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Performance implications of knowledge and competitive arousal in times of employee mobility:“The immutable law of the ex”
Abstract
This article elaborates on extant literature on employee mobility by focusing on how the movement of personnel between competitors affects their competitive positions. Our mixed-methods study of 402 head-to-head encounters from the English Premier League (2000–2005) reveals that transferred players improve the performance of the recipient team in head-to-head encounters against the donor. We also provide evidence that competitive arousal, as triggered by anger and pressures for proving loyalty to the recipient organization, as well as knowledge of the donor team's routines, explain the superior performance of transferred players. These results question the traditional view that organizational routines are not transferable through employee mobility. They also move beyond a prior emphasis on the negative effects of emotional states such as anger and competitive arousal, highlighting how these can occasionally be beneficial. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
... Table 7.2 provides a summary of this information. (Astor, Adam, Jerčić, et al., 2013;Delgado et al., 2008;Teubner et al., 2015) o Value uncertainty (Ehrhart et al., 2015) o Uniqueness and scarcity (Ku et al., 2005;Nichols, 2012) • Winning vs. losing Adam et al., 2013;Astor, Adam, Jerčić, et al., 2013;Ding et al., 2005;Teubner et al., 2015;van den Bos, Talwar, et al., 2013) o Fairness (Sanfey et al., 2003;vanʼt Wout et al., 2006) • Sunk costs (Hafenbrädl & Woike, 2018;Ku et al., 2005) o Pseudo-losses (Ehrhart et al., 2015) o Automatic or active bidding (Ehrhart et al., 2015) • Time pressure Adam et al., 2013;Adam et al., 2018;El Haji et al., 2019;Ku et al., 2005;Malhotra, 2010) Characteristics of interaction partners • Co-action or competing Engelmann et al., 2016;Li et al., 2013;Nichols, 2012;Yu et al., 2014) • Human/computer counterparts Adam et al., 2018;Häubl & Popkowski Leszczyc, 2019;Rilling et al., 2008;Sanfey et al., 2003;Teubner et al., 2015;vanʼt Wout et al., 2006;van den Bos et al., 2008) o Rivalry (Nichols, 2012;Pazzaglia et al., 2012;van den Bos, Golka, et al., 2013) o Identifiability of counterpart Haran & Ritov, 2014;Ku et al., 2005;van den Bos, Golka, et al., 2013) o Trash talking (Malhotra, 2010;Yip et al., 2018) • Number of counterparts (Häubl & Popkowski Leszczyc, 2019;Ku et al., 2005;Malhotra, 2010) Audience of the competition • Presence of an audience (Ku et al., 2005;Murray & Raedeke, 2008) Incidental factors outside the competition • Competition-based bonus/chance-based bonus (Adam et al., 2019) • Music (Adam et al., 2019) • Time pressure (Adam et al., 2019) • Images (Adam et al., 2016;Adam et al., 2019) • Cognitive dissonance (Adam et al., 2019) • Witnessing competition (Raghabendra et al., 2018) 3 (Rauch et al., 1999) Autobiographical scripts PET scan (Murnighan, 2002) Auctions (dollar) Anecdotal, interviews (Sanfey et al., 2003) Bargaining (ultimatum game) fMRI (insula) (Ding et al., 2005) Auctions (reverse auctions) Self-report (Ku et al., 2005) Auctions (charity) Self-report (vanʼt Wout et al., 2006) Bargaining (ultimatum game) SC Auctions (first-price sealed bid) fMRI (Murray & Raedeke, 2008) Golf HR, self-report (Rilling et al., 2008) Bargaining (ultimatum game) fMRI (posterior cingulate, hypothalamus) (van den Bos et al., 2008) Auctions None (Malhotra, 2010) Auctions (charity) None (Wolframm & Micklewright, 2010) Equestrian sports Self-report (Nichols, 2012) Consumer behavior Self-report (Pazzaglia et al., 2012) English Premier League Archival data Auctions (Dutch) HR, SC, self-report (Astor, Adam, Jerčić, et al., 2013) Auctions (first-price sealed-bid) HR, SC Insight problem solving EEG, self-report (van den Bos, Golka, et al., 2013) Auctions (multi-player sealed bid) Testosterone, cortisol, self-report (van den Bos, Talwar, et al., 2013) Auctions (first-price sealed bid) fMRI, self-report (Haran & Ritov, 2014) E ort-based and accuracy task and auction (first-price sealed bid) ...
... Table 7.2 provides a summary of this information. (Astor, Adam, Jerčić, et al., 2013;Delgado et al., 2008;Teubner et al., 2015) o Value uncertainty (Ehrhart et al., 2015) o Uniqueness and scarcity (Ku et al., 2005;Nichols, 2012) • Winning vs. losing Adam et al., 2013;Astor, Adam, Jerčić, et al., 2013;Ding et al., 2005;Teubner et al., 2015;van den Bos, Talwar, et al., 2013) o Fairness (Sanfey et al., 2003;vanʼt Wout et al., 2006) • Sunk costs (Hafenbrädl & Woike, 2018;Ku et al., 2005) o Pseudo-losses (Ehrhart et al., 2015) o Automatic or active bidding (Ehrhart et al., 2015) • Time pressure Adam et al., 2013;Adam et al., 2018;El Haji et al., 2019;Ku et al., 2005;Malhotra, 2010) Characteristics of interaction partners • Co-action or competing Engelmann et al., 2016;Li et al., 2013;Nichols, 2012;Yu et al., 2014) • Human/computer counterparts Adam et al., 2018;Häubl & Popkowski Leszczyc, 2019;Rilling et al., 2008;Sanfey et al., 2003;Teubner et al., 2015;vanʼt Wout et al., 2006;van den Bos et al., 2008) o Rivalry (Nichols, 2012;Pazzaglia et al., 2012;van den Bos, Golka, et al., 2013) o Identifiability of counterpart Haran & Ritov, 2014;Ku et al., 2005;van den Bos, Golka, et al., 2013) o Trash talking (Malhotra, 2010;Yip et al., 2018) • Number of counterparts (Häubl & Popkowski Leszczyc, 2019;Ku et al., 2005;Malhotra, 2010) Audience of the competition • Presence of an audience (Ku et al., 2005;Murray & Raedeke, 2008) Incidental factors outside the competition • Competition-based bonus/chance-based bonus (Adam et al., 2019) • Music (Adam et al., 2019) • Time pressure (Adam et al., 2019) • Images (Adam et al., 2016;Adam et al., 2019) • Cognitive dissonance (Adam et al., 2019) • Witnessing competition (Raghabendra et al., 2018) 3 (Rauch et al., 1999) Autobiographical scripts PET scan (Murnighan, 2002) Auctions (dollar) Anecdotal, interviews (Sanfey et al., 2003) Bargaining (ultimatum game) fMRI (insula) (Ding et al., 2005) Auctions (reverse auctions) Self-report (Ku et al., 2005) Auctions (charity) Self-report (vanʼt Wout et al., 2006) Bargaining (ultimatum game) SC Auctions (first-price sealed bid) fMRI (Murray & Raedeke, 2008) Golf HR, self-report (Rilling et al., 2008) Bargaining (ultimatum game) fMRI (posterior cingulate, hypothalamus) (van den Bos et al., 2008) Auctions None (Malhotra, 2010) Auctions (charity) None (Wolframm & Micklewright, 2010) Equestrian sports Self-report (Nichols, 2012) Consumer behavior Self-report (Pazzaglia et al., 2012) English Premier League Archival data Auctions (Dutch) HR, SC, self-report (Astor, Adam, Jerčić, et al., 2013) Auctions (first-price sealed-bid) HR, SC Insight problem solving EEG, self-report (van den Bos, Golka, et al., 2013) Auctions (multi-player sealed bid) Testosterone, cortisol, self-report (van den Bos, Talwar, et al., 2013) Auctions (first-price sealed bid) fMRI, self-report (Haran & Ritov, 2014) E ort-based and accuracy task and auction (first-price sealed bid) ...
