups. Particularly, in OT group, we obtained significant results demonstrating that intranasal OT enhances OCT performance in dogs compared to control, by increasing the percentage of correct choices, but not the number of choices, made. Results also support that the mode of action of intranasal OT is via direct access to the brain and not via the blood, since no elevation of plasma OT (or prolactin) levels were observed after intranasal administration in this study. Similarly, DAP application did not significantly alter OT or prolactin peripheral concentrations. Several differences were observed between fostered and pet dogs, namely: fostered dogs demonstrated higher levels of serum prolactin, made more choices on the OCT compared to pet dogs but were not more likely to be correct, and were fostered by carers with higher avoidant attachment scores than pet dog owners. These findings implicate consideration of potential carer and training consequences for assistance dogs.
... El conocimiento popular sostiene que el perro es el mejor amigo del hombre y que tiene un amor incondicional hacia éste. Algunas de las razones que están por detrás de estas creencias se relacionan con el hecho de que los perros domésticos (Canis familiaris) son una especie que convive con los humanos desde hace al menos 32.000 años (Wang et al., 2013), generan conductas de apego hacia el dueño y reaccionan ante la separación con conductas de ansiedad similar a lo que ocurre con los bebés de chimpancés y humanos (Mariti et al., 2013;Prato-Previde, Custance, Spiezio, & Sabatini, 2003;Topál, Miklósi, Csányi, & Dóka, 1988). Gracias a la domesticación y a la experiencia que obtienen en la ontogenia han desarrollado distintas habilidades comunicativas hacia las personas (Jakovcevic, Irrazábal, & Bentosela, 2011;Miklósi, 2009). ...
... These surveys have allowed for the evaluation of possible relationships between variables, such as the owners' perceived attachment toward their pet, and the quality of care provided to the animal or the quality of human-animal interactions experienced. [40][41][42] It is noteworthy that across a wide range of surveys many owners report feeling a very close attachment to their pets, sometimes reporting greater levels of attachment to their pet than toward other human members of their family. 2,3 The grief that individuals report feeling at the loss of a dog is often profound and debilitating and has been equated to the loss of a child for at least some pet owners. ...
Research suggests that humans can form strong attachments to their pets, and at least some pets display attachment behaviors toward their human caretakers. In some cases, these bonds have been found to support or enhance the physical and emotional well-being of both species. Most human–animal interaction research to date has focused on adult owners, and therefore less is known about childhood pet attachment. However, there is growing evidence that pets may play an important role in the development and well-being of children, as well as adult family members. Research conducted to date suggests that child–pet relationships may be especially impactful for children who do not have stable or secure attachments to their human caretakers. However, given that human–animal interactions, including pet ownership, can also introduce some risks, there is considerable value in understanding the nature of child–pet attachments, including the potential benefits of these relationships, from a scientific perspective. The purpose of this review is to provide background and a brief overview of the research that has been conducted on childhood attachment to pets, as well as to identify areas where more research would be beneficial.
... 2,5 Military veterinary personnel may also be exposed to animal-handler distress when treating combat-wounded working dogs, given that such handlers may be present during the provision of veterinary care 4 and handlers are often as attached to their respective canine partners as are pet owners. 58 Thus, military veterinary personnel and their leaders should be aware of the risk of secondary traumatic stress associated with providing veterinary services in deployment environments. ...
OBJECTIVE To compare symptoms of compromised behavioral health (BH symptoms) and factors protecting against those symptoms (protective factors) in military veterinary and nonveterinary health-care personnel deployed to Afghanistan.
DESIGN Cross-sectional survey.
SAMPLE 237 deployed military health-care personnel (21 veterinary and 216 nonveterinary).
PROCEDURES Surveys were administered to participants during combat deployment in Afghanistan in 2013 to collect information on BH symptoms and protective factors. Data were compared between veterinary and nonveterinary health-care personnel by use of regression models controlling for demographic characteristics and deployment experiences. Partial correlations were computed to assess relationships between protective factors and BH symptoms, controlling for personnel type.
RESULTS Less than 15% of veterinary and nonveterinary health-care personnel were at risk for suicidal ideation, major depressive disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, and posttraumatic stress disorder. After adjusting for covariates, both personnel types had similar levels of depression, posttraumatic stress disorder, and anxiety symptoms; however, veterinary personnel reported more distressing secondary traumatic stress symptoms and a greater number of anger reactions. Self-care, team support, and perceived supportive leadership were inversely associated with BH symptoms regardless of personnel type. Veterinary personnel engaged in less self-care, provided less team care, and rated leadership behaviors less positively than nonveterinary health-care personnel.
CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Compared with nonveterinary health-care personnel, deployed veterinary personnel were at greater risk of generalized anxiety disorder and reported more secondary traumatic stress and anger reactions, but were less likely to be engaged in and exposed to protective factors. Interventions designed to promote self-care and team support for veterinary personnel and their leaders may reduce the occupational risk of BH symptoms in deployment and perhaps other settings.
It is well established that maternal factors can affect the abilities of offspring to cope with stressors and can influence their overall welfare states. However, maternal effects have not been extensively explored in US commercial breeding kennels (CBKs). Therefore, the objective of this study was to identify if fear and stress in dams affected puppy welfare metrics in CBKs. Bitches (n = 90) were tested at 6 weeks prepartum (6 W Pre), and again with their puppies (n = 390) at 4 (4 W Post) and 8 weeks (8 W Post) postpartum. Dams and puppies underwent stranger approach and isolation tests, and their feces were collected to measure fecal glucocorticoid metabolite (FGM) and secretory immunoglobulin A concentrations. Further, dams’ hair cortisol concentrations (HCC) were analyzed at the previously mentioned time points and at 1 week prepartum. Finally, birth and weekly weights were collected from puppies, and litter health metrics were recorded. Data were analyzed using mixed-effects and simple linear regression models. There were significant positive associations between dams’ exploration and stationary durations and puppies’ durations of the same respective behaviors during the isolation tests (exploration: ²(1) = 9.472, p = 0.002; stationary: ²(1) = 5.226, p = 0.022), 8 W Post dam FGMs and 8 W Post puppy FGMs (estimate: 0.0003, SE = 0.0001, p = 0.002), and 4 W Post dam HCCs and 4 W Post litter FGMs (estimate: 0.052, SE = 0.025, p = 0.053). Significant negative associations between 6 W Pre dam HCCs and 8 W Post puppy FGMs (estimate: -0.021, SE = 0.007, p = 0.007), puppies’ birth weights (²(1) = 3.908, p = 0.048), and puppies’ average weekly weight gains (²(1) = 0.111, p = 0.739) were also found. These findings suggest that indicators of dam fear and stress may be associated with potential indicators of puppies’ welfare states in CBKs. Findings provide new knowledge on fear and stress-related factors that may be used to support the welfare of dams and puppies in CBKs and other populations.
This chapter explores neurophysiological development and ontogenetic behaviors.
The periods of behavioral development and aging are discussed. The ontogeny of attachment, fear reactions, acquisition of self-control, as well as inter- and intraspecific social integration are the subjects of particular attention.
