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Video analysis of dogs suffering from anxiety when left home alone and treated with clomipramine
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... Commonly described signs of SA include destructiveness, vocalization, hypersalivation, and housesoiling during separations; these more "active" signs can be easier for owners to detect. However, video analyses of dogs with SA have shown that these dogs also spend a significant proportion of their time in stationary orientation to their environment without interaction with toys or food (6,7). This is compared to dogs without SA, who spend the majority of their time in passive rest (8). ...
... To assess the dog's behavior when left alone, behaviors were coded from video using an ethogram adapted from Cannas et al. (7). Durations or frequencies of behaviors were calculated using the descriptions shown in Table 1. ...
... Durations or frequencies of behaviors were calculated using the descriptions shown in Table 1. Behaviors were classified as positive or negative (associated with SA) as described, and based on descriptions used in other published studies (6)(7)(8). Passive behavior (generally sleeping or resting) and interacting with the environment (normal interactions with toys, food, etc.) were used as indicators of positive behavior; passive behavior has been shown to be the predominant behavioral state of adult dogs without SA when home alone (8) and an increase in passive behavior has been used as an indicator of treatment efficacy (7). Negative behaviors included those typically associated with separation anxiety (destruction, rearranging, vocalizing, restlessness/pacing, and orienting to the environment) (6)(7)(8). ...
Introduction: Separation anxiety (SA) is among the most common canine behavior disorders and affects quality-of-life for dogs and their owners. Dogs with SA show signs of anxiety during absence or perceived absence of their owners. While psychoactive medications are often helpful for treating SA, dog and human factors may limit their utility. This study explored the efficacy of a pulsed electromagnetic field (PEMF) device for treatment of canine SA.
Materials and Methods: In this double-blind randomized placebo-controlled study, a screening questionnaire and baseline video confirmed the diagnosis of SA. Owners treated their dog with the device twice daily for 6 weeks, completed weekly questionnaires, and noted adverse events. Videos were taken of the dog while alone at weeks 4 and 6. Behaviors were coded and categorized as negative and positive. Questionnaire and video data at weeks 4 and 6 were compared to baseline.
Results: Forty client-owned dogs with moderate to severe SA completed the study. There were no differences between groups for age, weight, or sex. In owner questionnaires, no difference in behavior or overall score was found between the active and sham groups (p > 0.05). Videos of the active group compared to the sham group showed significant reduction in negative behaviors by week 6 (p = 0.036) and higher percentage of success at week 4 (Z = 2.83, p = 0.005), at week 6 (Z = 1.65, p = 0.098), and across the full study (Z = 1.99, p = 0.047). Adverse events were reported in eight dogs (6 active, 2 sham); all resolved and were unlikely to be related to treatment.
Discussion: This study supports the efficacy and safety of this PEMF device for treatment of SA in dogs. Questionnaire results may not be sensitive enough to detect subtle negative behavioral states compared to video, and may not capture other owner observed behavioral changes. A caregiver placebo effect may account for some improvement seen in both groups. Video data appear better for diagnosis and monitoring dog's behavior when left alone. Future studies should assess PEMF's impact on other anxieties or combination of anxiety disorders in dogs.
... The bond between humans and their canine companions can bring great joy. However, behaviors such as the vocalization, house elimination, and destruction often seen in dogs with separationrelated distress may jeopardize this bond (Overall, 2013a;Cannas et al., 2014). Separation-related distress, also referred to as separation anxiety, is common in companion dogs (Bamberger and Houpt, 2006;Sherman and Mills, 2008) and, as such, has inspired much research (Ogata, 2016). ...
... The most common signs reported by owners are vocalization, house soiling, and destruction. Less commonly recognized signs are pacing, restlessness, withdrawal, inactivity, salivation, whimpering, vomiting, diarrhea, hiding, immobility, trembling, self-trauma, licking, yawning, tongueflicking, body language (ears back, paw up, and tail down), and orientation toward environment (Overall et al., 2001;Cannas et al., 2014;King et al., 2014). Although the behavioral signs of distress are nonspecific, it is possible to benchmark and quantify them (Overall et al., 2016). ...
... The duration of each behavior was measured in seconds and was calculated as a percentage of the 25-minute recording. The behaviors measured and their descriptions (Table 1) are substantively the same as those reported by other research groups Palestrini et al., 2010;Scaglia et al., 2013;Cannas et al., 2014). Periods when the dog was not visible were excluded from the analysis unless other activities could be identified from their characteristic sounds (i.e., the first 25 minutes the dog's behavior was apparent was analyzed). ...
Accurate phenotyping is a critical component of any behavioral research. We compared owner responses to the Canine Behavior and Research Questionnaire section on separation-related behaviors with video footage of their dogs (n = 31). A focal animal continuous recording method was used to describe the behavior of dogs during the first 25 minutes after owners' departure. Nine dogs were recorded in the presence of 1 or 2 conspecifics, whereas 23 other dogs were alone. There was a significant moderate positive correlation between the separation-related behavior questionnaire score and the percentage of time exhibiting behaviors suggestive of anxiety (rs = 0.438; P = 0.003). There was a similar moderate positive correlation between the questionnaire score and the first principal component score of recorded behaviors (rs = 0.385; P = 0.008). Correlations between the questionnaire responses for individual behaviors and the occurrence of those behaviors on video were higher for the more apparent behaviors such as destruction. Although the significant positive correlation between owner responses and the dog's behavior in the initial 25 minutes of being left alone is suggestive that owners may have an indicative knowledge of their dog's behavior during their absence, further work with more participants and repeated recordings is required.
... 20,43 Medications Two pharmacological interventions clomipramine (Clomicalm ® ) and fluoxetine (Prozac ® ) are approved in the United States for the treatment of canine separation anxiety. 45 These are antidepressant drugs used for humans to treat the symptoms of depression and anxiety. ...
... At a dose of 1 mg/kg every 12 hours, clomipramine increases passive behavior and decreases pacing, scratching, and whining of dogs with separation anxiety in the absence of their owners. 45 Improvements in symptoms of separation-related problem behavior following standard doses of clomipramine of 1 mg/kg to ,2 mg/kg every 12 hours have been reported. 31,45 Increasing the dose to 2 mg/ kg every 12 hours produces additional increases in the time the dogs are passive and reduces barking and whining when dogs are left alone. ...
... 45 Improvements in symptoms of separation-related problem behavior following standard doses of clomipramine of 1 mg/kg to ,2 mg/kg every 12 hours have been reported. 31,45 Increasing the dose to 2 mg/ kg every 12 hours produces additional increases in the time the dogs are passive and reduces barking and whining when dogs are left alone. 45 Some researchers have investigated whether the effectiveness of clomipramine or fluoxetine can be enhanced when they are combined with other medications. ...
Dogs with separation-related behavior problems engage in unwanted behavior such as destruction of property and excessive vocalization when left alone, causing distress for both the dog and the owner, and often leading to the dog being relinquished or euthanized. I review research on factors likely to predispose dogs to developing separation anxiety and on the treatments available. Although research is equivocal, dogs seem to develop separation-related behavior problems if they are male, sourced from shelters or found, and separated from the litter before they are 60 days old. Protective factors include ensuring a wide range of experiences outside the home and with other people, between the ages of 5–10 months, stable household routines and absences from the dog, and the avoidance of punishment. The most successful treatment for canine separation-related problems may be behavior modification that focuses on systematic desensitization and counterconditioning, which can be supplemented with medication in the initial stages. Where individual therapy from an animal behavior expert is not possible, advice to dog owners should be clear, simple, and contain five or fewer instructions to improve adherence. Advice is given for people seeking to adopt a dog, for new dog owners, and for existing dog owners who wish to treat their dog’s separation anxiety.
... To evaluate the proposed system, we develop a prototype system with real-world datasets that include eight dogs' daily routines and separation anxiety scenarios. The dogs were recruited based on clinic separation anxiety inclusion criteria [42]. ...
... The performance of the proposed detection monitoring system was evaluated using raw activity sensor data and video recordings of eight dogs recruited based on separation anxiety clinic criteria defined in [42]. Table 6 presents the basic information of the eight dogs. ...
An increasing number of people own dogs due to the emotional benefits they bring to their owners. However, many owners are forced to leave their dogs at home alone, increasing the risk of developing psychological disorders such as separation anxiety, typically accompanied by complex behavioral symptoms including excessive vocalization and destructive behavior. Hence, this work proposes a multi-level hierarchical early detection system for psychological Separation Anxiety (SA) symptoms detection that automatically monitors home-alone dogs starting from the most fundamental postures, followed by atomic behaviors, and then detecting separation anxiety-related complex behaviors. Stacked Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) is utilized at the lowest level to recognize postures using time-series data from wearable sensors. Then, the recognized postures are input into a Complex Event Processing (CEP) engine that relies on knowledge rules employing fuzzy logic (Fuzzy-CEP) for atomic behaviors level and higher complex behaviors level identification. The proposed method is evaluated utilizing data collected from eight dogs recruited based on clinical inclusion criteria. The experimental results show that our system achieves approximately an F1-score of 0.86, proving its efficiency in separation anxiety symptomatic complex behavior monitoring of a home-alone dog.
... The fact that scratching/rubbing, head/body shaking, yawning, and vacuum chewing increased after a stressful event is in line with most of the ethological and physiological findings on other species. Self-directed behavior, including scratching, has been found to increase in tense situations in humans (4,36) and several other mammalian species [e.g., chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes (39); long-tailed macaque, Macaca fascicularis (87); Olive baboons, Papio Anubis (88); brown lemur, Eulemur rufusxcollaris (25); ring-tailed lemur, Lemur catta (27); dogs (89)]. Shakingwhich can include different body parts depending on the species-or trembling has been reported as a sign of anxiety increase in humans (35) and dogs (90), although it was not found to increase after stressful events in horses (91). ...
... Physiological studies, combined with ethological observation and pharmacological manipulation, have provided insights on the mechanisms underlying anxiety behaviors. In particular, such studies have shown the link between the stress response mediated by glucocorticoids and scratching in mammals [dogs (89); primates (4,49,50,87)]. An analogous link has been demonstrated in pigs for stereotypic vacuum chewing (47), indirectly suggested in dogs for body shaking (40), and described in rats (45) and hypothesized in humans for yawning (46,98). ...