... Interestingly, soccer players who were transferred in the English Premier League may have experienced competitive arousal (although it should be noted that the authors speci cally measured anger and pressure for having to prove their loyalty) when they were in head-to-head competition with their old donor teams (Pazzaglia et al., 2012). ...
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... Table 7.2 provides a summary of this information. (Astor, Adam, Jerčić, et al., 2013;Delgado et al., 2008;Teubner et al., 2015) o Value uncertainty (Ehrhart et al., 2015) o Uniqueness and scarcity (Ku et al., 2005;Nichols, 2012) • Winning vs. losing Adam et al., 2013;Astor, Adam, Jerčić, et al., 2013;Ding et al., 2005;Teubner et al., 2015;van den Bos, Talwar, et al., 2013) o Fairness (Sanfey et al., 2003;vanʼt Wout et al., 2006) • Sunk costs (Hafenbrädl & Woike, 2018;Ku et al., 2005) o Pseudo-losses (Ehrhart et al., 2015) o Automatic or active bidding (Ehrhart et al., 2015) • Time pressure Adam et al., 2013;Adam et al., 2018;El Haji et al., 2019;Ku et al., 2005;Malhotra, 2010) Characteristics of interaction partners • Co-action or competing Engelmann et al., 2016;Li et al., 2013;Nichols, 2012;Yu et al., 2014) • Human/computer counterparts Adam et al., 2018;Häubl & Popkowski Leszczyc, 2019;Rilling et al., 2008;Sanfey et al., 2003;Teubner et al., 2015;vanʼt Wout et al., 2006;van den Bos et al., 2008) o Rivalry (Nichols, 2012;Pazzaglia et al., 2012;van den Bos, Golka, et al., 2013) o Identifiability of counterpart Haran & Ritov, 2014;Ku et al., 2005;van den Bos, Golka, et al., 2013) o Trash talking (Malhotra, 2010;Yip et al., 2018) • Number of counterparts (Häubl & Popkowski Leszczyc, 2019;Ku et al., 2005;Malhotra, 2010) Audience of the competition • Presence of an audience (Ku et al., 2005;Murray & Raedeke, 2008) Incidental factors outside the competition • Competition-based bonus/chance-based bonus (Adam et al., 2019) • Music (Adam et al., 2019) • Time pressure (Adam et al., 2019) • Images (Adam et al., 2016;Adam et al., 2019) • Cognitive dissonance (Adam et al., 2019) • Witnessing competition (Raghabendra et al., 2018) 3 (Rauch et al., 1999) Autobiographical scripts PET scan (Murnighan, 2002) Auctions (dollar) Anecdotal, interviews (Sanfey et al., 2003) Bargaining (ultimatum game) fMRI (insula) (Ding et al., 2005) Auctions (reverse auctions) Self-report (Ku et al., 2005) Auctions (charity) Self-report (vanʼt Wout et al., 2006) Bargaining (ultimatum game) SC Auctions (first-price sealed bid) fMRI (Murray & Raedeke, 2008) Golf HR, self-report (Rilling et al., 2008) Bargaining (ultimatum game) fMRI (posterior cingulate, hypothalamus) (van den Bos et al., 2008) Auctions None (Malhotra, 2010) Auctions (charity) None (Wolframm & Micklewright, 2010) Equestrian sports Self-report (Nichols, 2012) Consumer behavior Self-report (Pazzaglia et al., 2012) English Premier League Archival data Auctions (Dutch) HR, SC, self-report (Astor, Adam, Jerčić, et al., 2013) Auctions (first-price sealed-bid) HR, SC Insight problem solving EEG, self-report (van den Bos, Golka, et al., 2013) Auctions (multi-player sealed bid) Testosterone, cortisol, self-report (van den Bos, Talwar, et al., 2013) Auctions (first-price sealed bid) fMRI, self-report (Haran & Ritov, 2014) E ort-based and accuracy task and auction (first-price sealed bid) ...