The four axes—attachment, fear, self-control, and social integration—constitute the four pillars of development, and, in the course of our work, diseases as well as all behavioral anomalies will be categorized according to these four directions
The domestic dog (Canis familiaris) plays a unique role in human society, functioning primarily as a social companion in millions of households worldwide. Considering this special relationship, researchers have examined the various ways in which dogs interact with humans and how these interactions may facilitate or even stem from an underlying attachment between dogs and humans. As a result, many different measures have been developed to evaluate how various factors influence dog-human attachment and interactions. Current advancements in the use of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) in dogs have also allowed researchers to explore relationships between neural and behavioral responses, demonstrating additional evidence for dog-human attachment. In this chapter, we discuss different measures that have been used to evaluate various aspects of the dog-human bond and how fMRI can provide new insights in this area of research. Specifically, multimodal approaches combining behavioral and cognitive measures with fMRI provide the most comprehensive method of evaluating dog-human attachment. Additional considerations, such as utilizing neural models of human attachment as a reference for canine models and specific study designs that could be used to measure the neural attachment network in dogs, are also discussed to help inform future research on the dog-human bond.KeywordsDog fMRIDog-human attachmentDomestic dogSocial cognition
Max, a six-year-old German Shepherd, was the first military working dog of the Romanian Army who was buried with military honors. Max died in 2015, and the funeral procession was held in his memory, at the “Animals’ Heaven” Cemetery for animal companions. In presenting his case, we have used as sources of information articles, materials that we carefully selected from the Romanian media and from the Internet (most of them with reference on Max’s final year of life), as well as an interview conducted with Max’s handler regarding the handler–military working dog relationship and the emotion management in the context of Max’s death. Further, the current status and the future of military working dogs in Romania were discussed.
In Exp I, retrospective data of 92 cases on dangerously aggressive companion dogs demonstrated the avoidance nature of the aggressive response and its intractability to established counterconditioning treatments. In Exp II, safety training, a modified avoidance-learning procedure, resulted in complete and permanent elimination of aggression in all 36 dogs tested. In addition, it produced extinction-resistant prosocial avoidance responses, significant increases in the dogs' emotional stability, an avoidance-learning and safety acquisition response set, and improvements in measures of the dog's "carriage." Exp III (18 Ss) showed how effective safety training is when compared with other behavior modification techniques that, in theory, should have an impact on avoidance-motivated aggression. Exp IV (16 Ss) demonstrated the importance of using the conditioned safety cue as a positive reinforcement. The relationship of avoidance-motivated aggression to other forms of aggression is discussed, the theoretical concepts of behavioral balance and an avoidance-learning set are presented, and suggestions to improve the effectiveness of counterconditioning for human avoidance-motivated pathologies are offered. (90 ref)
Il volume presenta la teoria dell'attaccamento, evidenziando la matrice evoluzionistica nella quale essa si iscrive e richiamando l'attenzione sulle sue divergenze dalla psicoanalisi. In accordo con Bowlby i disturbi di personalità sono visti come disturbi dell'attaccamento. Vengono illustrati i principali strumenti di valutazione dell'attaccamento infantile e adulto, le associazioni tra disturbi di personalità e modelli mentali dell'attaccamento, le applicazioni cliniche e le tecniche psicoterapeutiche elaborate all'interno della teoria.
Historically, pet dogs were trained using mainly negative reinforcement or punishment,
but positive reinforcement using rewards has recently become more popular. The
methods used may have different impacts on the dogs’ welfare. We distributed a
questionnaire to 364 dog owners in order to examine the relative effectiveness of
different training methods and their effects upon a pet dog’s behaviour. When asked how
they trained their dog on seven basic tasks, 66% reported using vocal punishment, 12%
used physical punishment, 60% praise (social reward), 51% food rewards and 11% play.
The owner’s ratings for their dog’s obedience during eight tasks correlated positively
with the number of tasks which they trained using rewards (P < 0.01), but not using
punishment (P = 0.05). When asked whether their dog exhibited any of 16 common
problematic behaviours, the number of problems reported by the owners correlated with
the number of tasks for which their dog was trained using punishment (P < 0.001), but
not using rewards (P = 0.17). Exhibition of problematic behaviours may be indicative of
compromised welfare, because such behaviours can be caused by—or result in—a state
of anxiety and may lead to a dog being relinquished or abandoned. Because punishment
was associated with an increased incidence of problematic behaviours, we conclude that
it may represent a welfare concern without concurrent benefits in obedience. We suggest
that positive training methods may be more useful to the pet-owning community
While only a few studies have analysed training methods used on working dogs, a recent survey in 303 Belgian military handlers revealed the use of harsh training methods on military working dogs (MWD). The present work aims at analysing the training methods used on Belgian MWD and the behaviour of handlers to objectify the performances of the dog handlers teams (DH teams) and the welfare of the animals.A standardized evaluation, including obedience and protection work exercises, was conducted on DH teams (n=33). Every evaluation was done twice to assess the reliability of the observation methods. The behaviours of MWD and handlers were recorded on videotape and subsequently analysed. Results showed that handlers rewarded or punished their dogs intermittently. Stroking and patting the dogs were the most frequently used rewards. Pulling on the leash and hanging dogs by their collars were the most commonly used aversive stimuli.The team's performance was influenced by the training method and by the dog's concentration: (1) low-performance dogs received more aversive stimuli than high-performance dogs; (2) dog's distraction influenced the performance: distracted dogs performed less well.Handlers punished more and rewarded less at the second evaluation than at the first one. This suggests that handlers modified their usual behaviour at the first evaluation in view to present themselves in a positive light. During the second evaluation the dogs reacted to this higher frequency of aversive stimuli as they exhibited a lower posture after aversive stimuli. The authors cannot prove that the welfare of these dogs had been hampered, but there is an indication that it was under threat.Low team performances suggest that DH teams should train more regularly and undertake the usefulness of setting a new training system that would rely on: the use of more positive training methods, an increased training frequency, the elaboration of a course on training principles, and an improvement of dog handler relationship.
Dogs’ dysfunctional attachment relationships with their owners are assumed to be the underlying cause of separation anxiety. Thirty-two dogs with and 43 dogs without owner-reported separation anxiety (SA) participated in a formal attachment test (AT). After the AT, the dogs were videotaped for 30 minutes while alone at home. Dogs left free in the house were scored on how long they were in proximity to the owners’ exit doors. Dogs who were crated or closely confined were scored on several anxiety-related behaviors, which were then compared to those dogs’ behaviors during the attachment test. Dogs with SA spent no more time in contact with or proximity to their owners during the attachment test than dogs without SA (P>0.05). Instead, they tended to jump up on the door after the strangers left the room and remain stationary when alone with their owners (P0.05) between SA and non-SA dogs in the amount of time spent in proximity to the owners’ exit doors when left alone at home. Dogs crated at home showed no relationship between the amount of anxiety-related behaviors during the AT or at home (P>0.05). There was no significant difference in the type of proximity-seeking behaviors exhibited by dogs with and without SA in the home (P>0.02). These finding suggest that separation anxiety is not based on “hyperattachment” of the dog to the owner, but that a different attachment style may be present between dogs with and without SA.
Four samples of college students (N = 923) were used to address the extent to which pet dogs, relative to humans, exhibited features of an attachment figure and to identify characteristics of persons with strong attachments to their pet dogs. Dogs exhibited the feature of proximity maintenance as well as fathers and siblings did, and secure basis and proximity maintenance were their most salient features. Differences in the closeness of relationships with dogs versus humans were minimal for students with high levels of attachment to their dogs. Attachment was positively linked to involvement in the care for the dog, the extent to which the dog met needs regarding relatedness, owner traits of openness, and dog traits of energy and intelligence.