Anxiety is a physio-psychological state anticipating an imminent threat. In social mammals it is behaviorally expressed via displacement activities and buffered via affiliation. Anxiety research on domestic pigs (Sus scrofa) has mostly focused on abnormal/stereotypic behavior associated with intensive farming. We investigated how anxiety is expressed and modulated in semi-free ranging pigs, in natural habitats. Owing to pigs' socio-cognitive complexity, we posited that displacement activities, if such, would increase after a (stressful) intra-group aggression (Prediction 1), be reduced by affiliation (Prediction 2) and influenced by individual/contextual factors (Prediction 3). From 224 videos recorded on adult individuals (Mean ± SD/subject: 4.84 ± 1.85 h) at the “Ethical Farm Parva Domus” (Turin, Italy), we extracted possible displacement activities (vacuum-chewing, scratching/body-rubbing, head/body-shaking, and yawning) in four 3-min conditions: before (BA) and after aggression events, in the absence (AA) or presence (AP) of post-aggression affiliation, and a matched-control (no event; MC). We conducted a minute-by-minute analysis in AE/AA and assessed the effect of subjects' involvement in a conflict (aggressor, aggression's recipient, bystander). All activities were higher in AA than in BA condition—thus being anxiety markers—and all of them decreased to baseline levels in AP, faster compared to AE. Hence, anxiety behavior in pigs was socially buffered. Intriguingly, anxiety behavior was expressed significantly more by bystanders than opponents, which suggests that pigs may be able to anticipate imminent threats. By highlighting how anxiety is managed under extensive farming, this study contributes to the understanding of pig welfare and biology.
... Behavioral data for 10% of the videos were also scored using a second blinded scorer (Cannas et al., 2014) to ensure interrater reliability using Spearman correlations and Cohen kappa. There was a strong correlation between the experimenter and second naïve independent rater when scoring behavioral data (test 1: rs (14) ¼ 0.811, P < 0.001, test 2: rs (14) ¼ 0.858, P < 0.001, test 3: rs (14) ¼ 0.756, P < 0.001). ...
... An ethogram providing definition of behaviors sampled in the DAP study (adopted from Beerda et al., 1999;Tod et al., 2005;Palestrini et al., 2010;Cannas et al., 2014) Behavior Definition ...
Behavioral problems in the domestic dog (Canis familiaris) increase the likelihood of the dog being rehomed or relinquished to a rescue shelter. Problem behaviors that result in relinquishment include unwanted elimination, destructive behavior and excessive vocalization when owners are absent. Dog Appeasing Pheromone (DAP) is currently marketed via veterinarians as a stress relief product and purported to help dogs cope in stressful situations and as a potential solution to reduce anxiety. This study investigated whether a DAP diffuser affected behavioral and physiological stress parameters in 10 dogs in a laboratory environment. A repeated measures design with and without the use of DAP, and in the presence and absence of the owner was used. Behavioral responses, such as barking, passive behavior, scratching, whining, orienting behavior, exploration and locomotion, were recorded in real time and video recorded using a focal instantaneous sampling technique. In order to control for potential bias, 10% of the videos were scored using a second blinded scorer to assess inter-rater reliability. Heart rate (HR), heart rate variability (HRV) using Standard Deviation of Normal to Normal beats (SDNN), eye temperature and ear temperature (°C) were also collected to assess dogs’ physiological state. When dogs were separated from their owner, there was a significant increase in orienting behavior during both the DAP and without DAP application trial phase suggesting arousal due to owner absence rather than any discernible effect of DAP. A significant increase was recorded in core eye temperature when the owner was absent and the DAP diffuser was not switched on however, eye temperature also increased when the owners were present after the DAP condition suggesting that it may be the owner’s presence and the dog’s arousal levels that affect core eye temperature rather than any effect of DAP. There was no significant effect of DAP on HR or ear temperature. Overall, our results suggest that the application of a DAP diffuser did not markedly influence the behavior, heart rate, eye or ear temperature of dogs.
... These include training the dog or instructing the owner on how to properly manage the condition with a variety of techniques (Voith and Borchelt 1996;Takeuchi et al. 2000;Blackwell et al. 2006;Blackwell et al. 2016). Medications can also be administered, such as clomipramine (King et al. 2004;Gaultier et al. 2005;Cannas et al. 2014) or fluoxetine (Simpson et al. 2007; Karagiannis et al. 2015). Treating separation anxiety will benefit both the dog and the relationship with its owner, as well as minimize the number of dogs surrendered to shelters (Thielke and Udell 2017). ...
... Clomipramine is a potent and selective reuptake inhibitor of neuronal serotonin and also inhibits neuronal noradrenaline reuptake, which results in the mediation of anxiety symptoms (King et al. 2000). In a recent study, Cannas et al. (2014) investigated the effects of this medication on 23 dogs that had presented separation anxiety symptoms at two behavioural clinics. This study utilized a video camera to monitor the dog's behaviour while it was home alone. ...
Separation anxiety is a very common disorder that many domestic dogs suffer from. It comes second only to aggression in terms of behavioural disorders reported and is the most common anxiety disorder in dogs. Canine separation anxiety has a vast range of symptoms, including excessive vocalisation, destruction, inappropriate elimination, hypersalivation, and restlessness. Since these symptoms only occur in the absence of the owner and vary between dogs, separation anxiety is exceedingly difficult to diagnose. This disorder is potentially affected by numerous factors, including gender, breed, existing behavioural issues, the degree of attachment to the owner, and environmental factors, such as the source of the dog. Fortunately, options for anxiety mitigation exist, including proper training of the dog, as well as medications such as fluoxetine and clomipramine. It is imperative that a proper diagnosis and treatment is given to the dog early in the condition, as this disorder can negatively affect both the mental and physical health of the dog, as well as the owner-dog relationship. Unfortunately, the daily struggles of managing dogs with such a disorder take a toll on the owners. This potentially results in the all too common decision to surrender the dog to a shelter, and potentially euthanasia. Ultimately, this disorder still requires future research in many aspects, in order to better the lives of both the dog and its owners.
... Several problem behaviors are recognized as biological indicators of poor welfare in dogs because they can be symptoms of chronic stress (15,28,40). However, it should be considered that though the stress system acts in the same way in all individuals, coping to stress depends on several factors as individual and genetic differences, developing phases, life experiences and household (15,27,41). ...
... The oncologic dogs in this study also showed significantly more behaviors that are signs of stress and anxiety (40,41,42) and that can be related with behavioral disorders (15,27,25,26). ...
It is widely accepted that psychological stress and mental illness can compromise the function of the immune system. Clinical and epidemiological studies on humans recognized that specific psychosocial factors, such as stress, chronic depression and lack of social support are risk factors for the development and progression of cancer. Unfortunately, most of the animals studies on this subject are based on laboratory tests performed on mice. This retrospective cohort study aims to analyze the relation between stress and tumor in pet dogs, by evaluating and comparing the stress level in two groups of 69 dogs each, balanced for sex and age: the oncologic group consists of dogs diagnosed with cancer and the control group consists of healthy dogs. Our results show that, before the cancer diagnosis, more dogs in the oncologic group faced changes in their household and routine as opposed to the control group (p
... In Canada it is approved for both separation anxiety and OCD/stereotypies. In dogs, its efficacy has been demonstrated in clinical trials for separation anxiety (King et al., 2000;Seksel and Lindeman, 2001;Cannas et al., 2014) and OCD (Hewson et al., 1998;Overall and Dunham, 2002). A few publications have also suggested its action in other types of anxieties (Seksel and Lindeman, 2001;Frank et al., 2006) as well as in tail chasing (Moon-Fanelli and Dodman, 1998;Yalking, 2010) and 'dominance-related aggression' (impulse control/conflict aggression) (White et al., 1999). ...
Undesirable behaviors of dogs and cats may reduce their quality of life and may cause harm to their owners. Such behaviors have been treated with medications as well as behavioral training and environmental modifications. Finnish veterinarians answered a web-based questionnaire to characterize the treatment of undesirable behaviors in dogs and cats by medications. Fourteen indications related to undesirable behaviors were defined in the questionnaire. Most psychoactive medications authorised for veterinary or human use in Finland and allowed to be prescribed for animal use according to the national legislation were listed. In addition, some sedative and analgesic agents were included. Canine and feline undesirable behaviors were treated by the respondents with a wide variety of medications. In many cases, none of the remedies used could be demonstrated to be a clear favourite for a certain indication. Off-label use of psychoactive medications was common. Many medications were used without research-based evidence of their efficacy for the indication in those species in question. Treatment of dogs was more often associated with advice for behavioral training in addition to medications than treatment of cats. Both the common off-label use of medications and the wide variety of substances used for the particular behavioral problem reveal the need for further clinical evidence of the efficacy of medications to treat various canine and feline undesirable behaviors.
... This category contains stereotypical behaviors that suggest poor adaptation of the animal to captivity, although they may have positive aspects that alleviate some specific behavioral need (Browning, 2020). Scratching is another type of behavior that has been associated with anxiety in captive animals that do not have skin disorders (Cannas et al., 2014). From the point of view of animal handling and safety, agonistic behavior can be risky as it may escalate into aggressions that result in severe injuries (Mason, 2010). ...
Environmental enrichment (EE) is a technique that increases animal welfare. The behavior of maned wolves when exposed to four odors hidden outside the enclosure was investigated. Using the focal animal method and recording all occurrences, their behavior was analyzed for five minutes in each baseline phase (Basal), during exposure (Exp), and after withdrawal of the stimulus (Pos). Behavioral responses were categorized as positive (P+), negative (N-), and other (Ot). The average P+ increased significantly (P < 0.05) from the Basal to the Exp, but it was not statistically different (P = 0.60) between the Basal and the Pos. Neither N- nor Ot changed statistically in any of the phases (P > 0.5). Maned wolves appeared to be sensitive to this EE with the olfactory stimuli used during the period of olfactory stimulation. The method used is practical, safe, and flexible, and can be useful in sensory enrichment programs.
... In addition, behaviors during separation that, according to studies, can indicate separation problems were part of the questionnaire [9,[14][15][16][17]21,34,35]. The presence and frequency of the following behaviors during separation were asked about: howling, whining, barking, growling, salivation, urination, defecation, destruction, restlessness, shaking, excitement, yawning, lip licking and escape behavior. ...
Simple Summary
Separation problems in dogs are common and can manifest in symptoms such as restlessness, destruction, or vocalization. This study examines how separation behavior differs between dogs with and without separation problems and the possible risk factors. An online questionnaire with 940 participants was performed. After two groups were formed, depending on whether the holders stated that the dogs showed typical symptoms during separation, the groups were examined for differences. Furthermore, a separation test with videotaping and cortisol sampling of six dogs used to being separated but without separation problems was carried out. It was found that separation problems were primarily characterized by physical activity and vocalization. Dogs with separation-related problems needed more time to relax after separation. Dogs that were greeted after separation were less likely to have separation problems than dogs that were less calm and more pessimistic, excited and persistent. During the test it was found that dogs without separation problems were mostly inactive. Understanding these differences may help to diagnose separation-related problems and modify or even avoid risk factors to improve animal welfare.