... Table 7.2 provides a summary of this information. (Astor, Adam, Jerčić, et al., 2013;Delgado et al., 2008;Teubner et al., 2015) o Value uncertainty (Ehrhart et al., 2015) o Uniqueness and scarcity (Ku et al., 2005;Nichols, 2012) • Winning vs. losing Adam et al., 2013;Astor, Adam, Jerčić, et al., 2013;Ding et al., 2005;Teubner et al., 2015;van den Bos, Talwar, et al., 2013) o Fairness (Sanfey et al., 2003;vanʼt Wout et al., 2006) • Sunk costs (Hafenbrädl & Woike, 2018;Ku et al., 2005) o Pseudo-losses (Ehrhart et al., 2015) o Automatic or active bidding (Ehrhart et al., 2015) • Time pressure Adam et al., 2013;Adam et al., 2018;El Haji et al., 2019;Ku et al., 2005;Malhotra, 2010) Characteristics of interaction partners • Co-action or competing Engelmann et al., 2016;Li et al., 2013;Nichols, 2012;Yu et al., 2014) • Human/computer counterparts Adam et al., 2018;Häubl & Popkowski Leszczyc, 2019;Rilling et al., 2008;Sanfey et al., 2003;Teubner et al., 2015;vanʼt Wout et al., 2006;van den Bos et al., 2008) o Rivalry (Nichols, 2012;Pazzaglia et al., 2012;van den Bos, Golka, et al., 2013) o Identifiability of counterpart Haran & Ritov, 2014;Ku et al., 2005;van den Bos, Golka, et al., 2013) o Trash talking (Malhotra, 2010;Yip et al., 2018) • Number of counterparts (Häubl & Popkowski Leszczyc, 2019;Ku et al., 2005;Malhotra, 2010) Audience of the competition • Presence of an audience (Ku et al., 2005;Murray & Raedeke, 2008) Incidental factors outside the competition • Competition-based bonus/chance-based bonus (Adam et al., 2019) • Music (Adam et al., 2019) • Time pressure (Adam et al., 2019) • Images (Adam et al., 2016;Adam et al., 2019) • Cognitive dissonance (Adam et al., 2019) • Witnessing competition (Raghabendra et al., 2018) 3 (Rauch et al., 1999) Autobiographical scripts PET scan (Murnighan, 2002) Auctions (dollar) Anecdotal, interviews (Sanfey et al., 2003) Bargaining (ultimatum game) fMRI (insula) (Ding et al., 2005) Auctions (reverse auctions) Self-report (Ku et al., 2005) Auctions (charity) Self-report (vanʼt Wout et al., 2006) Bargaining (ultimatum game) SC Auctions (first-price sealed bid) fMRI (Murray & Raedeke, 2008) Golf HR, self-report (Rilling et al., 2008) Bargaining (ultimatum game) fMRI (posterior cingulate, hypothalamus) (van den Bos et al., 2008) Auctions None (Malhotra, 2010) Auctions (charity) None (Wolframm & Micklewright, 2010) Equestrian sports Self-report (Nichols, 2012) Consumer behavior Self-report (Pazzaglia et al., 2012) English Premier League Archival data Auctions (Dutch) HR, SC, self-report (Astor, Adam, Jerčić, et al., 2013) Auctions (first-price sealed-bid) HR, SC Insight problem solving EEG, self-report (van den Bos, Golka, et al., 2013) Auctions (multi-player sealed bid) Testosterone, cortisol, self-report (van den Bos, Talwar, et al., 2013) Auctions (first-price sealed bid) fMRI, self-report (Haran & Ritov, 2014) E ort-based and accuracy task and auction (first-price sealed bid) ...
... Interestingly, soccer players who were transferred in the English Premier League may have experienced competitive arousal (although it should be noted that the authors speci cally measured anger and pressure for having to prove their loyalty) when they were in head-to-head competition with their old donor teams (Pazzaglia et al., 2012). ...
Competition and competitive contexts inherently contain elements that generate arousal (sympathetic activation of the autonomic system). In addition to the arousal experienced from competing against another person(s), other elements in competitive contexts, such as time pressure, audience effects, competing for scarce and/or valued items, etc., can create arousal. This chapter elaborates on how competition and competitive contexts can generate arousal, which then affects decision making. Simultaneously, the authors discuss how arousal that is independent of the competitive context can have similar decision-making effects. On one hand, arousal can facilitate and improve decision making. On the other hand, it can impair sound and rational decision making. This chapter gives an overview of the concept of competitive arousal by providing a review of what is known about the nature of competitive arousal, the factors that influence its emergence, moderators, and its effects on decision making. The authors conclude with several open questions as well as a general discussion of the theoretical and practical implications of competitive arousal in different decision making contexts.
... Middle managers are not being developed for senior-level positions (Davis, 2010;Pfeffer, & Davis-Blake, 1986). The quandary is that baby-boomers are retiring and transfer of learning has not been a priority for organizations (Charan, 2005;Pazzaglia, Flynn, & Sonpar, 2012). ...
... During the process of developing a leadership pipeline, the executive team must take the time and conduct a thorough analysis to determine leadership characteristics that incumbents should possess. Decisionmakers who are interested in attracting talented executives should be open to hiring people with different mental models and executive skill-sets that embody senior leadership excellence that achieves results (Pazzaglia, Flynn, & Sonpar, 2012). Hiring, developing, and promoting people of diverse backgrounds is cautiously considered since at times, organization leaders are myopic in their management approaches. ...
Chief Executive Officer (CEO) succession planning is a critical issue for organizations. The implications for an effective succession plan is far-reaching to the entire system, subsystems, and external customers (Guthrie & Datta, 1998; Kesner & Sebora, 1994). This paper looks at the importance of talent management policies and practices as it relates to leadership pipelines, and provides a conceptual framework that organizations can adopt to ensure that they will always be prepared for CEO succession and maintain a competitive edge.
... Middle managers are not being developed for senior-level positions ( Davis, 2010;Pfeffer, & Davis-Blake, 1986). The quandary is that baby-boomers are retiring and transfer of learning has not been a priority for organizations ( Charan, 2005;Pazzaglia, Flynn, & Sonpar, 2012). ...
... During the process of developing a leadership pipeline, the executive team must take the time and conduct a thorough analysis to determine leadership characteristics that incumbents should possess. Decisionmakers who are interested in attracting talented executives should be open to hiring people with different mental models and executive skill-sets that embody senior leadership excellence that achieves results ( Pazzaglia, Flynn, & Sonpar, 2012). Hiring, developing, and promoting people of diverse backgrounds is cautiously considered since at times, organization leaders are myopic in their management approaches. ...
... Professional team sports are an interesting research site for examining strategic management and leadership phenomena (Berman, Down, & Hill, 2002;Bloom, 1999;Day, Gordon, & Fink, 2012;Katz, 2001), which has long been used as an empirical site for scholars of succession (Giambatista, 2004;Grusky, 1963;Ndofor, Priem, Rathburn, & Dhir, 2009;Pfeffer & Davis-Blake, 1986;Rowe et al., 2005). In addition to the suitability of the EPL context for testing our model, as outlined in the introduction, our context provides data that is reliable, objective and readily available, and researchers can identify and measure organizational performance and the human capital of leaders and team members (Audas, Dobson, & Goddard, 2002;Hughes, Hughes, Mellahi, & Guermat, 2010;Pazzaglia, Flynn, & Sonpar, 2012;Werner & Mero, 1999). ...
... Our paper follows the well-established tradition of employing sports industries, and sporting organizations, to study issues of leadership and human resource management (e.g., Berman et al., 2002;Pazzaglia et al., 2012). Sporting organizations, and soccer in particular, can be generalizable to other types of business organizations as they share a range of common features as detailed below (Bolchover & Brady, 2002;Brady et al., 2008). ...