Infant monkeys were reared with the aid of a laboratory constructed mother-substitute. "We produced a perfectly proportioned streamlined body stripped of unnecessary bulges and appendices. Redundancy in the surrogate mother's system was avoided by reducing the number of breasts from two to one and placing this unibreast in an upper-thoracic, sagittal position, thus maximizing the natural and known perceptual-motor capabilities of the infant operator. The surrogate was made from a block of wood, covered with sponge rubber, and sheathed in tan cotton terry cloth. A light bulb behind her radiated heat. The result was a mother, soft, warm, and tender, a mother with infinite patience, a mother available twenty-four hours a day, a mother that never scolded her infant and never struck or bit her baby in anger." The data obtained "make it obvious that contact comfort is a variable of overwhelming importance in the development of affectional responses, whereas lactation is a variable of negligible importance." It is suggested that the primary function of nursing "is that of insuring frequent and intimate body contact of infant with mother." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Over the last 10 years, the influence of the dog–owner relationship on dog behaviour has received growing attention, unlike the working dog handler's relationship. Using a questionnaire addressed to the 430 dog handlers of the Belgian army in 2001 (303 respondents), this study investigated the association between the time spent by handlers with their military dog (MD) and some behaviours of these dogs, reflecting welfare, obedience, and aggressiveness. Less than half of the handlers took their MD home and/or practised a sport with their MD. Most of the handlers practising sport with their MD also took their animal home. Statistically significant associations were detected. Obedience of MDs was clearly greater in MDs living at their handler's home and in MDs practising sport. On the contrary, we found no influence on obedience either for the first time handlers or for their length of service. Handlers taking their MD home and handlers practising sport with their MD declared fewer bites than the other handlers did. Bites concerned almost exclusively military staff. Only one family member was bitten by an MD and this MD had been left in a military kennel. Suspicion of previous rough handling was associated with fearful and aggressive behaviours. Handlers taking their MD home had dogs that were more sociable, this was not evidenced for MDs practising sport. Finally, being taken to a handler's home and practising sport were associated with a lower expression of behaviours indicative of impaired welfare. Discussion of our results in the field of dog-human relationship leads to conclude that the effects of housing at a handler's home and practising sport were strongly linked to the enhanced dog–handler relationship.
Both genetic factors and life experiences appear to be important in shaping dogs' responses in a test situation. One potentially highly relevant life experience may be the dog's training history, however few studies have investigated this aspect so far. This paper briefly reviews studies focusing on the effects of training on dogs' performance in cognitive tasks, and presents new, preliminary evidence on trained and untrained pet dogs' performance in an 'unsolvable task'. Thirty-nine adult dogs: 13 trained for search and rescue activities (S&R group), 13 for agility competition (Agility group) and 13 untrained pets (Pet group) were tested. Three 'solvable' trials in which dogs could obtain the food by manipulating a plastic container were followed by an 'unsolvable' trial in which obtaining the food became impossible. The dogs' behaviours towards the apparatus and the people present (owner and researcher) were analysed. Both in the first 'solvable' and in the 'unsolvable' trial the groups were comparable on actions towards the apparatus, however differences emerged in their human-directed gazing behaviour. In fact, results in the 'solvable' trial, showed fewer S&R dogs looking back at a person compared to agility dogs, and the latter alternating their gaze between person and apparatus more frequently than pet dogs. In the unsolvable trial no difference between groups emerged in the latency to look at the person however agility dogs looked longer at the owner than both pet and S&R dogs; whereas S&R dogs exhibited significantly more barking (always occurring concurrently to looking at the person or the apparatus) than both other groups. Furthermore, S&R dogs alternated their gaze between person and apparatus more than untrained pet dogs, with agility dogs falling in between these two groups. Thus overall, it seems that the dogs' human-directed communicative behaviours are significantly influenced by their individual training experiences.
Fifty-one owner-dog pairs were observed in a modified version of M. D. S. Ainsworth's (1969) Strange Situation Test. The results demonstrate that adult dogs (Canis familiaris) show patterns of attachment behavior toward the owner. Although there was considerable variability in dogs' attachment behavior to humans, the authors did not find any effect of gender, age, living conditions, or breed on most of the behavioral variables. The human-dog relationship was described by means of a factor analysis in a 3-dimensional factor space: Anxiety, Acceptance, and Attachment. A cluster analysis revealed 5 substantially different classes of dogs, and dogs could be categorized along the secure-insecure attached dimensions of Ainsworth's original test. A dog's relationship to humans is analogous to child-parent and chimpanzee-human attachment behavior because the observed behavioral phenomena and the classification are similar to those described in mother-infant interactions.
This study shows longitudinal development of human-dog interactions in a guide dog raising program. Social play interactions between potential guide dogs for the blind (puppies) and their adult female raisers (PWs) were videotaped at home during the period from two months to 11 or 12 months of the puppies' age. The puppies and PWs established close proximity relationships by two to three months of age. The older the puppies became, the shorter time the puppies and PWs spent in intensive fighting and chasing play. The older the puppies became, the longer the puppies and PWs spent in waiting, seeking and possessing together play which needed the puppies' self-control, concentration and ability to cooperate with the PWs. Whether or not these behavioral tendencies which the puppies showed were appropriate for guide dog candidates is also discussed.
In this study, 60 shelter dogs (Canis familiaris) were observed in the modified version of the Strange Situation Test, which has proved to be a useful method for studying dogs' attachment behavior toward humans (J. Topál, A. Miklósi, V. Csányi, & A. Dóka, 1998). Before testing, 40 dogs were handled 3 times for 10 min. In the test, handled dogs encountered 2 persons: the handler in the role of the "owner" (OW) and an unfamiliar person (UP), whereas the 20 nonhandled dogs encountered unfamiliar persons in both roles. Dogs in the handled group exhibited more contact seeking with the entering OW, less physical contact with the UP, less frequent following of the leaving UP, and less standing by the door in the presence of the OW. The specific response of the handled dogs toward the handler fulfilled the operational criteria of attachment. In shelter conditions, the remarkable demand for social contact with humans may result in rather fast forming of attachment even in adult dogs.
It is often claimed that certain behavioral problems in domestic dogs can be triggered by the games played by dog and caregiver (owner). In this study, we examine possible links between the types of games played and dimensions of the dog-owner relationship that are generally considered to affect such problems. Fifty dog-owner partnerships were filmed during 3-min play sessions in which the owner was allowed to choose the games played. All partnerships then undertook a 1-hr test designed to measure elements of behavior commonly ascribed to "dominance" and "attachment." Principal components analysis of the data produced 2 dominance-related factors (Amenability and Confident Interactivity) and 4 factors describing aspects of attachment (Nonspecific Attention Seeking, Preference for Owner, Preference for Unfamiliar Person, and Separation-Related Behavior). Amenability, in particular, varied significantly between breeds. In the study, we then compared types of games played to each of these factors. Dogs playing rough-and-tumble scored higher for Amenability and lower on Separation-Related Behavior than did dogs playing other types of games. Dogs playing tug-of-war and fetch scored high on Confident Interactivity. Winning or losing these games had no consistent effect on their test scores. If the dog started the majority of the games, the dog was significantly less amenable and more likely to exhibit aggression. The results suggest that how dogs play reflects general attributes of their temperament and relationship with their owner. This study provides no evidence that games play a major deterministic role on dominance dimensions of dog-human relationships, but the results suggest that playing games involving considerable body contact may affect attachment dimensions.
Animal welfare is attracting increasing interest worldwide, but particularly from those in developed countries, who now have the knowledge and resources to be able to offer the best management systems for their farm animals, as well as potentially being able to offer plentiful resources for companion, zoo and laboratory animals. The increased attention given to farm animal welfare in the West derives largely from the fact that the relentless pursuit of financial reward and efficiency has led to the development of intensive animal production systems, that challenge the conscience of many consumers in those countries. In developing countries human survival is still a daily uncertainty, so that provision for animal welfare has to be balanced against human welfare. Welfare is usually provided for only if it supports the output of the animal, be it food, work, clothing, sport or companionship. In reality, there are resources for all if they are properly husbanded in both developing and developed countries. The inequitable division of the world’s riches creates physical and psychological poverty for humans and animals alike in all sectors of the world. Livestock are the world’s biggest land user (FAO, 2002) and the population is increasing rapidly to meet the need of an expanding human population. Populations of farm animals managed by humans are therefore increasing worldwide, and there is the tendency to allocate fewer resources to each animal. Increased attention to welfare issues is just as evident for companion, laboratory, wild and zoo animals.