Abstract
This study examined how separation behavior differs between dogs with and without separation-related problem behavior (SRB) and the possible risk factors. The study consisted of an online survey with 940 dog holders, which, in addition to demographic facts, also includes personality, emotional disposition and the attachment by the holder. Furthermore, a separation test was carried out with six non-SRB dogs over a maximum of 6 h, in which behavior and cortisol were determined. The questionnaire revealed that SRB dogs differed significantly from non-SRB dogs regarding the following factors: symptoms with at least a medium effect size such as restlessness, excitement, whining, howling, lip licking, barking and salivation, time to relax after separation, pessimism, persistence, excitability, calmness, separation frequency, greeting of holder and type of greeting. There were several other differences, but with weak effect sizes. The test showed that non-SRB dogs were mostly inactive during separation (lying resting and lying alert). Vocalization was almost non-existent. Behavior and cortisol did not change significantly over the different time periods. The data demonstrated typical symptoms and possible risk factors, some of which may be avoided or changed to improve animal welfare.
... Tricyclic antidepressant medicine used to treat humans (e.g., clomipramine, fluoxetine and diazepam) to treat depression and anxiety are approved by the US Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of separation anxiety in dogs [14]. ...
Separation anxiety is one of the most common canine-related disorders in dogs (Canis Familiaris) and charactered by the presentation of unacceptable levels of anxiety related behaviors in the absence of the human companion. While pharmaceutical treatment with antidepressant drugs shows some evidence for effectiveness, the impact is limited, and negative side effects are reported. In contrast, behavioral modification is proposed as an effective and safe method to address separation anxiety, but clinical research is lacking. This work reports the application of associative theory to animal behavioral treatment that considers the role of three senses for a treatment plan; vision, audition, and olfaction and has accumulated 129 successful cases in ten years. Summary data demonstrates the practical advantages including safety for the dogs and perceived effectiveness for the owners.
... Dogs may also display motor restlessness, such as pacing, circling, digging or excessive licking ( McCrave, 1991 ). When video recorded, dogs have also been found to show more subtle signs of distress when separated from their caregivers, including freezing, lip licking, repeated yawning, pulled back ears or raised forepaw as a body language compatible with anxiety ( Cannas et al., 2014 ). Separation-related behavior problems are the second most common behavioral disorder recorded in dogs at referral to behavioral practices and the most common standalone diagnosis ( Borchelt and Voith, 1982 ;Wright and Nesselrote, 1987 ;Landsberg, 1991 ;McGrave, 1991 ;Simpson, 20 0 0 ;Gaultier, 2001 ;Ogata and Dodman, 2011 ;Overall, 2013 ). ...
Separation anxiety in dogs is a problematic behavior characterized by anxiety that occurs exclusively in the owner's absence or virtual absence, resulting in owner complaints of destructiveness, excessive vocalization, and elimination in the home. The consequences of separation anxiety may include that the owners surrender their dog to a shelter, or even have the dog euthanized. Adrenergic alpha-2 agonists have been shown to be effective in alleviating acute canine fear-based behavior problems at sub-sedative doses. In this study, the objective was to assess the efficacy of tasipimidine, a novel orally administered adrenergic alpha-2 agonist, in alleviating acute anxiety associated with owner departure in dogs. Twelve clinically healthy privately-owned dogs with a history of separation anxiety were enrolled in a double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover clinical field study consisting of three 4-day treatment periods in randomized order each followed by a 3-day washout. In each treatment period a different treatment was administered. The three treatments were: placebo, tasipidimine 10ug/kg and tasipidimine 30 ug/kg, all prepared as an oral solution using the same base. At each of the 4-day treatment period study treatment was administered once daily one hour before owner´s departure. Effects of treatment on signs of separation anxiety were assessed by the owner using video recordings. Owner departure related acute anxiety severity score, dog's alertness, usability of the product and adverse events were recorded. Overall, the results showed a statistically significant treatment effect favoring tasipimidine (p = 0.001). When the doses were separately compared to placebo, the dog owners rated the effect of the study treatment more often positively after administering tasipimidine 30 µg/kg compared to placebo (OR 5.40; 95% CI 1.15–25.2; p = 0.032). A statistically significant reduction with the 30 µg/kg dose was seen in destructive/rearranging behavior (p = 0.006) and vocalization (p = 0.036). Most of the dogs were scored to be fully responsive at all time points (66.7%) and able to stand up and walk normally (91.7%), and none of the dogs was scored to be unresponsive or unable to walk. No serious adverse events were reported. The majority of the owners found the product very easy (75.0%) or easy (15.7%) to use. This was a small, cross-over study with one target to select the clinically most suitable dose. Tasipimidine should be further studied in a larger parallel group study to further evaluate its effect as a treatment option for dogs suffering from separation anxiety.
... It is known that changes in daily routines create a condition of distress that modifies the main behavioral patterns (18) and worsen pre-existing pathological conditions, such as anxiety, fear and loud noises or thunderstorm phobia. Behavioral problems such as urinary marking (21,22), separation anxiety (23), and cognitive dysfunction in elderly subjects (24) may also be exacerbated. In literature, limited attention has been given to the environmental factors that may contribute to canine and feline behavior change. ...
Climate change is a threat to global health and can affect both veterinary and human health. Intense weather events, including sudden and violent thunderstorms or periods of extreme heat, are predicted to rise in frequency and severity and this could lead owners to significantly change their habits and schedules based on the weather, could modify human management and could aggravate pre-existing behavioral problems in pets. The aims of the present study were to identify and quantify possible weather events impact on management, behavior, and behavioral problems of Italian dogs and cats, based on previous owners' experiences with their animals. Two questionnaires were prepared, one for dogs and one for cats, investigating owners' perceptions of the impact of weather events on their pets' behavior. A number of 392 dogs and 426 cats' owners answered the questionnaire. Our study showed that many behaviors in both species were equally modified by environmental temperature. Play and activity increased with cold weather and decreased with heat, and sleep increased with drops in temperature and with hot weather. In particular, the increase in activity in correspondence with the thermic drop was more significant in males, while the increase in playing behavior was statistically greater in the Sheepdogs and Cattle dogs –group1. Weather events did not affect aggressive and house soiling behaviors in both dogs and cats, but weather events, including wild thunderstorms, torrential rains influenced the pets' behavior. Understanding how pets modify their behaviors based on a different owners' schedule and to weather events can help to refine prevention strategies through societal changes and owner education.
... While the primary function of panting lies in thermoregulation 55 , panting is commonly regarded as an indicator of short-term stress, fear or anxiety in dogs 37,39,56,57 . One possible explanation for the mechanism underlying this association might be the need to dissipate heat, since stress leads to an increase in core body temperature, as commonly reported in dogs 58 and other mammalian species (reviewed in 59 ). ...
A high proportion of pet dogs show fear-related behavioural problems, with noise fears being most prevalent. Nonetheless, few studies have objectively evaluated fear expression in this species. Using owner-provided video recordings, we coded behavioural expressions of pet dogs during a real-life firework situation at New Year’s Eve and compared them to behaviour of the same dogs on a different evening without fireworks (control condition), using Wilcoxon signed ranks tests. A backwards-directed ear position, measured at the base of the ear, was most strongly associated with the fireworks condition (effect size: Cohen’s d = 0.69). Durations of locomotion (d = 0.54) and panting (d = 0.45) were also higher during fireworks than during the control condition. Vocalisations (d = 0.40), blinking (d = 0.37), and hiding (d = 0.37) were increased during fireworks, but this was not significant after sequential Bonferroni correction. This could possibly be attributed to the high inter-individual variability in the frequency of blinking and the majority of subjects not vocalising or hiding at all. Thus, individual differences must be taken into account when aiming to assess an individual’s level of fear, as relevant measures may not be the same for all individuals. Firework exposure was not associated with an elevated rate of other so-called ‘stress signals’, lip licking and yawning.
... Half of the balanced trainers felt medication was "rarely needed in the cases they saw" compared to a small proportion (4.9%) of reward-based trainers. Current scientific literature shows that psychotropic medications are an effective component of separation anxiety treatment, together with management strategies and behaviour modification [10,[27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34]. If trainers are concerned about use of medication, it is likely that owners will be reluctant to seek veterinary treatment: pet owners are likely to be guided by their trainer's beliefs. ...
Simple Summary
Separation anxiety is common. Signs are seen when dogs are alone or separated from their owner, and include destructive behaviour, vocalising, restlessness, and house soiling. Many dog owners do not seek help from veterinarians but might see a trainer. The Australian dog training industry is not regulated. Trainers have a range of experience, education, and qualifications, and use a variety of techniques. We surveyed trainers’ opinions about separation anxiety and found significant differences between reward-based and balanced trainers. Reward-based trainers rated involvement of a veterinarian and use of medication as more important than balanced trainers. More balanced trainers reported that medication was rarely necessary in the cases that they saw. Half the reward-based trainers believed separation anxiety was preventable compared with 95% of balanced trainers. We conclude that opinions about separation anxiety vary between trainers using reward-based and balanced training. Trainers are not taught, expected, or legally allowed to diagnose anxiety disorders. This study found that balanced trainers were less likely to recommend involvement of veterinarians who can make a diagnosis and rule out other causes of observed behaviours. Understanding differences in trainer attitudes may help to improve communication between trainers and veterinarians to better support dogs with separation anxiety.
Abstract
Separation anxiety is common. Many dog owners do not seek help from a veterinarian but might consult a trainer. The objective of this study was to investigate Australian trainers’ opinions about separation anxiety. An online survey was distributed via training organisations, resulting in 63 completed surveys. Descriptive statistics and Fisher’s exact tests were applied. Respondents were grouped into reward-based (n = 41) and balanced (n = 22) trainers. Most trainers (82.5%) used multiple methods to identify separation anxiety but only 7.9% referred to a veterinarian for diagnosis. Reward-based trainers ranked assistance from a veterinarian and owner’s willingness to try medication as more important than balanced trainers (p < 0.05). More balanced trainers reported that medication was rarely necessary in the cases they saw: 50% balanced compared with 4.9% reward-based trainers, with 95% CIs of [28.2, 71.8] and [0.6, 16.5], respectively. Almost all (95.5%) balanced trainers believed separation anxiety was preventable compared with 52.6% of reward-based trainers (p < 0.05). We conclude that opinions about separation anxiety varied between reward-based and balanced trainers. Trainers are not taught, expected, or legally allowed to diagnose anxiety disorders. This study showed that balanced trainers were less likely to recommend involvement of veterinarians who can make a diagnosis and rule out other causes of observed behaviours.
... Howling was also reported more frequently in low PLGH male dogs [31]. Howling when left alone has been recorded in association with separation-related distress (SRD) [80][81][82], although this behaviour was not limited to dogs diagnosed with SRD in one study [83]. Furthermore, it's possible howling signifies anxiety related to other factors such as confinement, and it is not possible to investigate the function of the howling recorded in C-BARQ responses. ...