In this article we strive to reconcile equivocal findings about the effects of top leader succession and prior leadership experience on postsuccession organizational performance. In doing so, we draw on insights from theories of human capital, learning, and asymmetric information to better understand the conditions under which leaders increase or decrease postsuccession performance. Employing a sample of 119 newly appointed leaders in the English Premier League (1996–2010), we find the following results. First, relating to the succession event, outside leaders that directly move between leadership positions are associated with higher postsuccession performance while the departure of a prior leader to a leadership position in another organization has a negative effect on postsuccession performance. Second, relating to prior leadership experience, leaders with domestic top leader experience are associated with lower postsuccession performance, while leaders with foreign top leader experience are associated with higher postsuccession performance. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
... A sport setting allows observing organizational dynamics in terms of employee mobility (Pazzaglia et al., 2012). They showed that employee mobility positively impacts the performance of the transferred players and the relative performance of the recipient organizations. ...
The paper investigates the variety of peer effects on individual performance in a team sport. The individual performance of more than 5,000 soccer players, from 234 teams, between 2010 and 2015, is measured with the help of the FIFA video game simulator developed by EA Sports. The study reveals positive peer effects on individual performance although the marginal benefit decreases. Additionally, team cohesion contributes to an improvement of players’ ranking.
... Academics who make a radical leap down might be able to exploit a "big fish in a little pond" effect and acquire "star" status in a new workplace. While the research capabilities of a new workplace are likely to be inferior to their previous workplace, their personal level of research support might be superior due to "i-deals" (idiosyncratic employment arrangements) (Pazzaglia, Flynn, & Sonpar, 2012), which motivates productivity. ...
This paper focuses on the role that domestic and international mobility
play in achieving a business academic’s career outcomes. We seek to
advance existing research by taking a more nuanced approach to the
study of mobility. Using a sample of 376 tenured faculty members from 20 highly research-visible European business schools in 10 countries, we explore different patterns of mobility and highlight their link to research career capital and the speed of academic promotion.
Our findings show that mobility has a positive impact on research-career capital, but multiple moves delay academic promotion. In making decisions about international mobility, it is important to know that moving internationally for one’s first post-Ph.D. job undermines research productivity. However, moving internationally between year two and year seven post-Ph.D. is better than moving later on. The ability to move between countries is deeply rooted in gender, with female faculty less likely to access international mobility. Female academics also take longer to be promoted to a tenured rank and to full professorship.
The findings of this study have implications for academic researchers who consider domestic and international mobility, and for Ph.D. supervisors whose duty it is to prepare their students for successful careers in academia.
... In seeking ways to enhance career growth, many employees today look for mobility across jobs, as a way to garner a wider range of job experiences (Hamori & Kakarika, 2009;Pazzaglia, Flynn, & Sonpar, 2012). PWTB refers to an employee's attitude toward working across traditional job and organizational boundaries (Briscoe, Hall, & DeMuth, 2006). ...
Does embedding employees in their organizations turn them into active organizational members who are increasingly interested in improvement, or passive members who increasingly lose interest in improvement? Addressing this embeddedness dilemma, this study aims to examine why and when perceived organizational embeddedness relates to the psychological orientation toward improvement that in turn relates to such improvement-oriented behavior as voice. First, based on the future time perspective, we posit that increasingly embedded employees anticipate that their futures will be intertwined with that of their organizations, thereby motivating them to demonstrate increased learning goal orientation, which in turn promotes voice behavior. Second, this mediating relationship is less likely to occur for those who experience stronger increases in preferences for wide task boundaries and preferences for job mobility. Such preferences create a short-term future time perspective in an employment relationship that is not aligned with the long-term future time perspective inherent in increased embeddedness. Longitudinal data collected from 267 Italian employees over an eight-month period provide empirical support for the proposed moderated mediation relationships.
... The empirical picture established in the literature is likely to have informed recruitment priorities and be translated into heuristics within recruitment practice to some extent. So we hypothesize that recruiting firms will value executive managers from originating firms in related industries that have high profitability (Campbell, Coff & Kryscynski, 2012;Pazzaglia, Flynn & Sonpar, 2012;Lo, Yang, Hung & Lai, 2011), seeing this as a means of "importing" value-adding capabilities. ...
... Executive recruitment, then, is likely to be influenced by particular characteristics of the originating firm and industry compleimenting the strategic needs of the recruiting firm, and such recruitment should be reflected in increased shareholder value at the recruiting firm. Recruiters will favour executives drawn from compleimentary industries and firms with high profitability (Campbell, Coff, & Kryscynski, 2012;Lo et al, 2011;Pazzaglia, Flynn, & Sonpar, 2012) as a means of importing value-adding capabilities. ...
We introduce a recent development in the statistical analysis of relational data that offers rigorous discrimination of a variety of structural and behavioural effects of interest to management research. Exponential random graph models account for the highly interdependent nature of network data that are problematic for the predominant inferential statistical analysis used in management research. We illustrate the value of the approach with an application focused on executive recruitment by large UK firms, modelling migrations of managers among firms as a network of relationships. We find rigorous statistical support for the influences of industry origin in executive recruitment, particularly in relation to legal and accounting activities. The flexibility and sophisticated relational variables available in the models offer considerable analytical power of value to a wide range of management applications.
... The empirical picture established in the literature is likely to have informed recruitment priorities and be translated into heuristics within recruitment practice to some extent. So we hypothesize that recruiting firms will value executive managers from originating firms in related industries that have high profitability (Campbell, Coff & Kryscynski, 2012;Pazzaglia, Flynn & Sonpar, 2012;Lo, Yang, Hung & Lai, 2011), seeing this as a means of "importing" value-adding capabilities. ...
The enhancement of shareholder value is a focal point in contemporary financial economics because of its perceptible relationship with the company value management. From this perspective, executive managers, in particular, are deemed to be company value-adders and their performance is evaluated against this benchmark. This raises the question of how executives add shareholder value, and moreover, what makes some of them appear more capable than others to do it when firms recruit or head-hunt them.
Innovation is crucial to a company’s competitive advantage and employees play an important role in generating innovation within a company. Based on social capital theory, we proposed a new type of social network: the employee mobility network, and explored the impact of employee mobility on innovation. Specifically, we examined the role of both employee turnover rate, and an organisation’s centrality in the employee mobility network in predicting innovation. We collected data from World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO), Talentale, and Forbes Global 2000 to test our hypotheses. The results showed that turnover rate had a significantly inverted-U curve relationship with innovation, and both degree and closeness centralities of an organisation in the employee mobility network had a significant positive relationship with innovation. Based on the results, we suggest that companies should find a balanced value for their turnover rate to get the highest return in innovation. Also, we suggest that companies should improve social influence in employee mobility networks in order to attract talent and increase company innovation.