Investigations of the dog-human bond using modified versions of the Ainsworth Strange Situation Test show some similarities in findings. However, methodological differences mean it cannot be concluded that this bond is comparable to that between children and their mothers. The aim of this study was to assess whether owners can represent an emotionally secure base for their dogs, using a modified version of the Ainsworth Strange Situation Test.
The videoed behaviour of 40 companion dogs was continuously sampled. Durations (seconds) of 22 behaviours were analyzed using Wilcoxon Tests (p<0.05) for differences between owner and stranger situations.
Significant differences in median values were found: contact with/proximity to door/chair/shoe was higher during the absence of owner vs stranger (143.0 vs 49.5, z=4.731, p=0.000); contact with/proximity to owner was higher than to stranger (127.0 vs 50.5, z=5.383, p=0.000); whining lasted longer during the absence of owner vs stranger (0.5 vs 0.0, z=3.099, p=0.002); exploration was higher in the presence of the owner vs stranger (20.5 vs 6.0, z=2.293, p=0.022); individual play was higher in the presence of owner vs stranger (2.5 vs 0.0; z=3.467, p=0.001).
The data suggest that dogs show behaviour similar to that of children in the Ainsworth Strange Situation Test. Owners, like mothers, can represent a secure base from which the dog can play and explore; be the preferred recipient of affiliative behaviour; and, in owner absence, dogs show behaviours indicative of distress. According to Bowlby’s definitions the dogs appear to be linked to their owners by a true attachment bond.
The absence of fear behaviours directed to the stranger in this study is different to that observed in children. This may reflect the different developmental stages at which children are tested versus dogs. In addition, reduced fear of strangers in dogs is known to relate to good interspecific socialization.
EFFECT OF ABANDONMENT ON ATTACHMENT BEHAVIOR
OF ADULT PET DOGS
Emanuela Prato Previde, Paola Valsecchi
Key words: abandonment; affectional bond; Ainsworth
Strange Situation; attachment; domestic dog
Dogs (Canis familiaris) are highly social animals and develop
a strong affectional bond with their human partners, showing
specific patterns of attachment behavior (Topal et al., 1998;
Prato Previde et al., 2003; Fallani et al., 2006). Abandonment
and bond disruption represent a strongly traumatic experience
for a dog as they imply a radical change in the dog’s environmental
and social conditions. There is evidence that despite
this disruption of the affectional bond and the lack of social
interaction with humans, adult shelter dogs maintain the capacity
to form new bonds with humans (Ga´sci et al., 2001); on
the other hand there is also evidence that the experience of
being abandoned may affect the relationship with the new
owner in a number of different and important ways (Serpell &
Jagoe, 1995; Prato Previde et al., 2003). In this study the
Ainsworth’s “strange situation” Test was used to investigate
differences in attachment behavior between pet dogs that had
been adopted from rescue centers and pet dogs that had been
reared in the same family home from puppy-hood. Sixty-three
adult dog-owner pairs participated in the study. The dog sample
consisted of 32 males and 31 females, both pure and
mixed-breeds, whose ages ranged from 1 to 10 years and
included subjects with different life experiences: Abandoned
dogs (n� 33, 13 females and 20 males) and Non-Abandoned
dogs (n�30, 18 females and 12 males). The test consisted of 7
three-minute consecutive episodes in which the dogs were
placed in an unfamiliar room (ep. 1), introduced to a stranger
(ep. 2), subjected to 3 short separations from their owner (ep.3,5,6) and to a reunion with him/her (ep.4, 7). The behavior of
each dog during the test was video recorded and subsequently
analyzed using a 5-second point sampling method, recording
26 different behaviors (i.e. exploration, play, locomotion, support
seeking, greeting; see Prato Previde et al., 2003). We
found that abandoned dogs played less than non-abandoned
ones with both the owner and the stranger (Mann-Whitney test:
owner, P � 0.03; stranger, P � 0.01), remained significantly
more visually oriented towards both the owner and the stranger
compared to non-abandoned ones (owner and stranger, P �
0.05), and engaged significantly more in locomotion throughout
the test, in the presence of the stranger and especially when
alone in the room (P � 0.001). Overall, our findings show that
in spite of abandonment and separation from previous attachment
figures adult dogs adopted from shelters form a strong
affectional bond with their new owner that is similar to that
developed by pet dogs who lived with their owners since
puppy-hood. However we also found a number of interesting
differences suggesting that dogs experiencing abandonment
tend to be more anxious and perhaps less securely bonded to
the owner.
References
Fallani, G., Prato Previde, E., Valsecchi, P., 2006. Do disrupted early
attachments affect the relationship between guide dogs and blind owners?
Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 100, 241-257.
Ga´csi, M., Topa`l, J., Miklo`si, A., Do`ka, A., Csa`nyi, V., 2001. Attachment
behaviour of adult dogs (Canis familiaris) living at rescue centers,
forming new bonds. J. Comp. Psychol. 115, 423-431.
Prato Previde, E., Custance , D. M., Spiezio, C., Sabatini, F., 2003. Is the
dog-human relationship an attachment bond? An observational study
using Ainsworth’s Strange Situation. Behaviour 140, 225-254.
Serpell, J. and Jagoe, J.A., 1995. Early experience and the development of
behaviour. In J. Serpell (Ed), The domestic dog: its evolution, behaviour
and interaction with people. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
pp. 79-102.
Topal, J., Miklosi, A., Csanyi, V., Doka, A., 1998. Attachment behaviour
in dogs (Canis familiaris): A new application of Ainsworth’s (1969)
strange situation test. J. Comp. Psychol. 112, 219-229.
The abstract for this document is available on CSA Illumina.To view the Abstract, click the Abstract button above the document title.
Behavioural effects of the use of a shock collar during guard dog training of German shepherd dogs were studied. Direct reactions of 32 dogs to 107 shocks showed reactions (lowering of body posture, high pitched yelps, barks and squeals, avoidance, redirection aggression, tongue flicking) that suggest stress or fear and pain. Most of these immediate reactions lasted only a fraction of a second. The behaviour of 16 dogs that had received shocks in the recent past (S-dogs) was compared with the behaviour of 15 control dogs that had received similar training but never had received shocks (C-dogs) in order to investigate possible effects of a longer duration. Only training sessions were used in which no shocks were delivered and the behaviour of the dogs (position of body, tail and ears, and stress-, pain- and aggression-related behaviours) was recorded in a way that enabled comparison between the groups. During free walking on the training grounds S-dogs showed a lower ear posture and more stress-related behaviours than C-dogs. During obedience training and during manwork (i.e. excercises with a would-be criminal) the same differences were found. Even a comparison between the behaviour of C-dogs with that of S-dogs during free walking and obedience exercises in a park showed similar differences. Differences between the two groups of dogs existed in spite of the fact that C-dogs also were trained in a fairly harsh way. A comparison between the behaviour during free walking with that during obedience exercises and manwork, showed that during training more stress signals were shown and ear positions were lower. The conclusions, therefore are, that being trained is stressful, that receiving shocks is a painful experience to dogs, and that the S-dogs evidently have learned that the presence of their owner (or his commands) announces reception of shocks, even outside of the normal training context. This suggests that the welfare of these shocked dogs is at stake, at least in the presence of their owner.