Spaying of female dogs is a widespread practice, performed primarily for population control. While the consequences of early spaying for health are still being debated, the consequences for behaviour are believed to be negligible. The current study focused on the reported behaviour of 8981 female dogs spayed before 520 weeks (ten years) of life for reasons other than behavioural management, and calculated their percentage lifetime exposure to gonadal hormones (PLGH) as a proportion of their age at the time of being reported to the online Canine Behavioral Assessment and Research Questionnaire (C-BARQ). We found that 23 behaviours differed between entire and spayed dogs, of which 12 were associated with PLGH and 5 with age-at-spay (AAS). Two behaviours, chewing and howling, were significantly more likely in dogs with longer PLGH. In contrast, longer PLGH was associated with significantly reduced reporting of 10 (mostly unwelcome) behaviours. Of these, one related to fearfulness and three to aggression. The current data suggest that dogs’ tendency to show numerous behaviours can be influenced by the timing of spaying. They indicate how female dog behaviour matures when gonadal hormones are allowed to have their effect. The differences reported here between undesirable behaviours of spayed and entire dogs were in the range of 5.33% and 7.22%, suggesting that, for some dogs, partial or complete denial of maturation may reduce howling and chewing and improve retrieval and recall, but have other undesirable consequences. Veterinarians may take these data into account to discuss the risks and benefits of spaying with clients, and the timing of the procedure.
... Future studies could examine whether this therapeutic approach might also benefit dogs diagnosed with SRP. The antidepressants-clomipramine and fluoxetine-which act primarily as serotonin reuptake inhibitors, are currently approved for the treatment of canine separation distress [58]. As more evidence is collected on the role of AVP in the pathophysiology of SRP, future drugs targeting the vasopressinergic system would offer treatment options for canine separation distress therapy. ...
Simple Summary
Oxytocin and vasopressin have been shown to have opposite effects on the expression of anxiety and fear responses in rodents. In the present study, we analyzed the salivary fluctuations of these neuropeptides in both behaviorally normal dogs and dogs with separation distress in response to a three-minute separation from the owner, in a new environment. Dogs with a previous diagnosis of separation distress showed more anxiety-related behaviors and higher concentrations of vasopressin than control dogs when separated from the owner. Further research is needed on the potential use of salivary vasopressin as an early, non-invasive biomarker of anxiety-related disorders in pet dogs.
Abstract
Physiological biomarkers of canine anxiety have not been extensively investigated to date. To identify new biomarkers in dogs, we compared behaviorally normal dogs (Control group, N = 13) to dogs diagnosed with separation problems (Case group, N = 13) as they were introduced into a novel environment in the presence of two strangers and subjected to a short episode of separation and reunion with the owner. During the separation phase, dogs in the Case group explored significantly less than controls and were significantly more persistent in expressing passive stress-coping strategies aimed at seeking proximity to their owners. When the owners returned, dogs with separation distress spent significantly more time jumping up on the strangers than control dogs did. Salivary oxytocin and vasopressin concentrations did not differ between samples taken before and after the separation. However, vasopressin concentrations immediately after separation were significantly higher in the Case than in the Control group and remained higher, although not significantly so, 10 min later. These results indicated that dogs with separation distress became more anxious than typical dogs when separated from their owner in an unfamiliar environment and provided preliminary support for the use of salivary vasopressin as a possible biomarker for anxiety-related responses in dogs.
... First, they were asked to complete an online behavior questionnaire (Kim, 2016), modified from a questionnaire developed by Tiira and Lohi (2014) to include occurrence of commonly reported clinical signs of separation anxiety (Table 1). Then, a 20-minute video-recording of the dog at home during owners' routine absence immediately after the owner's departure was reviewed by a veterinary graduate student (G.K.) and a board-certified veterinary behaviorist (N.O.) for signs of separation anxiety (Cannas et al., 2014;Kim, 2016). Each owner was then asked to bring the dog to Purdue University Animal Behavior Clinic for blood work (complete blood cell count, biochemistry, total thyroxine) and for an interview regarding the dog's behavior. ...
Separation anxiety is a common behavior disorder, but our understanding of its etiology and underlying neurochemical mechanisms remains limited. The purpose of this study was to compare serum brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels in dogs with and without separation anxiety. BDNF, one of several neurotrophins, is prevalent in the limbic region and prefrontal cortex, which are key areas related to the regulation of mood, emotion, and cognition. Although an enriched environment increases BDNF levels, stress and glucocorticoid exposure decrease the expression of BDNF in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex. As separation anxiety is associated with chronic stress, we hypothesized that BDNF levels in dogs affected by separation anxiety would be lower than BDNF levels in nonaffected dogs. A total of forty-eight dogs were classified by a board-certified behaviorist as affected (n = 15) or nonaffected (n = 33) by separation anxiety based on review of video clips of the dogs when left alone and owner reports of the dogs’ behavior. Groups did not differ in regard to age, body weight, body condition score, or sex, and most dogs were mixed breed. Fasted serum samples were analyzed with a canine BDNF ELISA. Nine (60%) dogs in the affected group and 12 (36%) dogs in the nonaffected group had a BDNF level <0.156 ng/ml, the minimally detectable level of the ELISA. The median (range) serum BDNF level was 0.10 (0.02-1.05) ng/ml for the affected group and 0.40 (0.03-9.98) ng/ml for the nonaffected group, after replacing the undetectable values with a random value between 0 and 0.156. The difference in BDNF level between the groups was significant (P = 0.037). The finding suggests the potential of serum BDNF as a biomarker for anxiety-related disorders in dogs.
... Many factors could influence panting including some unrelated to thermoregulation. Other factors that may lead to increased panting such as stress (Godbout et al. 2007;Cannas et al. 2014) or social hierarchy position and the associated increased stress with vigilance and avoidance behaviors (Creel 2001). ...
The behavioral repertoire and environmental feature needs for thermoregulatory comfort have not been reported in the literature for large captive exotics. An observational study was done to investigate the behavioral repertoire of tigers via continuous observation, while focusing on thermoregulatory behavior, in order to examine behavioral and thermoregulatory needs of these animals, and inform microclimatic landscape design for thermal comfort. Nine Bengal tigers (n = 6 females, n = 3 males) were observed in June 2012, and behavior data were recorded every minute, while thermal images of each individual, wind speed, ambient temperature, and relative humidity were recorded every 15 min. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze the data due to the observatory nature of the study. All tigers spent on average over 45% of the time lying down, less than 19% of the time in direct sunlight and over 20% of their time in the shade. Males did more panting (25.6%) than females (15.1%). There was more individual variation in water and cave usage, compared with shade use and lying behaviors, which could be related to social pressures or basic individual preferences. In summary, shade is a very valuable thermoregulatory resource for tigers. Adding more shade structures to increase thermal comfort and increase activity in these cats (around 10% on average active behaviors) by adding to the space available in the shaded areas.
... This leads to the premise that useful information needed for clinical assessment of dog behavioral problems can be extracted from analyzing the way the dog moves in the consultation room. Moreover, analysis of videos is one of the main research methods in studying animal behavior (see, e.g., [3,17]). It should be noted that this has some parallels to the use of video in human healthcare contexts (see, e.g., [7,23]). ...
In this paper I describe my research agenda as part of an ongoing research project for developing a video-based decision support system for behavioral veterinarians. In their daily practice, such veterinarians diagnose and treat behavioral problems of companion dogs. Since problems such as hyperactivity, anxiety and aggression can greatly compromise the well-being of dogs and their owners, their early diagnosis and treatment may be critical. In their diagnosis, the vets often rely on owner reports and some assessment scales, which are subject to subjectivity. In my research, I investigate ways to provide more objective automatic tools for supporting an assessment of dog behavioral problems, focusing specifically on the problem of canine ADHD as a case study.
... The development of such tools could also push the boundaries of human health informatics. While analysis of video is one of the main research methods in studying animal behavior (see, e.g., (Palestrini et al., 2010;Cannas et al., 2014)), it has some parallels to the use of video in human healthcare contexts (see, e.g., (Stronach and Wetherby, 2014;Konofal et al., 2001)), which may provide some hints towards the possible generalizability of some results obtained in veterinary informatics to human context. Moreover, some behavioral disorders of animals have strong connections to similar disorders in people, and data analysis performed in animal healthcare informatics may inform and complement human healthcare research. ...
The field of veterinary healthcare informatics is still in its infancy, and state of the art solutions from human healthcare are not easily adapted. IoT and wearable technologies may be bringing a wind of change, as large amounts of health data of animals are now being produced. It makes this a timely moment to initiate a discussion on the possibilities for cross-fertilization between the worlds of human and animal health informatics. In this position paper we report on an ongoing project developing a framework for automatic video-based analysis of animal behavior and describe its concrete application for decision support of behavioral veterinarians. The framework is generic, allowing for reuse across species and different analytical tasks. We further discuss the possibilities for cross-fertilization between human and animal behavior analysis in the context of health informatics.
... over-grooming or self-mutilation), behavioural signs of depression such as withdrawal, inactivity or inappetence, gastrointestinal signs (e.g. vomiting, diarrhoea) or escape behaviour that can result in self-trauma (Appleby and Pluijmakers, 2004;Cannas et al., 2014;Overall et al., 2001;Sherman and Mills, 2008). ...
... The dog did not show more lip licking, yawning, grooming, or avoidance behavior during sessions where children interacted with the dog compared with sessions without any interaction. Lip licking, yawning, and grooming have been associated with fear or anxiety (Beerda et al., 1998;Frank et al., 2007;Cannas et al., 2010;Palestrini et al., 2010b) or as a possible displacement behavior indicative of conflict (Cannas et al., 2014). Lip licking and yawning have also been suspected to precede situations of social conflict in dogs (Voith and Borchelt, 1996). ...
Animal-assisted interventions (AAIs) are associated with positive effects on human psychological and physiological health. Although quality standards in AAIs appear to be high, only few investigations have focused on potential welfare implications in therapy dogs. In the present study, we monitored behavioral measures and heart rate in a therapy dog that participated in Animal-Assisted Therapy (AAT) during post-operative awakening in a pediatric surgery ward. Work-related activity, behavior, response to human action, and heart rate were analyzed over 20 working sessions in an experienced therapy dog. No physiological or behavioral indicators of stress, fatigue, or exhaustion were present during AAT, suggesting that, with the limited generalizability of a case study, this activity did not negatively impact on the welfare of the dog. Further investigation into the effects of animal-assisted therapy on dogs’ physiological markers and behavior is warranted.
... Although questionnaires were developed to be as objective as possible, there may have been potential biases in questionnaire return or inaccuracies of reporting. Telephone interviews, or video footage of the dogs when left alone in the new home (Blackwell et al., 2006;Cannas et al., 2014), may provide more accurate information about SRBs, rather than reliance on adopters' written reports however for this study questionnaires were used to obtain a larger sample than would be available had a researcher been required to telephone every owner or visit every dog. ...