Employees' roles as organizational members often do not end immediately after they have made the decision to leave or it has been made for them. Instead, this decision serves as a turning point initiating an exit transition process. The purpose of this article is to consolidate prior scholarship in order to gain an understanding of the state of the science, as it pertains to exit transitions. Our literature review yielded almost 200 articles that have directly or indirectly studied the exit transition process. In organizing the insights from these studies, four categories of exit transition scholarship emerged—exit transitions in the context of voluntary turnover, involuntary turnover, temporary transitions, and top management exits. Moreover, our review indicated that exit transitions are shaped by three critical forces—the permanence of the transition, the magnitude of the identity change associated with the exit, and the organizational impact of the exit. We review research on each of the four categories and show how each type of transition is shaped by these forces. Finally, we turn our focus to the future of work and discuss how changes in the way that work is structured may alter the study of employee exit transitions in the future.
Although organizational routines have attracted increasing attention in strategy and organization research, they have received surprisingly limited attention in competitive dynamics scholarship. Our essay seeks to advance a routine-based view of interfirm rivalry by bridging the competitive dynamics and routine literatures. We put forward a conceptual model of the routine-based view of interfirm rivalry that is centered on “competitive action routines.” The model clarifies the roles that managers play in driving a firm’s competitive behavior, challenges the assumption of routine-based rigidity in competitive behavior, and adds nuance to our understanding of managerial cognition in competitive dynamics. Moreover, the routine-based view offers new insights regarding the awareness-motivation-capability framework, and amplifies previous calls to broaden the methodological repertoire of competitive dynamics research.
Despite considerable research on the topic today, repatriation remains a struggle for MNCs. Difficulties thereby frequently revolve around the matter of repatriate careers. Upon return from international assignments, employees tend to expect a promotion as reward for their efforts overseas. Performance decreases and turnovers are otherwise likely. For the firm, this entails the risk of a withdrawal of the potentially valuable human capital repatriates gained abroad. Yet, providing every returnee with a more attractive position in consequence of an international assignment is no solution to the problem, as this would require extensive corporate resources. Differences between assignments must thus be taken into account to be able to decide for which employees the experience should serve as career steppingstone, and how to handle the return of those for which it should not. This study draws on the resource-based view and psychological contract theory to develop a set of repatriation strategies that integrates organizational and individual interests to provide MNCs with diverse approaches to managing returnees. We then derive organizational prerequisites for the successful implementation of those strategies. We thereby offer a concrete approach to solving the MNCs’ career-related struggle upon repatriation.
Abstract We investigate the psychological phenomenon of rivalry, and propose a view of competition as inherently relational, thus extending the literatures on competition between individuals, groups, and firms. Specifically, we argue that the relationships between competitors – as captured by their proximity, relative attributes and prior competitive interactions – can influence the subjective intensity of rivalry between them, which in turn can affect their competitive behavior. Initial tests of these ideas within NCAA basketball indicate that (1) dyadic relationships between teams are highly influential in determining perceptions of rivalry (2) similarity between teams and their histories of prior interactions are systematically predictive of
This article shows how content analysis of textual archival data facilitates elaboration of adolescent theories. Drawing on the framework of a well-developed theory offered by Bacharach, the authors explain how specific protocols in content analysis can facilitate elaboration of three theoretical elements underdeveloped in adolescent theories: scientific robustness, relationship identification, and boundary establishment. Using an empirical example from a health care study, they illustrate the use of content analysis protocols to elaborate some theoretical elements of the attention-based view of the firm. The article contributes to content analysis and more generally to research methodology by specifying closer linkages between theory elaboration and content analysis.
This article extends research on the relationship between employee mobility and firm performance by exploring how mobility between competitors and mobility between potential cooperators are different. We draw on social capital theory to argue that movement of employees both to and from clients may enhance firm performance, whereas only inward mobility from competitors benefits firms. We also hypothesize that it is more harmful for firms to lose social capital-laden human assets to competitors than to other potential employee destinations. We tested our hypotheses with a novel dyadic data set of patent attorney movements between law firms and Fortune 500 companies.
ABSTRACT Through a series of three inductive and deductive studies, I describe how spokespersons from the California cattle industry constructed and effectively used verbal accounts to manage perceptions of organizational legitimacy following controversial events. Findings of Study 1 suggest that organizational accounts are constructed by linking two forms of accounts: acknowledgments,or denials, with two contents of accounts: references to institutionalor technical characteristics of the organization. Findings of Studies 2 and 3 suggest that, in protecting organizational legitimacy (1) acknowledgments are more effective than denials, (2) references to institutionalized characteristics are more effective than references to technical characteristics,and (3) accounts combining acknowledgments,with references to institutionalized characteristics are more effective than accounts with only one of these components. Effectiveness appears to depend on audiences' perceptions of the controversy, expertise in the area of controversy, and expectations of organizational responses. Overall, findings suggest that concepts from institutional and impression management theories may be combined,to improve our understanding of organizational accounts and thus enhance models of symbolic management. • 3
Using social embeddedness arguments, this study examines how the mobility of managers in professional service and client firms affects dissolution among their firms' market ties for that service. My analyses from a sample of agencies and clients in the advertising industry from 1986 to 1998 show that the exit of managers from client firms increases the likelihood that market ties dissolve and that the results are contingent on the size of the firm. In professional service firms, both the exit and promotion of managers affect the number of market tie dissolutions, but these results are contingent on managers' functional roles and the number of market ties maintained by professional service firms. Taken together these findings illustrate how dynamics in managerial labor markets affect market ties for services and how firms' characteristics moderate these effects. The results suggest several refinements to the social embeddedness perspective. *
Human capital is a key resource for which firms compete intensely. Human capital theory suggests that firms value both transferable and specific human capital. Yet as transferability increases, specificity decreases. This article examines the value firms place on acquiring executives'human capital as a function of its transferability versus specificity. Using longitudinal data from more than 9,000 executives, this article shows that executives moving to more similar firms receive greater increases to pay than nonmovers and those moving to less similar firms. This article suggests these increases reflect the differential value associated with various types of human capital.