Consensus decisions about the nature and timing of group activities allow animals to maintain group cohesiveness, but also entail costs because individuals often differ with respect to their optimal activity budgets. Two mechanisms whereby animals reach a consensus include ‘consistent leadership’, in which a single dominant individual makes the decision, and ‘variable leadership’ in which several group members contribute to the decision outcome. Sharing of consensus decisions is expected to reduce consensus costs to most group members. Both patterns are thought to emerge from the complexity of social relationships of group members. We investigated the distribution of leadership during group departures in two packs of free-ranging dogs, Canis lupus familiaris, and tested how its distribution between individuals was affected by dominance rank-related affiliative and agonistic relationships. Although leadership was not entirely concentrated on a single group member, both packs had a limited number of habitual leaders. In the largest pack, the pattern of leadership changed from ‘variable’ to nearly ‘consistent’ after its size had shrunk. Habitual leaders were usually old and high-ranking individuals. However, high-ranking dogs that received affiliative submissions in greeting ceremonies were more likely to lead than dominant dogs receiving submissions only in agonistic contexts. During resting times, habitual followers associated more closely with habitual leaders than with other followers. These results suggest that in social species collective movements may arise from the effort of subordinates to maintain close proximity with specific valuable social partners.
This research aimed to identify the frequency and type of undesirable behaviors observed by guide dog puppy walkers and management strategies used by them during the puppy-walking period.All members of 36 puppy-walking families (N = 96), recruited from the National School of Guide Dogs for Blind People in Florence (Italy), completed an 80-item questionnaire. This sampling represented homes caring for 28 Labrador retrievers, 6 Golden retrievers, and 2 German shepherd dogs. Of these dogs, 47.2% (n = 17) were males and 52.8% (n = 19) females, and 66.7% (n = 24) were between 7 and 12 months old.Three categories of undesirable behaviors were recorded. First, behaviors considered inconsequential to the guide dog role were: digging (11.8%, n = 11); chewing objects (4.4%, n = 4); stealing or begging for food (3.1%, n = 3); licking people (5.9%, n = 5); getting on furniture (4.4% n = 4); defending territory (2.8%, n = 2); and coprophagia (5.9%, n = 5). Second, the following behaviors considered easily resolvable through training were recorded: lack of recall (8.9%, n = 10); pulling on lead (11.8%, n = 11); jumping up (28.1%, n = 30); barking at other dogs (5.9%, n = 5); chewing the leash (1.5%, n = 1); and house soiling (5.9% (n = 5). Third, these potentially disqualifying behaviors were observed: scavenging (17.7%, n = 17); aggressive barking, growling, and biting (10.4%, n = 10); and fear of thunderstorms (6.2%, n = 6); loud noises (32.3%, n = 31); men (2.1%, n = 2); women (3.1%, n = 3); and people with unusual clothes (6.2%, n = 6). None of the puppies was reported to be fearful of children.Overall, 67.7% (n = 66) of respondents recorded at least 1 undesirable behavior. However, only few of them might lead to disqualification. The results suggest that most of the puppies were well socialized to people and not fearful.Puppy walkers could contribute to the early assessment of potential behavioral problems, which are a major cause of disqualifying guide dogs.
Research conducted by the Anthrozoology Institute and the Defence Science and Technology Laboratory has shown that many working dogs exhibit high levels of physiologic stress in response to kenneling (Hiby et al., 2006; Rooney et al., 2007a). Furthermore, these dogs tend to perform poorly during training, establishing links between welfare and working ability (Rooney et al., 2005, 2007b). Subsequently, we have been studying how kenneling affects welfare and working ability. Specifically, we have investigated which elements within housing and husbandry influence welfare, which of these seem to be the most important, and how environmental enrichment (e.g. feeding devices) can affect welfare and working ability. This paper draws together results from all of these studies, identifying signs that may be indicative of compromised welfare, and providing guidelines, based on scientific evidence, for how to improve kenneled working dog welfare. It reproduces an unpublished guide designed to primarily inform and advise practitioners who are responsible for caring for, and/or handling working dogs. This paper aims to ensure that practitioners are updated of the most recent advances in working dog welfare, and hence many of the studies summarized here are yet to be published in full, in peer-reviewed journals.
Separation-related behaviors are described as problematic behaviors that occur exclusively in the owner's absence or virtual absence. Diagnosis is generally based on indirect evidence such as elimination or destruction that occurs during owner absence. Questionnaire studies are based on owner perception and might therefore underestimate the actual proportion of dogs with separation problems. The aim of this study was to film dogs with separation-related problems when left home alone and compile objective information on behaviors exhibited. Twenty-three dogs, ranging in age from 5 months to 13 years (2.9±22.7 years), were filmed home alone for 20–60min (49.87±12.9min) after owner departure.Analysis of behaviors on tape showed that dogs spent most of their time vocalizing (22.95±12.3% of total observed time) and being oriented to the environment (21±20%). Dogs also exhibited panting (14±18%), were passive (12±27%) and were destroying (6±6%) during owner absence. Most dogs displayed signs within less than 10min after owner departure, such as vocalizing (mean latency 3.25min) and/or destroying (mean latency 7.13min). Barking and oriented to the environment tended to decrease (respectively p=0.08 and p=0.07) and conversely panting tended to increase over time (p=0.07).Diagnosis of separation-related problems is traditionally dependant on owner reports. Although owner observation may be informative, direct observation and standardized behavioral measurement of dogs with separation-related problems, before and after treatment, would be the best way to diagnose and to measure behavioral improvement.
It has been proposed that the dog–human relationship constitutes an infantile-like attachment. However, previous empirical support based on Ainsworth's Strange Situation test has proved inconclusive due to order effects inherent in the original procedure. In particular, these order effects compromise the ability to establish an essential facet of attachment: whether or not owners function as a secure base for their pet dogs. Order effects were counteracted in the present study by including a second condition in which the order of owner and stranger presence was counterbalanced. Hence, 38 adult dog-owner pairs were randomly placed in two conditions, both comprised of six 3-min episodes. In condition A, dogs entered an unfamiliar room with their owner; a stranger entered; the owner left the dog with the stranger; the dog was left alone in the room; the owner returned; and finally the dog was left with the stranger again. In condition B, the order in which owner and stranger were present was reversed. Secure-base effects were indicated in that the dogs explored, remained passive, played with the stranger and engaged in individual play more when in the presence of their owner than when left with the stranger or alone. Therefore, the dogs’ behaviour provides evidence consistent with the hypothesis that the dog–human bond constitutes an attachment. The possible role of attachment in canine separation anxiety is briefly discussed.
An analysis of video-recordings of 20 dogs with separation problems suggested that separation behaviour may be divided into: (1) exploratory behaviour, (2) object play including elements of predatory behaviour, (3) destructive behaviour, and (4) vocalization. Elimination behaviour reported by other authors was found in one case only. Separation behaviour was related to the level of arousal. A clear distinction between `destructive' dogs and `howlers' was not justified. Object play seemed to be closely related to destructive behaviour. A model for the time course of activity from the owner's departure was developed. The model includes two components: (1) a cyclic component having a period of 23–28 min and controlled by internal factors, and (2) a long-term exponential decrease, which may be influenced by external factors arousing the dog. The results supported the view that separation problems are caused by frustration related to the dependency on the owner, whereas they are not caused by disobedience or boredom. The frustration in turn may lead to arousal, increased fear and the disinhibition of play or predatory behaviour and leading to destructive behaviour. The results also indicated that barking was caused by arousal, whereas howling and whining may reflect the presence of fear.