Separation anxiety/separation-related behavior problems (SA/SRB) are a significant cause of abandonment and failure of rehoming in dogs. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of providing written advice to adopters of dogs, aimed at reducing the risk of SA/SRB occurring in the new home. An opportunity sample of 176 dogs was taken from animals rehomed over a 13 month period. Adopters of dogs were allocated alternately to two groups, experimental (treatment) and no treatment (control). Adopters in the control group were given advice about healthcare. Adopters in the treatment group received behavioral advice, designed to prevent SA/SRB. Efficacy of the advice was measured 12 weeks after rehoming, when owners were asked to complete a postal questionnaire detailing their dog’s behavior when alone, as well as other factors previously suggested to influence the occurrence of SA/SRB. Overall, 53 (30%) of the dogs were reported to show SA/SRB (38% of the control group and 22% of the treatment group). Younger dogs were more likely to show SA/SRB and neutered females showed lower levels of SA/SRB. Although compliance with the advice was generally poor and varied between recommendations, dogs in the control group were more likely to show signs of SA/SRB than those in the treatment group, and hence the provision of written advice to adopters appears to be effective in reducing the development of SA/SRB following rehoming.
... Autogrooming Beerda et al., 1998Beerda et al., , 1999Rooney et al., 2007;Rooney et al., 2009Abbaiare Beerda et al., 1997Cannas et al., 2014 Orientamento verso la porta Mariti et al., 2013a;2013b Abbaiare eccessivamente Beerda et al., 1998;Rooney et al., 2009Ipersalivazione Beerda et al., 1997Attività ridotta Beerda et al., 1997Leccamento del tartufo Beerda et al., 1997Rooney et al., 2009 Altre attività ripetitive Beerda et al., 1997Beerda et al., , 1999Rooney et al., 2009Ansimare Beerda et al., 1997Hennessy et al., 1998;Rooney et al., 2009 Sollevare la zampa Beerda et al., 1997Beerda et al., , 1998Beerda et al., , 1999Rooney et al., 2007;Rooney et al., 2009Piloerezione Beerda et al., 1999Grattarsi Kotrschal et al., 2009 ...
Some types of dog fur require special care, such as regular washing and cutting. Owners often prefer to turn to professional groomers working in equipped facilities. The aim of this study was to investigate if a professional grooming session can cause stress to the dog. Nine dogs were subjected to a standardized 30 minutes-grooming session. Each animal was videoed for 5 minutes before and after the grooming and all videos were analyzed to measure the duration of potential signs of acute stress in dogs. Moreover, a veterinarian behaviorist provided a holistic assessment of the dog's stress level with a 0 to 5 scale. Concerning the level of stress of dogs and the duration of each analyzed behavior before and after the grooming session, no statistical difference was found. Only nose licking was found to be statistically higher after the grooming (W=-2.52; p=0.012). Most dogs appeared already stressed before being groomed and, for this reason, more research is needed to better investigate if the grooming itself is stressful for dogs. The findings of this study suggest that the grooming shop can be stressful for dogs for all the time dogs stay in it, from the arrival until the departure. Owners and groomers should be aware of how to reduce such stress which may become a welfare issue.
Tricyclic antidepressants all have in common the inhibition of the presynaptic reuptake pumps of serotonin (SERT) and noradrenaline (NET), thus increasing the presence of these neurotransmitters in the synaptic space. Clomipramine, under the name Clomicalm®, is the only licensed veterinary medication in this drug family.
Behaviour-related issues are common in horses. Many 'undesirable behaviours' pose important safety concerns for the human handlers / riders / carers, as well as welfare concerns for the horse. Undesirable behaviours can also devalue a horse, or result in the horse being re-homed, relinquished, or euthanased. Undesirable behaviours occur for a range of reasons. These include physiological causes, poor management, and the use of inappropriate or poorly applied handling and training techniques. The potential contribution of each of these aspects must be considered when attempting to reduce or eliminate undesirable behaviours. Effectively modifying the existing behaviour includes investigation and treatment of potential physiological causes, assessing and adjusting existing handling, husbandry and management, and undertaking behaviour modifying training. Unlike in the treatment of dogs and cats, the use of psychotropic agents is uncommon in equine behaviour medicine but the benefits of using these agents in appropriate cases is gaining recognition. This review discusses potential causes for the development and maintenance of undesirable behaviours in horses and highlights the various considerations involved in determining the most appropriate course for reducing or eliminating these behaviours. There is also a brief discussion about the potential role of psychotropic agents as an additional component of an overall behaviour modification plan to reduce or eliminate undesirable behaviours in horses.
Behavioral welfare concerns for shelter pets can be a result of the shelter environment itself or due to behavior disorders preexisting the intake of a sheltered pet. Addressing immediate welfare concerns and anticipating long‐term behavior concerns can help to improve adoptability, facilitate a smoother transition to the new home, and often lead to a shorter‐term treatment overall for shelter animals. Understanding the indications and goals for behavior medication use, factors to consider prior to prescribing, requirements to prescribe, monitoring, and medication choices are keys to success. Practitioners must also recognize that behavioral medications should not be used alone, without a working diagnosis, and other aspects of a treatment plan (environmental management, behavior modification). Even shelters with limited resources can do something to meet the requirements of a comprehensive behavior treatment plan that includes the use of medications to improve shelter animal health and welfare.
Along with the growing awareness of psychological stress in companion animals, several treatments have become available to address fear- and anxiety-related behaviors in dogs. To detect vulnerable individuals and apply effective treatments, reliable evaluations that can quantify individual stress responses are in high demand. To develop measurable variables that have clinical applications, more investigations are needed to increase our knowledge. When stress responses are activated by the sympathetic-adrenal–medullary (SAM) and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axes, the immune system is also activated. Although the peripheral cortisol level is commonly used as a stress biomarker, it primarily reflects the HPA axis response and does not sufficiently reflect the complexity of the stress response. Thus, this review primarily focuses on the available salivary biomarkers that mainly reflect the acute stress response through the activity of the SAM axis and the immune system in dogs. We hope that this review will promote the validation of these biomarkers in dogs and aid in the development of future studies to evaluate stress responses in dogs.
Anxiety and stress can trigger functional gastrointestinal disorders, whereas gastrointestinal symptoms can significantly increase anxiety and depression levels. These patterns are associated with the connection of the intestine and the brain through the “gut-brain axis”, a bi-directional communication of the nervous, endocrine and immune systems (Zhu et al., 2017). This clinical trial sought to investigate the effects of a novel nutraceutical supplement (Relaxigen Pet dog®) containing natural anti-inflammatory compounds (CLA, Krill), pre/probiotics, 5-HTP and L-theanine on stress-related behavior, and to assess the connection between these stress-related behaviors and the fecal microbiome in dogs. Forty dogs, ranging in ages from 1 to 10 years, took part in this double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Ten dogs were control dogs without overt clinical signs of anxiety. Thirty dogs (experimental dogs) with signs of stress and anxiety were randomly assigned to the treatment (N=20) and placebo (N=10) groups. The treatment sample group (20 dogs balanced for sex) was administered with Relaxigen pet dog® tablets and the placebo group (10 dogs balanced for sex) with placebo tablets by mouth once a day for 60 days. A basic history questionnaire that focused on all aspects of dog’s behavior, management, health issues and behavioral signs of stress and anxiety, was collected at days 0, 30 and 60 for each experimental dog. A fecal samplewas collected for all dogs at day 0 to compare the microbiome of the anxious and non-anxious dogs. The anxious dogs in the treatment and placebo dogs groups had a fecal sample collected again at 30 and 60 days. These samples were used to extract the DNA for microbiological analysis and to determine the leading bacterial group. ANOVA showed an influence of treatment x time and the group that received the treatment had a probability of improving greater than 10% (p≤0.05). This study revealed a different structure of the intestinal microbiota between healthy dogs and those with stress-related behaviors at baseline. Supplementation with the Relaxigen seems to bring some changes in bacterial groups concentration in the treatment group of anxious dogs compared to the placebo one, but we must be very cautious in presenting these results due to the limitations of this pilot study (number of subjects, no dietary control and no evaluation of microbiota over time for the control group dogs).
Respiratory disease is common in avian species. Rapid diagnosis and treatment are essential as birds tend to hide clinical signs of illness until disease is advanced and cases can deteriorate rapidly. Risk factors are frequently related to diet and environment, and include hypovitaminosis A and inhaled irritants. Birds presenting with respiratory signs should initially be stabilised with oxygen supplementation and supportive care before further diagnostics are pursued. Work up of these cases includes blood sampling for biochemistry and haematology, imaging including radiography and rigid endoscopy, and culture and polymerase chain reaction testing of respiratory secretions. Chlamydia and aspergillosis are common diagnoses encountered in practice. Treatment includes systemic antimicrobials, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and inhaled medications administered via nebulisation. Correction of underlying risk factors is also essential for a successful outcome. This article gives an overview of avian respiratory disease and describes a systematic approach to the investigation and treatment of these cases, achievable in general practice.
The tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) act as inhibitors of both serotonin and norepinephrine. This chapter discusses the six TCAs that have been most commonly used in veterinary behavior: tertiary amines amitriptyline, clomipramine, doxepin, imipramine, secondary amines desipramine and nortriptyline. Amitriptyline is approved for the treatment of depression. Clomipramine affects both the serotonergic and noradrenergic neural transmission in the central nervous system (CNS). It is used to treat obsessive compulsive disorder in humans. Desipramine is used in humans to treat depression. Doxepin is recommended for anxiety and depression in humans. Doxepin cream is used as an antipruritic. Imipramine primarily blocks the reuptake of norepinephrine at adrenergic synapses and, to a lesser degree, blocks the reuptake of serotonin. It is used in humans to treat depression and childhood enuresis. Nortriptyline is antihistaminic and blocks the reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine. It is used to treat depression in humans.
Scientists are often reluctant to attribute emotions to nonhuman animals that are similar to human emotions. When the author published her early studies, reviewers prohibited the word fear. Fearful behavior had to be described as agitated. The core emotional systems described by Panksepp may provide a useful framework for people who work hands-on with animals. The core systems are fear, rage, panic (separation distress), seek, lust, nurture, and play. Some scientists who deny that animals have real emotions often fail to review important areas of the literature. The areas that are sometimes left out are the effects of psychiatric medications on animals and genetic influences on differences in animal behavior. In both people and animals, genetics has an influence on both fearfulness and novelty seeking. Visualizing the seven core emotional systems as separate volume controls on a music mixing board may help zoo professionals determine the motivation of both normal and abnormal behavior. It may also help them to design more effective environmental enrichments.