In an exploratory longitudinal study of business school alumni, we investigated changes in employment obligations as perceived by em- ployees. During the first two years of employment, employees came to perceive that they owed less to their employers while seeing tbeir em- ployers as owing them more. An employer's failure to fulfill its com- mitments was found to be significantly associated witb decline in some types of employee obligations. We discuss implications for managing employees' beliefs regarding obligations and for future research on psy- chological contracts. Contracts are a ubiquitous and necessary feature of organizations. They serve to bind together individuals and organizations and regulate their be- havior, making possible the achievement of organizationa l goals. Accord- ingly, they merit a prominent place in the study of organizations . Unfortu- nately, although macro research has given some attention to contracts (e.g., Williamson, 1975), such a focus has been largely absent from research on organizational psychology. This study begins to redress this shortcoming by examining the nature of perceived contractual obligations and changes in these obligations over the first few years of employment. Mutual obligations are the essence of the employment contract (Rous- seau, 1989) defining the relationship between employee and employer. Em- ployees agree to make specific contributions to an organization in return for benefits from the employer (Nicholson & Johns, 1985). Recently, trends in the nature of these mutual obligations have received considerable attention. Managers have decried the decline of employee loyalty, while at the same time work force members have been counseled to eschew reliance on job security or employer commitments and to "pack their own parachutes" in- stead (Hirsch, 1988).
Resource-based theorists argue that human assets can be a source of sustainable advantage because tacit knowledge and social complexity are hard to imitate. However, these desirable attributes cause dilemmas that may prevent firms from generating an advantage. This article develops a framework for analyzing and coping with these challenges. Although the problem arises from the strategy literature, the solutions are drawn from the organizational behavior, human resource management, human capital, and professions literatures. Finally, I examine implications for how insights from these diverse literatures can be integrated to guide future strategy research.
A comparative model of organizations as interpretation systems is proposed. The model describes four interpretation modes: enacting, discovering, undirected viewing, and conditioned viewing. Each mode is determined by (1) management's beliefs about the environment and (2) organizational intrusiveness. Interpretation modes are hypothesized to be associated with organizational differences in environmental scanning, equivocality reduction, strategy, and decision making.
The explosion of interest in knowledge and its management reflects the trend towards ‘knowledge work’ and the Information Age, and recognition of knowledge as the principal source of economic rent. The papers in this Special Issue represent an attempt by strategy scholars (and some outside our traditional field) to come to terms with the implications of knowledge for the theory of the firm and its management. They are the product of a convergence of several streams of research which have addressed management implications of knowledge, including the management of technology, the economics of innovation and information, resource-based theory, and organizational learning. At the theoretical level, knowledge-centered approaches of Penrose, Arrow, Hayek and others have been enriched by contributions from evolutionary economists (notably Nelson and Winter) and epistemologists (notably M. Polanyi). At the empirical level, research into innovation and its diffusion originated by Mansfield, Griliches and others has been extended through studies which investigate tacit as well as explicit knowledge, and explore knowledge transfer within as well as across firms.
In this article, we begin to explore the black box between human resources (HR) practices and firm performance. Specifically, we examine the relationships between a set of network-building HR practices, aspects of the external and internal social networks of top management teams, and firm performance. Results from a field study with 73 high-technology firms showed that the relationships between the HR practices and firm performance (sales growth and stock growth) were mediated through their top managers' social networks.
Resource-based theorists argue that human assets can be a source of sustainable advantage because tacit knowledge and social complexity are hard to imitate. However, these desirable attributes cause dilemmas that may prevent firms from generating an advantage. This article develops a framework for analyzing and coping with these challenges. Although the problem arises from the strategy literature, the solutions are drawn from the organizational behavior, human resource management, human capital, and professions literatures. Finally, I examine implications for how insights from these diverse literatures can be integrated to guide future strategy research.
Given assumptions about the characteristics of knowledge and the knowledge requirements of production, the firm is conceptualized as an institution for integrating knowledge. The primary contribution of the paper is in exploring the coordination mechanisms through which firms integrate the specialist knowledge of their members. In contrast to earlier literature, knowledge is viewed as residing within the individual, and the primary role of the organization is knowledge application rather than knowledge creation. The resulting theory has implications for the basis of organizational capability, the principles of organization design (in particular, the analysis of hierarchy and the distribution of decision-making authority), and the determinants of the horizontal and vertical boundaries of the firm. More generally, the knowledge-based approach sheds new light upon current organizational innovations and trends and has far-reaching implications for management practice.
We investigated how the knowledge capabilities of industry incumbents affected the generation, development, and performance of "spin-outs" (entrepreneurial ventures of ex-employees). Analyses of 1977-97 data from the disk drive industry supported our hypothesis that incumbents with both strong technological and market pioneering know-how generate fewer spin-outs than firms with strength in only one of these areas. Also, an incumbent's capabilities at the time of a spin-out's founding positively affect the spin-out's knowledge capabilities and its probability of survival.
T his paper examines the competitive consequences of interfirm mobility. Because the loss of key members (defined as top decision makers) to competing firms may amount to a replication of a firm's higher-order routines, we investigate the conditions under which interfirm mobility triggers transfer of routines across organizational boundaries. We examine membership lists pertinent to the Dutch accounting industry to study key member exits and firm dissolutions over the period 1880–1986. We exploit information on the type of membership migration (individual versus collective) and the competitive saliency of the destination firm as inferred from the recipient status (incumbent versus start-up) and its geographic location (same versus different province). The dissolution risk is highest when collective interfirm mobility results in a new venture within the same geographic area. The theoretical implications of this study are discussed.
How should we understand why firms exist? A prevailing view has been that they serve to keep in check the transaction costs arising from the self-interested motivations of individuals. We develop in this article the argument that what firms do better than markets is the sharing and transfer of the knowledge of individuals and groups within an organization. This knowledge consists of information (e.g., who knows what) and of know-how (e.g., how to organize a research team). What is central to our argument is that knowledge is held by individuals, but is also expressed in regularities by which members cooperate in a social community (i.e., group, organization, or network). If knowledge is only held at the individual level, then firms could change simply by employee turnover. Because we know that hiring new workers is not equivalent to changing the skills of a firm, an analysis of what firms can do must understand knowledge as embedded in the organizing principles by which people cooperate within organizations.
Based on this discussion, a paradox is identified: efforts by a firm to grow by the replication of its technology enhances the potential for imitation. By considering how firms can deter imitation by innovation, we develop a more dynamic view of how firms create new knowledge. We build up this dynamic perspective by suggesting that firms learn new skills by recombining their current capabilities. Because new ways of cooperating cannot be easily acquired, growth occurs by building on the social relationships that currently exist in a firm. What a firm has done before tends to predict what it can do in the future. In this sense, the cumulative knowledge of the firm provides options to expand in new but uncertain markets in the future.
We discuss at length the example of the make/buy decision and propose several testable hypotheses regarding the boundaries of the firm, without appealing to the notion of “opportunism.”