Dogs show considerable variation in morphology, genetics and behaviour caused by long periods of artificial selection. This is evident in the large number of breeds we have today. Behavioural differences among breeds have often been regarded as remnants from past selection during the breeds’ origin. However, the selection in many breeds has, during the last decades, gone through great changes, which could have influenced breed-typical behaviour. In order to investigate this, breed differences were studied using data from a standardized behavioural test from 13,097 dogs of 31 breeds from the Swedish dog population. Based on the test results, breed scores were calculated for four behavioural traits: playfulness, curiosity/fearlessness, sociability and aggressiveness. These traits have previously been found to be stable and valid, and hence regarded as personality traits in the dog. The present results suggested large differences between breeds in all of the investigated traits, even though there were within-breed variations. No relationships between breed-characteristic behaviour and function in the breeds’ origins were found. Instead, there were correlations between breed scores and current use of the breeding stocks, which suggest that selection in the recent past has affected breed-typical behaviour. The breeds’ use in dog shows, the dominating use in general, was negatively correlated with all investigated traits, both in sires and in dams. In contrast, use in Working dog trials was positively correlated with playfulness and aggressiveness in sires. Thus, these results suggest that selection for dog show use is positively correlated with social and non-social fearfulness, and negatively with playfulness, curiosity in potentially threatening situations and aggressiveness, whereas selection for Working dog use is positively correlated with playfulness and aggressiveness. Furthermore, correlation analyses show that popular breeds have higher sociability and playfulness scores than less popular breeds, suggesting that a positive attitude towards strangers is an important characteristic of a functional pet dog and desirable by dog owners. This indicates that selection towards use in dog shows may be in conflict with pet dog selection. Furthermore, these results suggest that basic dimensions of dog behaviour can be changed when selection pressure changes, and that the domestication of the dog still is in progress. A standardized behavioural test, like the one used in this study, is suggested to be highly useful as a tool in dog breeding programs.
Police dog service requires canines that are balanced in social, play, search and aggression behavior as well as physically healthy. Selecting for one or a limited number of genetic traits, such as extraordinarily high energy and aggression, can result in behavior that is counterproductive to police work. In addition to genes, life experience and training determine adult dog behavior. Dogs with inadequate human socialization, fear reaction, or conflicted training may perform patterned behavior in a controlled environment yet react inappropriately or dangerously to the novelties of street work.
The present study investigates how characteristics of both the dog, Canis familiaris, and their owner influence the quality of life (QoL) of the pet dog. The investigation was carried out using a multiple approach: (1) three questionnaires which investigated characteristics of the dog and their owner and care given to the dog, (2) simple physical examination of the dog, (3) the Strange Situation Test to investigate the dog's attachment to their owner and (4) the Lexington Attachment to Pets Scale (LAPS) test.A sample of 104 dog–owner dyads participated in the study. The level of care was found to be positively influenced by marital status (single) and negatively by the age of the dog, length of the dog–owner relationship and neutering. The best physical condition was found for pure breed dogs belonging to men and to people who prefer dogs among pets while physical condition decreases for aging dogs or those with a long relationship with their owner. Attachment to the owner was stronger for dogs with a long relationship and those belonging to people who had had previous experience with pets and those with many emotional bonds. Conversely, the attachment level was lower for pure breed dogs and those whose owners shared the property with other people. LAPS was influenced only by owner features: people more attached to their dogs are those who do not live with children and who do have many emotional bonds. Finally, the majority of dogs had a high level of QoL which was influenced positively by the number of emotional bonds of the owner and negatively by the dog's age and length of the dog–owner relationship.
Over one year, 206 dog owners were questioned in a veterinary clinic. The survey included two groups: 151 owners who visited the clinic because of an injury to their dog caused by another dog and 55 people who owned dogs that caused injuries to others. The questioning served to compare aggressors and victims of dog fights. The form contained 43 questions concerning the dog, the owner, and the incident of intraspecific aggression.The results reveal that both groups, victim and aggressor, showed regularities regarding the breeds, gender, and process of the fight. Important factors include housing conditions, criteria concerning the selection of a dog, and the dog's training. Significant differences were found comparing the owners of aggressors and their victims, including the owner's gender, profession, age, his/her attitude towards dogs, the selection of a specific breed, training methods, the purpose of keeping a dog, and previous experiences owning a dog.Further conclusions were drawn regarding the time and location of the incidents. Their influence on a potential solution to the problem caused by aggressive dogs is discussed.
This paper reports on the development and psychometric evaluation of a scale for assessing emotional attachment of individuals to their pets. Previous attachment scales have suffered variously from low internal consistency and reliance on small or nonrepresentative samples for their development. Telephone interviews of a random, representative sample of 412 pet owners in Fayette County, Kentucky, were completed in September 1990; a 69.5 percent response rate was achieved. From a preliminary set of 42 questions, a final 23-question instrument, the Lexington Attachment to Pets Scale (LAPS), was developed, having excellent psychometric properties. The scale is suitable for use with dog and cat owners. Data on internal consistency, factor structure, and item response theory (IRT) modeling are presented, along with correlations between the LAPS and several domains of variables known to relate to pet attachment.
Turning to someone in times of emotional distress (safe haven) is one key feature of an attachment bond. Aspects of pet dogs as sources of safe haven were examined with open-ended methods for two samples of young adults who were college students (total n = 566, mean age = 19.24 years). Based on ranked nominations, relative to other features of pet dogs as attachment figures, safe haven was the least salient. Nonetheless, although participants were less likely to turn to pet dogs than to mothers, friends, and romantic partners in times of distress, they were more likely to turn to pets than to fathers and brothers and just as likely to turn to sisters. Differences between pet dogs and some humans as sources of safe haven were smallest for participants with high levels of involvement in the care of their dogs and participants who regarded their dogs as strongly meeting needs for relatedness. It is concluded that characteristics of both the dog and the owner predispose young adults to regard their dogs as a source of safe haven and serve as one basis for establishing attachment bonds with them.
Ainsworth's 'strange situation' procedure was used to investigate the dog (Canis familiaris) – human relationship. 38 adult dog-owner pairs were observed in an unfamiliar room, intro-duced to a human stranger and subjected to four short episodes of separation. The procedure and behavioural analyses were as similar as possible to those used in studying human infants, except for the inclusion of an extra separation period in which the dogs were left alone in the room with articles of clothing belonging to the owner and stranger. A secure base effect was suggested by the fact that the dogs accepted to play with the stranger more in the pres-ence of their owner than during his or her absence. They also explored more in the presence of their owner, but this appeared to be due to diminishing curiosity over time rather than a secure base effect. The dogs also exhibited a range of attachment behaviours, i.e. search and proximity seeking behaviours when separated from their owner, including following, scratch-ing and jumping up on the door, remaining oriented to the door or the owner's empty chair and vocalising. They also greeted their owner more enthusiastically and for longer durations compared to the stranger. Finally, they contacted the owner's clothing more often and for 3) Corresponding authors address: Prof. 4) This research was supported by funds from Università di Milano to Emanuela Prato-Previde. We are grateful to Marcello Cesa-Bianchi and Marco Poli for allowing us to carry out the work in the Psychology Institute of Università di Milano. We thank Barbara Rotta for her invaluable help in data collection and scoring, Clara Palestrini for helping in running the experiment, Marco Colombetti for reading and commenting on the preliminary draft of the paper. Finally, a special thank to Tipota, a female mongrel, for being our rst pilot subject and to all the owners and dogs that participated as volunteers.
Ten chimpanzees (Pan troglogytes), aged 18–24 months, housed without mothers as two dyads and two triads, were subjected to social separation. Two issues were addressed: the effects of peer separation in chimpanzees; and differential responses by subjects living in dyads compared with those living in triads. Chimpanzees that were alone during separation reacted with high levels of “protest” alternating with “despair” throughout the separation period. The continued presence of one cagemate, during separation from a third, was a strong mitigating factor. Even when the primary attachment was formed with the absent cagemate, the remaining chimpanzees clung to each other and the levels of protest and despair, when present, were low. Upon reunion, neither “detachment” nor heightened levels of clinging were conspicuous, but there was increased social interaction. The data on separation of chimpanzees are intermediate between those of humans and monkeys separated from mothers or peers. The increased social interactions during reunion, including looking, are comparable to the visual vigilance reported for humans.