Clinicians play an important role in diagnosing problem behaviors as a precursor to treating them. This requires a protocol for gathering historical behavioral and health information, direct observation and examination of the animal, and a broad knowledge base of medical and behavioral differential diagnoses for those findings. Aggression and anxiety are the most commonly reported behavior problems in dogs. In cats, elimination problems and aggression are the most prevalent. Other important diagnoses for these species are cognitive dysfunction and abnormal repetitive behaviors.
Separation anxiety and noise aversions are 2 of the most common welfare issues affecting pet dogs. Despite the high prevalence of these conditions, many affected dogs do not receive treatment. Separation anxiety, noise aversions, and confinement distress may be comorbid with each other and with other behavioral issues. A behavioral history and video can help confirm the diagnosis. Treatment with psychopharmaceuticals and behavior modification is recommended to improve the affected dog's welfare.
Separation anxiety has long been recognized as an anxiety-related disorder in dogs that is only observed in the owner’s real absence or perceived absence. Over the past four decades, this condition has been the most commonly discussed in published studies, but etiology, treatment, and prevention remain elusive. A review of the literature indicates a lack of comparative studies. Little progress has been made to build a new understanding beyond the clinical symptomology. Future research employing more rigorous designs and systematically building upon a clearly defined research questions is needed to advance our knowledge of this most common behavioral problems in dogs.
To identify factors associated with onset and continued elicitation of tail chasing in Bull Terriers and other terriers and to determine response to treatment with clomipramine hydrochloride, a serotonin-reuptake inhibitor.
Prospective study.
18 tail-chasing terriers (15 Bull Terriers, 1 Miniature Bull Terrier, 1 American Staffordshire Terrier, 1 Jack Russell Terrier).
5 dogs were evaluated for tail chasing by a veterinarian at the behavior clinic of the veterinary teaching hospital and 13 dogs were evaluated by the owner's local veterinarian, who confirmed the diagnosis and treated the dog. It was recommended that all dogs in the study be given clomipramine orally at a dosage of 1 to 2 mg/kg (0.5 to 0.9 mg/lb) of body weight, every 12 hours.
Of the 18 dogs, 15 were treated with clomipramine within the recommended dosage range, and 3 dogs required treatment at a slightly higher dosage range to control tail chasing. After 1 to 12 weeks of treatment, 9 of 12 (75%) dogs were reported to have a 75% or greater improvement (reduction) in tail chasing.
Findings of this study may aid in recognition and treatment of compulsive tail chasing. In conjunction with appropriate management changes, clomipramine administration appears to be an effective treatment for this otherwise refractory condition.
Forty-nine dogs showing signs of separation-related problems were randomly assigned to one of three groups: group A (15 dogs) received a placebo twice daily; group B (17 dogs) received clomipramine at 0.5 to 1.0 mg/kg twice daily; and group C (17 dogs) received clomipramine at 1.0 to 2.0 mg/kg twice daily. All the dogs also received behavioural therapy. Their owners were required to complete questionnaires about their dog's behaviour initially, and one, four and eight weeks after the treatment with clomipramine began. Bipolar ratings scales were used to monitor the frequencies of 'general', 'attachment-related' and 'separation-related' behaviours. Kruskal-Wallis tests and Kendall Rank correlations were used to determine any initial differences between the treatment groups, and the association between the initial scores and behavioural changes after one week of treatment with clomipramine. Extended Mantel-Haenszel statistics were used to evaluate the effects of clomipramine treatment versus the placebo, and Page's test was used to assess the effectiveness of behavioural therapy on its own. There were no significant differences in the demographic characteristics of the owners of the dogs assigned to the three groups. The dogs differed slightly in age between groups, and the dogs in the two clomipramine-treated groups were reported as showing problems at a significantly earlier age than those in the placebo group. Clomipramine treatment had a sustained suppressive effect on the dogs' general activity levels, and a more modest suppressive effect on their attachment-related tendency to want much physical contact with their owners. The typical signs of separation-related behaviour problems were not significantly affected by treatment with clomipramine, but behavioural therapy on its own was highly effective in reducing behavioural problems.
To determine the frequency of nonspecific clinical signs in dogs with separation anxiety, thunderstorm phobia, noise phobia, or any combination of these conditions and determine whether these conditions are associated in dogs.
Case series.
141 dogs.
Diagnoses were established using specific criteria. Owners of dogs completed a questionnaire on how frequently their dogs exhibited destructive behavior, urination, defecation, vocalization, and salivation when the owners were absent and the types and frequency of reactions to thunderstorms, fireworks, and other noises.
Associations of the 3 conditions and of various nonspecific clinical signs within and between diagnoses were nonrandom. The probability that a dog would have separation anxiety given that it had noise phobia was high (0.88) and approximately the same as the probability it would have separation anxiety given that it had thunderstorm phobia (0.86). However, the probability that a dog would have noise phobia given that it had separation anxiety (0.63) was higher than the probability that it would have thunderstorm phobia given that it had separation anxiety (0.52). The probability that a dog would have noise phobia given that it had thunderstorm phobia (0.90) was not equivalent to the converse (0.76).
Results suggested that dogs with any of these conditions should be screened for the others. Interactions among these conditions are important in the assessment and treatment of dogs with > 1 of these conditions. Responses to noise were different from those to thunderstorms, possibly because of the unpredictability and uncertainty of thunderstorms.
To determine potential risk factors and behaviors associated with separation anxiety and develop a practical index to help in the diagnosis of separation anxiety in dogs.
Case-control study.
200 dogs with separation anxiety and 200 control dogs with other behavior problems.
Medical records were reviewed for signalment, history of behavior problems, home environment, management, potentially associated behaviors, and concurrent problems.
Dogs from a home with a single adult human were approximately 2.5 times as likely to have separation anxiety as dogs from multiple owner homes, and sexually intact dogs were a third as likely to have separation anxiety as neutered dogs. Several factors associated with hyperattachment to the owner were significantly associated with separation anxiety. Spoiling activities, sex of the dog, and the presence of other pets in the home were not associated with separation anxiety.
Results do not support the theory that early separation from the dam leads to future development of separation anxiety. Hyperattachment to the owner was significantly associated with separation anxiety; extreme following of the owner, departure cue anxiety, and excessive greeting may help clinicians distinguish between canine separation anxiety and other separation-related problems.
To evaluate use of clomipramine, alprazolam, and behavior modification for treatment of storm phobia in dogs.
Prospective open clinical trial.
40 dogs with storm phobia.
Dogs received clomipramine at a dosage of 2 mg/kg (0.9 mg/lb), PO, every 12 hours for 3 months; then 1 mg/kg (0.45 mg/lb), PO, every 12 hours for 2 weeks; then 0.5 mg/kg (0.23 mg/lb), PO, every 12 hours for 2 weeks. Alprazolam was given at a dosage of 0.02 mg/kg (0.009 mg/lb), PO, as needed 1 hour before anticipated storms and every 4 hours as needed. Desensitization and counter-conditioning were conducted at home by the caregiver with an audio simulation of storm sounds that had induced a fear response during evaluation.
30 of the 32 dogs that completed the study had a degree of improvement, as measured by caregivers' global assessment. Two caregivers considered the storm phobia to be resolved. Panting, pacing, trembling, remaining near the caregiver, hiding, excessive salivation, destructiveness, excessive vocalization, self-trauma, and inappropriate elimination all decreased significantly during treatment. Improvement was greater during true storms (rain, thunder, and lightning) than during rain only. Response to audio simulation did not change during treatment. Four months after the study, improvement was maintained.
The combination of clomipramine, alprazolam, and behavior modification can be effective in decreasing or eliminating storm phobia. Improvement could not be evaluated by use of audio simulation of a storm.
The purpose of this explorative study was, first, to document changes in physiological parameters and behavior observed in dogs following ground transport and, second, to measure the effects on the above variables of a short-term administration of clomipramine, anecdotally already prescribed in private veterinary practice to reduce fear, anxiety, or both. Twenty-four beagles were randomly allocated to either clomipramine (2 mg/kg, q12h for 7 d) or placebo treatment, and then transported 3 times in a truck for 1 hour. Physiological parameters (cortisol, neutrophil:lymphocyte (N:L) ratio, heart rate) and behavior were recorded and analyzed. Clomipramine significantly reduced plasma cortisol (P < 0.05) following transport and tended (P = 0.07) to reduce N:L ratio. Clomipramine tended to only reduce "moving and panting" and drooling. Short-term administration of clomipramine appears to slightly reduce fear, anxiety, or both during transport. More research is needed to confirm the efficacy of this treatment and the appropriate dosage.
Separation anxiety is a clinical syndrome that can occur when dogs are estranged from owners or caregivers. It is characterized by behavioral and autonomic signs of anxiety, including destructiveness, housesoiling (urinary or fecal), distress vocalization, pacing or digging, hypersalivation, and self-trauma. Effective treatment focuses on environmental management, behavior modification techniques, and pharmacotherapy. Without proper treatment, the misbehavior can negatively affect the human-animal bond. Affected dogs are commonly relinquished to animal shelters, where they may be constantly placed in other homes or euthanized.
This clinical trial compares the efficacy and the tolerability of 4 dose rates of clomipramine - 0.25 to 0.5 mg/kg, 0.51 to 1 mg/kg, 1.1 to 2 mg/kg and 2.1 to 4 mg/kg administered twice a day - vs. a placebo in the treatment of separation anxiety. Behavioural therapy was given to all groups. Dogs weighing over 5 kg, of various breeds, age and sex were included. The efficacy was assessed after evaluation by the owner and the veterinarian at day 7, 14, 21, 28, and 60, based on the disturbances (destruction, urination, barking) caused by the dog, the relationship between the dog and the owner, and generalized anxiety symptoms. All these efficacy criteria clearly demonstrated that a daily dose of 2 to 4mg/kg (1-2mg/kg b.i.d) of clomipramine was the most effective dose : the cure rate was 70 % with clomipramine at this dose vs. 20 to 30 % in the other groups. Treatment was well tolerated at all doses of clomipramine.