Although resources are instrumental to a competitive advantage, management must effectively bundle and deploy an organization's resources for an advantage to be realized. Despite their importance, little research has examined these managerial actions. Using a sample of competitive dyads, we tested theory regarding the effects of rivals' comparative resource stocks and managers' bundling and deployment actions on competitive outcomes. Results indicate that both comparative advantages in resource stocks and managerial actions affect performance. However, their efficacy depends on contextual factors and the deployment flexibility of specific resources. Thus, resource management actions are critical to achieving and sustaining competitive advantage.
Studies into the impact of top manager change on organization performance have revealed inconsistent findings. Using longitudinal data over a 12-year period on football organizations, we test for the short-term and long-term effects of manager change in comparison to the tenures of incumbent top managers. We find that long incumbent tenures are associated with performance far above the average. But when looking at change events, contrary to theoretical expectations, we find that change in the short term leads to a brief reprieve in poor performance only for performance to deteriorate in the long term as underlying weaknesses once again take hold. Our findings reveal the illusion of a short-term reprieve and the long-term consequences of this illusion. We map several implications for research and practice from our work.
This research examines whether the relationships between psychological contract violations and three types of employee behavior (intention to quit, neglect of in-role job duties, and organizational citizenship behaviors) are mediated by unmet expectations and job dissatisfaction. Using a sample of over 800 managers from a wide variety of research sites, this study tests for mediator effects using both hierarchical regression analyses and structural equation modelling. The results suggest that unmet expectations and job dissatisfaction do partially mediate such relationships. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
A comparative model of organizations as interpretation systems is proposed. The model describes four interpretation modes: enacting, discovering, undirected viewing, and conditioned viewing. Each mode is determined by (1) management's beliefs about the environment and (2) organizational intrusiveness. Interpretation modes are hypothesized to be associated with organizational differences in environmental scanning, equivocality reduction, strategy, and decision making.
The competition to retain key employees is intense. Top-level executives and HR departments spend large amounts of time, effort, and money trying to figure out how to keep their people from leaving. This article describes some new research and its implications for managing turnover and retention. These ideas challenge the conventional wisdom that dissatisfied people leave and money makes them stay. People often leave for reasons unrelated to their jobs. In many cases, unexpected events or shocks are the cause. Employees also often stay because of attachments and their sense of fit, both on the job and in their community. We discuss these ideas and make recommendations for integrating them into a comprehensive retention plan.
This analysis considers the impact of the top managers in an organization on the organization's outcomes, specifically strategic choices and performance levels. The focus is not on the chief executive alone, but rather on the entire top management team. Using a macro view, these organizational outcomes are perceived to be related to the values and cognitive bases of those high-power individuals in the organization. In developing the model, emphasis is on the background characteristics of the top managers as opposed to the psychological dimensions. A series of propositions that should be tested to support the upper echelons theory are presented. The topics of these propositions include age, functional track, other career experiences, education, socioeconomic roots, financial position, and group characteristics. The creation of this model is just the beginning of the work that is necessary to evaluate and understand the upper echelons theory. Further input is needed from areas such as the executive recruiting industry. Additionally, clinical and statistical studies are both necessary to fully develop this theory. (SRD)
The competition to retain key employees is intense. Top-level executives and HR departments spend large amounts of time, effort, and money trying to figure out how to keep their people from leaving. This article describes some new research and its implications for managing turnover and retention. These ideas challenge the conventional wisdom that dissatisfied people leave and money makes them stay. People often leave for reasons unrelated to their jobs. In many cases, unexpected events or shocks are the cause. Employees also often stay because of attachments and their sense of fit, both on the job and in their community. We discuss these ideas and make recommendations for integrating them into a comprehensive retention plan.
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This article addresses the issues of competitive advantage and competitor imitation. It is argued that tacitness, complexity, and specificity in a firm's skills and resources can generate causal ambiguity in competency-based advantage, and thus raise barriers to imitation. Reinvestment in causally ambiguous competencies is necessary to protect the advantage. Without reinvestment, attritional effects of continued competitive action will cause decay in the barriers to imitation. From this theorizing, research propositions are suggested, which, ultimately, will lead to an improved understanding of competitive advantage sustainability.
In this study, we investigate a central tenet of the resource-based view of the firm-that tacit knowledge often lies at the core of sustainable competitive advantage-and attempt to articulate it with greater theoretical precision than has been done previously. Using data from the National Basketball Association, we find support for a predicted positive relationship between shared team experience and team performance that declines as shared experience grows, eventually becoming negative. The implications of this study for non-sports-related firms are discussed along with suggestions for future research.
This study represents one of the first quantitative field tests of the sunk-cost effect. We tested whether the amount teams spent for players in the National Basketball Association (NBA) influenced how much playing time players got and how long they stayed with NBA franchises. Sunk costs were operationalized by the order in which players were selected in the college draft. Draft order was then used to predict playing time, being traded, and survival in the NBA. Although one might logically expect that teams play and keep their most productive players, we found significant sunk-cost effects on each of these important personnel decisions. Results showed that teams granted more playing time to their most highly drafted players and retained them longer, even after controlling for players' on-court performance, injuries, trade status, and position played. These results are discussed in terms of their implications for both sunk-cost research and the broader literature on managerial decision making.
Recognizing that not all employees possess knowledge and skills that are of equal strategic importance, we draw on the resource-based view of the firm, human capital theory, and transaction cost economics to develop a human resource architecture of four different employment modes: internal development, acquisition, contracting, and alliance. We use this architecture to derive research questions for studying the relationships among employment modes, employment relationships, human resource configurations, and criteria for competitive advantage.
In this paper we examine a type of organizational loyalty, intense loyalty, that is more profound than the type of organizational loyalty traditionally portrayed as a rather mild attachment of individuals to a group, based on their satisfaction with their economic rewards, authority relations, or occupational self-fulfillment. Using data gathered over a five-year participant-observation study, we use the case of college athletics to illustrate this previously undiscussed form of organizational loyalty. We suggest that there are five elements essential to the development of intense loyalty in organizations: domination, identification, commitment, integration, and alignment. Through their experiences with each of these organizational dimensions, athletes develop feelings that lead to the development of intense loyalty. We conclude by contrasting the structural characteristics of organizations that generate intense loyalty with those of more ordinary work organizations.
To test a model of interfirm competition for human resources, firms' responses to the loss of employees to single rivals were examined. Results suggest that attributes of hiring firms and of hired employees are associated with target firms' decisions to defend and retaliate against labor market rivals. The findings have implications for the validation of intrafirm differences in human resource systems. This study opens the door for further theorizing and modeling of interfirm competition for intangible resources.