The possibility of linking physiology and observable behaviour is of great importance in gaining a better understanding of the dog's reactions to environmental changes and potential stressors. Many studies of human–dog interactions explored the issues concerning attachment of people to their pets, whereas only few studies investigated the nature of the dog–human relationship or the dog's level of attachment to its owner. The aim of this study was to investigate dog's reactions to different emotional situations integrating physiological (heart rate) and behavioural measures. Seventeen adult dogs were tested in a 'strange' environment using a modified version of Ainsworth's Strange Situation Test. The procedure consisted of an introductory episode followed by eight consecutive experimental episodes in which the dogs were placed in an unfamiliar environment, introduced to an adult stranger and subjected to separations from the owner. During each observational session the behaviour of each dog was videorecorded and heart rate was measured in order to allow a comparison between heart rate and behaviour. The level of activity of each dog in each experimental episode was assessed recording 12 different behavioural categories. The heart rate values during the first experimental episode were analysed to obtain a baseline for each subject and the dogs' heart rate across episodes was assessed and compared to the baseline values. Furthermore, the effect of specific events (stranger's entrance and owner's return) on dogs' heart rate was evaluated.
The management of puppies is considered of great importance in raising well-behaved adult dogs. This research aimed to assess the effectiveness of advice provided by a veterinary behaviorist regarding puppy-raising practices. Forty-six puppy owners received advice by a veterinary behaviorist concerning puppy raising during the puppy's first visit to a veterinarian. A control group was composed of 43 different dogs whose owners were not counseled by a veterinary behaviorist during the puppy's first veterinary visit. Owners were interviewed about their dog's behaviors at the time of their 1-year booster vaccination visit. The 89 dogs were clinically healthy, between 11 and 18 months old, 53% females and 47% males, of various or mixed breeds. Dogs whose owners received advice displayed less undesirable behaviors than the control group, such as: house soiling (2% vs 23%; c 2 5 19.50; P , .01), mounting (26% vs 49%; c 2 5 12.11; P , .05), nonstop playing (0% vs 12%; Fisher's exact test P , .05), mouthing of people (11% vs 37%; c 2 5 7.15; P , .01), begging for food (17% vs 42%; c 2 5 5.31; P , .05), or demanding food from the table (0% vs 12%; Fisher's exact test P , .05). Moreover, the experimental group showed less aggressive behaviors toward unknown people (26% vs 2%; Fisher's exact test P , .01) and dogs (16% vs 2%; Fisher's exact test P , .05). The advice provided was effective in diminishing the incidence of undesirable behaviors in the dogs stud-ied. The positive effect of a behaviorist's advice is remarkable given that the puppies in the experimental group had remained with their mother and littermates for less than 2 months, which is believed to be a high-risk condition for development of behavioral disorders.
Performance of scent-detection dogs might be negatively affected when they have been trained to discriminate between scents according to a handler-issued verbal cue, compared to dogs trained to only locate one scent. The performance of scent-detection dogs trained to locate only live scent (live-only dogs) was compared to that of scent-detection dogs trained to locate either live or cadaver scent depending on the handler's verbal cue (cross-trained dogs). Specifically, it was predicted that live-only dogs would be more successful than cross-trained dogs at locating live scent when cadaver scent was present. Twenty-three dogs (11 live-only and 12 cross-trained) were given handler commands to search for live scent in four search areas containing different combinations of scent: no scent, live scent, cadaver scent, and live/cadaver scent. Each dog ran each search area twice. Live-only dogs had significantly more correct responses than cross-trained dogs in the no scent, cadaver scent, and live/ cadaver scent search areas. There was no significant performance difference between live-only and cross-trained dogs in the live scent search area, confirming detection abilities of the cross-trained dogs when presented with only live scent. The ability of cross-trained dogs to correctly indicate the presence or absence of live scent according to a verbal cue was compromised when cadaver scent or no scent was present. This strongly suggests that cross-trained dogs should not be deployed where cadaver scent is present and the desired target is live scent, for example, a disaster deployment of search dogs to locate surviving victims amongst possible non-survivors. # 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Using the Strange Situation Test originally developed for testing the mother–infant relationship in humans, we compared the attachment behaviour of extensively socialized (hand-reared) dog, Canis familiaris, and wolf, Canis lupus, puppies towards their human caregiver with that of pet dog puppies of the same age. The experiment was designed to study whether (1) dog puppies as young as 16 weeks show attachment to a human caregiver, (2) extensive socialization by human caregivers affects attachment behaviour of dog puppies and (3) evolutionary changes (in the form of species-specific differences between wolf and dog pups) affect the emergence of dog–human attachment. We found a characteristic selective responsiveness to the owner in young dogs, similar to that observed in adults. This finding supports the view that puppies show patterns of attachment towards their owners. Extensive socialization had only a minor effect on the attachment behaviour in dog puppies, as the behaviour of pet dogs and hand-reared dogs was basically similar. However, we found a significant species-specific difference between wolves and dogs: both extensively socialized and pet dog puppies were more responsive to the owner than to an unfamiliar human participant, whereas extensively socialized wolves were not. Behavioural differences could be best explained by assuming that selective processes took place in the course of domestication (genetic changes) that are related to the attachment system of the dog.
The study investigated the affectional bond developed by dogs (Canis familiaris) towards their human companions during the selection process to become guide dogs and compared this bond with that formed by pet dogs with their owners. One hundred and nine dog-owner pairs were tested using a modified version of the Strange Situation Test: custody dogs-puppy walkers (n = 34), apprentice dogs-trainers (n = 26), guide dogs-blind owners (n = 25) and pet dogs-owners (n = 24). Twenty-six behaviours were scored using a 5 s point sampling method and two vocal behaviours were recorded as bouts. Factor analysis carried out on 24 mutually exclusive behaviours highlighted two different profiles of response. A relaxed reaction characterised by a high play activity was distinctive of custody and apprentice dogs, whereas an anxious reaction characterised by a high degree of proximity seeking behaviours was distinctive of pet dogs. Guide dogs were intermediate between these two extremes, expressing their attachment to the owners but showing a more controlled emotional reaction. This finding suggests that guide dogs can be viewed as "working pets". Furthermore, the experimental set-up, characterised by the presence of a frightening stimulus, revealed that untrained dogs (pets and custody dogs) were more fearful than trained dogs (guide dogs and apprentice dogs). Finally, differences in temperament emerged between retrievers: Golden retrievers showed a higher level of affection demand while Labrador retrievers were more playful. Overall, these findings show that in spite of separations from previous attachment figures, guide dogs established with their blind owner a rather good and secure affectional bond. (c) 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Stress parameters that can be measured noninvasively may help to identify poor welfare in dogs that live in private homes and institutions. Behavioural parameters are potentially useful to identify stress, but require further investigation to establish which behaviours are appropriate. In the present study, behaviours were recorded and analysed for signs of acute stress in dogs. Simultaneously, saliva cortisol and heart rate were measured to support the interpretation of the behavioural data with regard to stress. Ten dogs of either sex, different ages and various breeds were each subjected to six different stimuli: sound blasts, short electric shocks, a falling bag, an opening umbrella and two forms of restraint. Each type of stimulus had been selected for its assumed aversive properties and was administered intermittently for 1 min. The stimuli that could not be anticipated by the dogs, sound blasts, shocks and a falling bag, tended to induce saliva cortisol responses and a very low posture. The remainder of the stimuli, which were administered by the experimenter visibly to the dog, did not change the cortisol levels but did induce restlessness, a moderate lowering of the posture, body shaking, oral behaviours, and to a lesser extent, yawning and open mouth. Pronounced increases in the heart rate were nonspecifically induced by each type of stimulus. Heart rate levels normalized within 8 min after stressor administration had stopped. Saliva cortisol levels decreased to normal within the hour. Correlations between behavioural and physiological stress parameters were not significant. From the present results, we conclude that in dogs a very low posture may indicate intense acute stress since dogs show a very low posture concomitant with saliva cortisol responses. Dogs may typically show increased restlessness, oral behaviours, yawning, open mouth and a moderate lowering of the posture when they experienced moderate stress in a social setting. The nonspecific character of canine heart rate responses complicates its interpretation with regard to acute stress.