The purpose of this randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial was to evaluate the efficacy of a diet containing caseinate hydrolysate (CH) on signs of stress in 2 groups of dogs (defined as Anxious and Nonanxious), using physiological (serum cortisol and lysozyme, N:L ratios and heart rate) and behavioral parameters.From an initial group of 40 female Beagle dogs, ranging in age from 10 months to 4 years (mean = 1.47 years; SD = 0.53) belonging to a dog colony, 32 were selected for this study according to their level of anxiety. A group of 16 Anxious dogs and a group of 16 Nonanxious dogs were identified.A baseline period, aimed to obtain reference values of investigated parameters, preceded the experimental phase. Both groups (Anxious and Nonanxious) were divided into a treatment group, which received the diet containing CH, and a control group which received a placebo diet (PD). Anxious CH and PD groups were balanced for anxiety level. Each dog was evaluated 3 times a day at 4 weeks intervals (T1-T2-T3). Each evaluation lasted 2 days and involved a Reactivity Evaluation Form, a blood sampling, heart rate recording, and a 10-minute behavioral video recording. Results from Reactivity Evaluation Form scores showed that although at T1 Anxious dogs had significantly higher scores (Mann–Whitney test, P < 0.001) compared with Nonanxious dogs, no difference was found between Anxious dogs fed with CH diet and Nonanxious fed with PD or CH diet at T3. Behavioral observations evidenced some signs of improvement in Anxious dog fed with CH diet. Cortisol level significantly decreased in Anxious dogs fed with CH diet (Friedman test, P < 0.05). Individual differences in physiological measures of stress responses may have contributed to the large variability, making interpretation of these measures difficult. These results suggest that CH may be used as a functional ingredient alleviating stress in dogs.
New owners usually have many questions regarding their puppy’s behavior during the first physical examination. The aim of this pilot study was to investigate the behaviors expressed by puppies when exposed to a veterinary clinic environment. The puppies’ response to physical examination was also studied. A total of 102 puppies, between 8 and 16 weeks of age and of various breeds, were filmed during a standardized physical examination at the veterinary clinic. The study included an observation of the puppy free on the floor (FF) followed by a physical examination on a table (PET) and various manipulations on the floor (MF). During FF, the behavioral categories recorded were: activity, exploration, facial expression, puppy solicitation of interaction with the veterinarian, vocalization, and others. During PET and MF, the type of interaction with the veterinarian, facial expression, and ear position were examined. The study revealed some significant differences between behaviors exhibited by puppies according to their sex, age, and estimated adult weight. Behaviors generally varied widely among puppies, but some individuals showed “extreme behaviors” (outliers) compared to the median puppy. These behaviors included more active avoidance, more locomotion, more panting, or more vocalization, which were often correlated across contexts. These findings suggest that even at a young age, some puppies can be differentiated from others by specific behaviors. Whether or not these individuals are at higher risk of developing behavioral disorders as adults remains to be investigated.
Separation-related behaviors are described as problematic behaviors that occur exclusively in the owner's absence or virtual absence. Diagnosis is generally based on indirect evidence such as elimination or destruction that occurs during owner absence. Questionnaire studies are based on owner perception and might therefore underestimate the actual proportion of dogs with separation problems. The aim of this study was to film dogs with separation-related problems when left home alone and compile objective information on behaviors exhibited. Twenty-three dogs, ranging in age from 5 months to 13 years (2.9±22.7 years), were filmed home alone for 20–60min (49.87±12.9min) after owner departure.Analysis of behaviors on tape showed that dogs spent most of their time vocalizing (22.95±12.3% of total observed time) and being oriented to the environment (21±20%). Dogs also exhibited panting (14±18%), were passive (12±27%) and were destroying (6±6%) during owner absence. Most dogs displayed signs within less than 10min after owner departure, such as vocalizing (mean latency 3.25min) and/or destroying (mean latency 7.13min). Barking and oriented to the environment tended to decrease (respectively p=0.08 and p=0.07) and conversely panting tended to increase over time (p=0.07).Diagnosis of separation-related problems is traditionally dependant on owner reports. Although owner observation may be informative, direct observation and standardized behavioral measurement of dogs with separation-related problems, before and after treatment, would be the best way to diagnose and to measure behavioral improvement.
Six bitches and their offspring were observed in the natural environment to study the early ontogeny of certain processes like eye opening, nipple preference, play, sexual activities and locomotion. Thirteen puppies out of 35 survived at the age of 3 months indicating 63% mortality. Eye slits were observed on day 12 (median) of life, and the eyes completely opened on 17 day (median) of life. The rearmost (fourth) nipple pair presumably containing more milk was suckled preferably by the puppies showing no sex bias. Social communication among the littermates was developed through playful interactions. Play behaviour developed in three subsequent stages—social play, agonistic play, and pseudo-sexual activity; at 3, 5 and 6 weeks, respectively. Playful interactions increased with the age of the puppies to establish a stable social hierarchy, and suddenly decreased between 8 and 10 weeks of life. Aggressive play tended to be initiated by males and specific individuals within a litter, suggesting individual variation in aggressiveness. Development of pseudo-sexual behaviour especially in male puppies by week 6 was an interesting feature of this study. The puppies were mobile at the age of week 3 when the eyes completely opened, and they were highly mobile when the suckling bouts disappeared and they traveled independently for food collection (10–11 weeks of life).
The objective of the study was to investigate the incidence of adverse events and changes in behaviour after use of clomipramine to treat separation anxiety in dogs. This study was a follow-up investigation to a previously published clinical trial. In the main trial, dogs were randomised in a double-blinded manner to receive placebo, standard (1–2mg/kg, q12h) or low (0.5–1mg/kg, q12h) dosages of clomipramine for 2–3 months. All dogs received behavioural therapy. Follow-up questionnaires were completed in 76 out of 89 dogs between 5.5 and 16 months after completion of the main trial.Post study, 12 dogs at one site received clomipramine long term (>13–16 months). The clomipramine was tolerated well, no dogs had worsening of their behaviour and behaviour improved further in 10 (83%) dogs.An additional 16 dogs received clomipramine and/or other drugs for up to 30 weeks and 48 cases received no drugs post trial. Acute worsening of behaviour was noted in the first two weeks after stopping treatment in three cases receiving low dose clomipramine, but in no cases in the other groups. The worsening rate of separation anxiety >2 weeks after stopping therapy was 13% of dogs that had received standard-dose clomipramine, 15% of dogs that had received low dose clomipramine and 23% of dogs that had received placebo. The mean time to worsening was longer in dogs that had received standard-dose clomipramine (37 weeks), as compared to low dose clomipramine (11 weeks, P = 0.005) or placebo (11 weeks, P = 0.003).In conclusion, no undesirable long term effects were detected in the use of standard-dose (1–2mg/kg, q12h) clomipramine for the treatment of separation anxiety in dogs. Abrupt withdrawal of a sub-optimal dose of clomipramine (0.5–1mg/kg, q12h) before signs of anxiety have been well controlled is not recommended.
An analysis of video-recordings of 20 dogs with separation problems suggested that separation behaviour may be divided into: (1) exploratory behaviour, (2) object play including elements of predatory behaviour, (3) destructive behaviour, and (4) vocalization. Elimination behaviour reported by other authors was found in one case only. Separation behaviour was related to the level of arousal. A clear distinction between `destructive' dogs and `howlers' was not justified. Object play seemed to be closely related to destructive behaviour. A model for the time course of activity from the owner's departure was developed. The model includes two components: (1) a cyclic component having a period of 23–28 min and controlled by internal factors, and (2) a long-term exponential decrease, which may be influenced by external factors arousing the dog. The results supported the view that separation problems are caused by frustration related to the dependency on the owner, whereas they are not caused by disobedience or boredom. The frustration in turn may lead to arousal, increased fear and the disinhibition of play or predatory behaviour and leading to destructive behaviour. The results also indicated that barking was caused by arousal, whereas howling and whining may reflect the presence of fear.
Although separation anxiety is one of the most common problems encountered by the behavioral specialist, there is a lack of consensus about how it should be defined. Additionally, the interrelation between separation anxiety, fear, and phobia is complex and poorly understood. These factors have obvious implications for clear diagnosis and the selection of an appropriate treatment plan. This article discusses a mechanism that may reduce these conceptual and practical difficulties.
The aim of this exploratory pilot study was to investigate which behaviours puppies exhibited when left home alone within the initial weeks (0–11 weeks) following adoption, as well as describing variability and temporal distribution of these behaviours. Eighteen puppies (9 aged less and 9 aged more than 90 days) were filmed home alone for 90 min after the owner left. Owners were asked to complete a brief questionnaire including information on the puppy's characteristics and history as well as on the physical and social environment of the dog. Analysis of behaviours on tape showed that puppies did not behave homogeneously but rather separated into three distinct groups. Puppies were clustered based on behaviours such as (1) playing and exploring or (2) exhibiting passive behaviours or (3) presenting lip licking, yawning, scratching, orienting to the environment and vocalising. Passive behaviour increased significantly over time (p < 0.001) and was significantly lower during the first 15 min with respect to the other observation periods (p < 0.05). Orientation to the environment tended to decrease (p = 0.08). Vocalisation (p < 0.05) and play behaviour (p < 0.01) both decreased significantly over time.
On the basis of spectrographic evidence it has been possible to identify twelve basic vocal sound types of canid species.Vocalizations may be mixed either by successive emission of two or more sound types, by superimposition of these sounds, or by a combination of these two forms. The same basic sound type may differ among canid species along the dimensions of sound duration, separation time between consecutive sounds, principle frequencies, cyclicity, and context.Developmental data indicate that domestic dogs first begin to mix sounds by successive sound emissions at about 10 days of age and later by superimposition between 2 and 3 weeks of age. The frequency of occurence of the basic sound types in different contexts varied between species but not within species. The possible effects of domestication on canid vocalizations are discussed.
Stress parameters that can be measured noninvasively may help to identify poor welfare in dogs that live in private homes and institutions. Behavioural parameters are potentially useful to identify stress, but require further investigation to establish which behaviours are appropriate. In the present study, behaviours were recorded and analysed for signs of acute stress in dogs. Simultaneously, saliva cortisol and heart rate were measured to support the interpretation of the behavioural data with regard to stress. Ten dogs of either sex, different ages and various breeds were each subjected to six different stimuli: sound blasts, short electric shocks, a falling bag, an opening umbrella and two forms of restraint. Each type of stimulus had been selected for its assumed aversive properties and was administered intermittently for 1 min. The stimuli that could not be anticipated by the dogs, sound blasts, shocks and a falling bag, tended to induce saliva cortisol responses and a very low posture. The remainder of the stimuli, which were administered by the experimenter visibly to the dog, did not change the cortisol levels but did induce restlessness, a moderate lowering of the posture, body shaking, oral behaviours, and to a lesser extent, yawning and open mouth. Pronounced increases in the heart rate were nonspecifically induced by each type of stimulus. Heart rate levels normalized within 8 min after stressor administration had stopped. Saliva cortisol levels decreased to normal within the hour. Correlations between behavioural and physiological stress parameters were not significant. From the present results, we conclude that in dogs a very low posture may indicate intense acute stress since dogs show a very low posture concomitant with saliva cortisol responses. Dogs may typically show increased restlessness, oral behaviours, yawning, open mouth and a moderate lowering of the posture when they experienced moderate stress in a social setting. The nonspecific character of canine heart rate responses complicates its interpretation with regard to acute stress.