Data on Silicon Valley law firms over a 50-year period were used to study the genealogy of organizational populations and its consequences for organizational life chances when a member of an existing firm leaves to found a new firm. Hypotheses and subsequent analysis suggest that the transfer of resources and routines between a parent organization and its progeny decreases life chances for the parent firm and increases life chances for the progeny. The results are contingent on the founder's previous position in the parent firm and time since the parenting event. In addition, I find that progeny have lower life chances when the parent is a failing firm, when there are multiple parents, and when the founder is a former senior partner of a large law firm.
This paper investigates competitive tension, or the strain between a focal firm and a given rival that is likely to result in the firm taking action against the rival. Drawing on the awareness-motivation-capability perspective, we show how perceived compet- itive tension, as constructed from managers' and industry stakeholders' competitor assessments, is influenced by the independent and interactive effects of three factors: relative scale, rival's attack volume, and rival's capability to contest. Our results provide a new avenue for studying competitors and the relationship between compet- itor analysis and interfirm rivalry. In science, there is a steady state in which op- posing forces hold each other in check until the build-up of tension turns the static relationship into dynamic interplay—the point when the steel cable snaps, the steam chamber's pressure valve opens, or one psychological force overwhelms the other. In business practice, a similar phenomenon exists: when tension that one opponent imposes on another triggers rivalrous actions. Competitor analysis is central to strategy and or- ganization research (Hitt, Ireland, & Hoskisson, 2005; Porter, 1980). Previous research has explored a number of important issues, including conjecture variation (Amit, Domowitz, & Fershtman, 1988), competitor identification (Porac & Thomas, 1990), and blind spots (Zajac & Bazerman, 1991), and has made advances in such areas as theoretical integra- tion of competitor analysis and interfirm rivalry (Chen, 1996). Fundamental questions—such as who a focal firm's competitors are, and how much competition the firm faces from each rival—have been implicitly or explicitly addressed by a variety
A number of indicators suggest that the social norms that once deterred labor market competitors from hiring or “poaching” each others' employees are breaking down. This study explores the competitive interaction that results when one firm attempts to hire employees from a competing firm (known as “talent raiding”). Results suggest that attributes of the raiding firm, the targeted firm, and targeted human capital will affect how a targeted firm responds to a talent raid. The study suggests a number of tactics raiding firms can use to avoid retaliation and suggests tactics targeted firms can use to repel would-be talent raiders. © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
The psychological contract held by an employee consists of beliefs about the reciprocal obligations between that employee and his or her organization. Violation refers to the feelings of anger and betrayal that are often experienced when an employee believes that the organization has failed to fulfill one or more of those obligations. This article provides a model outlining the psychological sensemaking processes preceding an employee's experience of psychological contract violation. It also identifies factors that affect those processes with the aim of encouraging future empirical research.
This analysis considers the impact of the top managers in an organization on the organization's outcomes, specifically strategic choices and performance levels. The focus is not on the chief executive alone, but rather on the entire top management team. Using a macro view, these organizational outcomes are perceived to be related to the values and cognitive bases of those high-power individuals in the organization. In developing the model, emphasis is on the background characteristics of the top managers as opposed to the psychological dimensions. A series of propositions that should be tested to support the upper echelons theory are presented. The topics of these propositions include age, functional track, other career experiences, education, socioeconomic roots, financial position, and group characteristics. The creation of this model is just the beginning of the work that is necessary to evaluate and understand the upper echelons theory. Further input is needed from areas such as the executive recruiting industry. Additionally, clinical and statistical studies are both necessary to fully develop this theory. (SRD)
Recognizing that not all employees possess knowledge and skills that are of equal strategic importance, we draw on the resource-based view of the firm, human capital theory, and transaction cost economics to develop a human resource architecture of four different employment modes: internal development, acquisition, contracting, and alliance. We use this architecture to derive research questions for studying the relationships among employment modes, employment relationships, human resource configurations, and criteria for competitive advantage.
Examined whether the relationships between psychological contract violations and 3 types of employee behavior (intention to quit, neglect of in-role job duties, and organizational citizenship behaviors) are mediated by unmet expectations and job dissatisfaction. Using a sample of 804 managers (mean age 35 yrs), this study tested for mediator effects using both hierarchical regression analyses and structural equation modelling. Data were collected via mail surveys. The results suggest that unmet expectations and job dissatisfaction do partially mediate such relationships. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
We extend our theoretical understanding of the effect of key employee mobility on organizational performance. We find that when an organization with an advantageous set of routines loses a key employee to a competitor, the advantaged organization's competitive position is reduced vis-à-vis the hiring competitor. What is more interesting is that we also show that the diffusion of an advantageous set of routines through the mobility of key employees may affect competitive advantage in at least two additional ways. Our findings result from an analysis of 412 competitive events between the San Francisco 49ers and all other teams in the National Football League during the 24-year period when the San Francisco 49ers perfected the routines of a strategic innovation that has become known as the West Coast Offense. First, we find that there is a loss of advantage for the organization when competitors increasingly compete against additional organizations that hired key employees from it. Second, we find that there is a loss of advantage for the organization when competitors expect future competition against additional organizations that hired key employees from it. Our results challenge the traditional argument that socially complex routines create sustainable competitive advantages because they are not easily imitated and do not rely on any single individual. Instead, we show that routines are stable to the loss of key employees, but the advantages derived from them are not. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Much research on top management compensation has focused on the relationship between pay and firm performance. Firms, however, may compensate executives for inputs such as skills, as well as for outputs such as firm performance. This study refocuses attention on the links between managerial abilities and compensation by examining pay differences between types of CEO successors who have differential skills—namely, internal and external successors. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This paper is a study of the pricing behavior of airline monopolists toward potential entrant carriers from different strategic groups. The results suggest that formerly regulated carriers price lower when faced by potential entrants from the newly certified carrier group than they do when they face only potential entrants from their own group. These results are consistent with the heretofore-untested hypothesis from Caves and Porter (1977) and Porter (1979) that rivalry is greater across groups than within groups.
This paper proposes a Dual Threshold Model of anger expression in organizations in which the expression threshold is crossed when an organizational member chooses to verbally express, rather than silence anger at work, and the impropriety threshold is crossed when organizational members express anger in ways deemed inappropriate by organizational or social norms. This paper proposes when neither or both thresholds are crossed, the probability of more negative outcomes increases; however, when the expression threshold is crossed, but the impropriety threshold is not, the probability increases that more positive outcomes will occur. The model also builds on the theory of bounded emotionality (Martin, Knopoff, & Beckman, 1998; Mumby & Putnam, 1992; Putnam & Mumby, 1993) to suggest that it would be beneficial for individuals to alter behavior and organizations to alter norms to expand the space between these two thresholds and increase the probability of positive outcomes from anger expressions.