The classic study of dog behavior gathered into one volume. Based on twenty years of research at the Jackson Laboratory, this is the single most important and comprehensive reference work on the behavior of dogs ever complied. "Genetics and the Social Behavior of the Dog is one of the most important texts on canine behavior published to date. Anyone interested in breeding, training, or canine behavior must own this book."âWayne Hunthausen, D.V.M., Director of Animal Behavior Consultations "This pioneering research on dog behavioral genetics is a timeless classic for all serious students of ethology and canine behavior."âDr. Michael Fox, Senior Advisor to the President, The Humane Society of the United States "A major authoritative work. . . . Immensely rewarding reading for anyone concerned with dog-breeding."âTimes Literary Supplement "The last comprehensive study [of dog behavior] was concluded more than thirty years ago, when John Paul Scott and John L. Fuller published their seminal work Genetics and the Social Behavior of the Dog."âMark Derr, The Atlantic Monthly "Genetics and the Social Behavior of the Dog is essential reading for anyone involved in the breeding of dogs. No breeder can afford to ignore the principles of proper socialization first discovered and articulated in this landmark study."-The Monks of New Skete, authors of How to Be Your Dog's Best Friend and the video series Raising Your Dog with the Monks of New Skete.
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Earlier studies of responses of primate infants to strangers were frequently confounded with separation from the attachment figure and/or removal to an unfamiliar setting. In the present study, young chimpanzees were tested in a familiar setting with a human female caretaker who served as an attachment figure. Two strangers were introduced: a human female, approximately the size of the caretaker, who refrained from initiating interactions and a larger human male, who repeatedly approached and initiated contact with the subjects. A somewhat more intense response was elicited by the larger, more assertive male stranger, but neither stranger elicited severe distress. The behavior of the chimpanzees is better described as wary, rather than fearful. These results may be attributable to the continued presence of the caretaker in contrast to previous studies reporting severe distress to strangers when chimpanzees are tested alone. A wariness of strangers in nursery-reared chimpanzees may develop by 6 months of age and may diminish somewhat by 2 years of age under the conditions of this study.
Behavioral responsiveness to a novel environment was documented in 22 chimpanzees grouped according to age; 6-months, 1-year, 2-years and 5-years. An attachment figure, a human caretaker, accompanied each subject during the 15-min test sessions so as to preclude confounding of responses to novelty with separation responses. Extreme distress reported previously for chimpanzees and human children when tested alone in a novel situation was rarely observed in these tests when an attachment figure was present. Stereotyped rocking, an indication of mild distress occurred more frequently in the younger animals. Younger animals engaged in distal visual exploration of the environment while remaining close to the attachment figure, whereas the older animals locomoted more frequently and explored the environment directly with their hands. Repeated exposure to the environment reduced the differences among the 6-month, 1-year and 2-year groups. The 6-month group, however, continued to locomote least and least frequently engaged in tactile exploration. These data on chimpanzees resemble data on human children which suggest that an attachment figure: attenuates the distress exhibited by young individuals of these species when exposed to novel stimuli, and thereby provides a secure base which supports the exploration of novel stimuli, a prerequisite to behavioral adaptation.
3 theoretical approaches to the origin and development of the infant-mother relationship are reviewed: psychoanalytic theories of object relations, social learning theories of dependency (and attachment), and an ethologically oriented theory of attachment. "Object relations," "dependency," and "attachment," although overlapping, are seen to differ substantially. Among the concepts in regard to which there are significant intertheoretical differences, the following are discussed: genetic "biases," reinforcement as compared with activation and termination of behavioral systems and with feedback, strength of attachment behavior versus strength of attachment, inner representation of the object, intraorganismic and environmental conditions of behavioral activation, and the role of intraorganismic organization and structure. Finally, the relation between theory and research methods is considered.
The concepts of attachment and attachment behavior are considered from an ethological-evolutionary viewpoint. Attachment behavior and exploration are viewed in balance, and the biological functions of each are discussed. As an illustration of these concepts, a study is reported of 56 white, middle-class infants, 49-51 weeks of age, in a strange situation. The presence of the mother was found to encourage exploratory behavior, her absence to depress exploration and to heighten attachment behaviors. In separation episodes such behaviors as crying and search increased. In reunion episodes proximity-seeking and contact-maintaining behaviors were heightened. In a substantial proportion of Ss, contact-resisting behaviors were also heightened in the reunion episodes, usually in conjunction with contact-maintaining behaviors, thus suggesting ambivalence. Some Ss also displayed proximity-avoiding behavior in relation to the mother in the reunion episodes. These findings are discussed in the context of relevant observational, clinical, and experimental studies of human and nonhuman primates, including studies of mother-child separation. In conclusion, it is urged that the concepts of attachment and attachment behavior be kept broad enough to comprehend the spectrum of the findings of this range of studies.
In Exp I, retrospective data of 92 cases on dangerously aggressive companion dogs demonstrated the avoidance nature of the aggressive response and its intractability to established counterconditioning treatments. In Exp II, safety training, a modified avoidance-learning procedure, resulted in complete and permanent elimination of aggression in all 36 dogs tested. In addition, it produced extinction-resistant prosocial avoidance responses, significant increases in the dogs' emotional stability, an avoidance-learning and safety acquisition response set, and improvements in measures of the dog's "carriage." Exp III (18 Ss) showed how effective safety training is when compared with other behavior modification techniques that, in theory, should have an impact on avoidance-motivated aggression. Exp IV (16 Ss) demonstrated the importance of using the conditioned safety cue as a positive reinforcement. The relationship of avoidance-motivated aggression to other forms of aggression is discussed, the theoretical concepts of behavioral balance and an avoidance-learning set are presented, and suggestions to improve the effectiveness of counterconditioning for human avoidance-motivated pathologies are offered. (90 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved).
The motivational bases of the social reinforcement in human-dog relations were examined. In experiment I, performed on seven dogs, it was found that dogs were able to learn and sustain the natural responses of sitting, paw extension, and lying prostrate to conditional stimuli in the form of vocal commands reinforced only by social rewards given by the experimenter, such as petting and vocal encouragement. Overtraining did not produce deterioration of performance but, on the contrary, the continual decrease of latencies. It was evidenced that tactile stimulation plays an important role in social reward. In experiment II, instrumental responses to the auditory conditional stimuli were elaborated in two groups of dogs. The first group (nine dogs) was reinforced by food, and the second group (eight dogs) was reinforced exclusively by petting. A similar course of learning and level of performance during overtraining sessions in both groups indicated that petting serves as a good reinforcement, with rewarding value comparable to that of food reinforcement. It is suggested that a strong rewarding effect of pleasurable sensory stimuli occurs in the formation of the bond between dog and human and in the learning of different tasks.
The present study was intended to evaluate whether receiving grooming, given to a monkey by an experimenter, can be used as a positive reinforcer in operant conditioning. When the monkey touched the surface of the correct pattern in a visual discrimination task after a tone cue, the experimenter groomed the monkey's face, neck, and head with his hand. To test whether the discrimination behavior depended on the shape of the stimuli or on the position of the pattern, these experimental parameters were changed in the different tasks. When the square pattern was assigned as correct and presented on the animal's left side, the average score for correct discrimination was 90% in the last 10 sessions out of 30 sessions, and this was statistically significant at a confidence level of p < 0.005 (Grant's table). Correct discrimination was statistically significant when the position of the square was randomly changed to the right and left side of the monkey, and also when the correct pattern was reversed from the square to the cross and its position was again randomly changed. Therefore, it was concluded that the grooming that an experimenter gives to a monkey can be applied as a positive reinforcer in operant conditioning. This experimental paradigm is considered to be useful for neurophysiological analysis of brain mechanisms underlying reward derived from somatosensory input in nonhuman primates.