The development of social interaction was studied in infant coyotes, beagles, and wolves. In this paper, social play behavior is discussed. Social play may be characterized in a number of ways: (i) actions from various contexts are incorporated into labile (unpredictable) temporal sequences; (ii) the “play bout” is typically preceded by a metacommunicative signal which indicates “what follows is play”; these signals are also observed during the bout; (iii) certain actions may be repeated and performed in an exaggerated manner; (iv) the activity appears “pleasurable” to the players.
By comparing these three species, some insight into the dynamics of social play may be gained. Coyotes were the least successful in soliciting play. When they did play, 90% of all bouts had been previously solicited. Coyotes also tended to use the most successful signals most frequently. This trend was not observed in the beagles or the wolves. By taking into account the fact that infant coyotes are significantly more aggressive than either infant wolves or beagles, the differential ontogeny of social play can be explained. Some of the functions of social play in canids are discussed, and it is concluded that social play is a valid class of social behavior and lends itself nicely to quantitative study.
Companion dogs commonly experience states of anxiety, fears, and phobias. Separation anxiety and noise aversions, as discussed in this article, are especially prevalent. Veterinarians are encouraged to recognize and treat such conditions on first presentation to address welfare issues and optimize successful management. New data suggest new treatment modalities, including behavioral management, pharmacotherapy, and species-specific pheromone use. Failure to treat can result in disruption of the human-animal bond and subsequent abandonment, relinquishment, or even euthanasia of the affected dog.
Twenty-four puppies (8 each of Shetland sheepdogs, Telomians, and beagles) served as subjects in this experiment which was designed to examine the effectiveness of 12 stimulus conditions (food, toys, canine contact, and human contact) on alleviation of separation-induced distress vocalization. Testing consisted of a prestimulus trial, stimulus trial, and post-stimulus trial each session 3 times a week from 4 to 8 weeks after birth. Overall results showed human contact to be the most effective, followed by canine contact, toys, and food. Breed differences were significant in only 2 of the stimulus conditions. In the typical case of effective treatment, the vocalization rate declined from the prestimulus trial to a low point in the stimulus trial and then increased again in the post-stimulus trial.
Many social species, including dogs, exhibit distress responses when separated from attachment figures. Companion dogs with separation anxiety typically eliminate, vocalize, or engage in destructive behavior when left alone. The ability to differentiate separation anxiety from other behavior problems with the same presenting complaint is essential before embarking on a treatment plan. The behavior of the dog before, during, and after separation must be determined. Comparison of the unique behavioral profiles of each of the possible differentials will lead to an accurate diagnosis.
Atypical, stereotypic motor and locomotor behavior was observed in 3 dogs. In 1 dog, the behavior included circling, vocalization, and snapping; in another, circling associated with pica and aerophagia; and in a third, gradually intensifying locomotor behavior stimulated by bright light. This behavior interfered with normal interaction between their owners and the dogs, and has been associated with obsessive-compulsive disorders. Treatment with clomipramine, along with other psychotropic medications and behavioral modification, suppressed the inappropriate behavior in all dogs; in 2 of the 3 dogs, the condition worsened when clomipramine treatment was withdrawn. Clomipramine may be helpful in treatment of such behavioral disorders, but one should consider the ability of such drugs to mask or worsen metabolic or neurologic problems, to induce toxicoses when used at inappropriate dosages, and to be abused by human beings.
The separation of young dogs from their mother at the age of 6 weeks had a negative effect on the physical condition and weight gain of separated pups compared to that of pups with maternal contact till 12 weeks. Disease susceptibility and mortality was higher in pups with a shorter maternal contact period. These factors were related to behavioural measurements of separation stress. However, early separation had no significant advantage to socialisation with humans, provided that separated and nonseparated pups had daily human contact. Early separation therefore did not improve dog/human bonding processes but lowered condition and increased mortality in separated pups.
The development of social behaviour in 4 litters of dogs was observed without interfering with the puppies from birth to 8 weeks of age. Direct and continuous observation was combined with video recording. Three of the litters were observed during one session of 2 h once a week, and the fourth litter during one session of 40 min twice a week. Social interactions were divided into 1) investigation of litter mates (licking, sniffing or investigating orally), 2) social play, 3) and interactions in which agonistic elements (dominance postures, threats, bites or submission) were displayed. The different forms of social interactions appeared for the first time when the puppies were between 14 and 21 days of age. Social investigation appeared first and was followed by play and agonistic interactions. From week 5, differences between the puppies in the tendency to initiate social play and agonistic interactions emerged. Generally, within the litters individual differences were consistent over weeks 6-8 (positive correlations between weeks), whereas the tendency in the puppies during these weeks were negatively correlated with those of week 3 (play) or weeks 3 and 4 (agonistic interactions), indicating a rebound effect for both play and agonistic behaviour. No significant correlations, however, were found for social investigation. More often than expected males played or engaged in agonistic with other males, whereas these behaviours occurred less often than expected between females. Both males and females, however, preferred male partners for agonistic interactions. No sex differences were found in the direction of social investigation. Agonistic behaviour was often responded to by play and play was often responded to by agonistic behaviour, and the results indicated that before 8 weeks of age differences in social behaviour between the puppies were already established.
To assess the efficacy of clomipramine for treatment of canine compulsive disorder (CCD).
Randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind, balanced AB-BA crossover clinical study.
51 dogs with CCD.
Dogs were given clomipramine (3 mg/kg [1.3 mg/lb] of body weight, PO, q 12 h) for 4 weeks and placebo for 4 weeks. At the end of each treatment each owner rated the severity of their dog's behavior, using 2 validated rating scales. Statistical analysis was made by ordinal regression. Compliance, adverse effects, and the effectiveness of masking were also assessed. Each dog's behavior was reevaluated 1 to 2 years after completing the study.
Behaviors included spinning (n = 17) and self-mutilation by licking (acral lick dermatitis, 12). Both rating scales demonstrated a treatment effect. Compliance was satisfactory, and masking was effective. Sedation and reduced appetite were reported more commonly when dogs were given clomipramine than when they were given placebo. Forty-five dogs available for follow-up evaluation still had their behaviors; 6 dogs were lost to follow-up evaluation.
Results suggest that clomipramine was effective in dogs with CCD and was not associated with serious adverse effects. However, treatment for 4 weeks was not curative. Behavior modification is likely to be necessary to manage CCD.
The efficacy and tolerability of clomipramine in the treatment of separation anxiety in dogs was tested in a prospective, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group, international multicenter clinical trial. For a diagnosis of separation anxiety, dogs had to exhibit at least one of the following signs in the absence of their owner: destruction, defecation, urination and/or vocalization, as well as the behaviour suggestive of "hyper-attachment" to their owner. A total of 95 dogs were randomized to receive one of the three treatments for 2-3 months: "standard-dose" clomipramine (1 to <2 mg/kg, PO, q. 12 h); "low-dose" clomipramine (0.5 to <1 mg/kg, PO, q. 12 h); and placebo (PO, q. 12 h). All dogs received behavioural therapy. Dogs were examined at four time points (days 0, 28, 56 and 84) after the initiation of therapy. Improvement in each dog's behaviour at days 28, 56 and 84 was evaluated in comparison to its behaviour at day 0.The results showed that, compared to placebo, dogs receiving standard-dose clomipramine were rated improved at least three times faster for the signs destruction, defecation and urination. At most time points, more dogs in the standard-dose clomipramine group were rated improved for the signs destruction, defecation and urination, and in an owner's global assessment of the dog's overall behaviour (p<0.05 at certain time points). However, there were no statistically significant differences at any time point between the standard dose and the placebo groups in the sign vocalization. The low-dose clomipramine group produced no statistically significant effect when compared with placebo. Mild and transient vomiting was noted as a side effect of clomipramine in a small number of dogs.It is concluded that addition of standard-dose (1 to <2 mg/kg, PO, q. 12 h) clomipramine to conventional behavioural therapy for 2-3 months ameliorated the signs of separation anxiety in dogs.
To evaluate the efficacy and tolerance of a treatment protocol for obsessive-compulsive disorder, separation anxiety and noise phobia in dogs.
A study was undertaken to assess clinical responses in 24 dogs diagnosed with one or more of three behavioural disorders stated above to a treatment regimen that included clomipramine and behaviour modification.
A detailed behavioural and clinical history was obtained for each dog. Obsessive-compulsive disorder was diagnosed in nine cases: primary presenting complaints were tail-chasing, shadow-chasing, circling and chewing; one case was diagnosed with concurrent separation anxiety. Separation anxiety was diagnosed in 14 cases: presenting complaints included destruction, vocalisation and escaping in the absence of the owner; four cases also exhibited noise phobia. The study also included one dog diagnosed with noise phobia only and another with inappropriate fear responses. Clomipramine was administered orally twice daily. The starting dose was 1 to 2 mg/kg bodyweight. The dose was increased incrementally to a maximum of 4 mg/kg if needed. A behaviour modification program was designed and the owner instructed on its implementation. Dogs continued medication for at least 1 month after clinical signs disappeared or were acceptably reduced, then withdrawal of medication was attempted by decreasing drug dosage at weekly intervals while behaviour modification continued.
The presenting clinical sign was largely improved or disappeared in 16 dogs, 5 demonstrated slight to moderate improvement and the behaviour was unchanged in 3. Clomipramine withdrawal was attempted in nine cases: this was successful in five.
Clomipramine was effective and well-tolerated in controlling signs of obsessive-compulsive disorder and/or separation anxiety and/or noise phobia in 16 of 24 assessable cases, when used in combination with behaviour modification, and improvement in clinical signs was noted in 5 others.
Separation anxiety is a common behavioral problem in dogs. Treatment is based on developing a behavior modification protocol that gradually desensitizes and counter-conditions the dog to being left alone, by rewarding calm, relaxed behavior. Judicious use of pharmacotherapy can be a useful adjunct to a behavior modification program.
To assess pre-operative behavioral and physiological characteristics of healthy dogs hospitalized for elective surgery.
Open clinical observational study.
Forty-one bitches hospitalized for elective ovariohysterectomy.
While undisturbed in a hospital cage, the behavior of the dog was recorded using a video camera and recorder. From the video recordings, various behavioral variables were registered. Simultaneous measurements were made on heart rates and heart rate variability (HRV) by use of an ambulatory electrocardiogram. In addition, the dog's response to human approach was noted.
Different behavioral patterns were found in the dogs studied. Thirteen individuals were regarded as highly active, and were seen to bark or howl, manipulate the environment or attempt to flee vigorously. In 13 dogs (passive dogs) none of these activities occurred. Panting and displacement behaviors, such as snout licking, were observed in nearly all the animals monitored. In general, heart rates were higher and HRV lower with the most active individuals; however, the presence of physiological arousal could not be excluded in two animals with passive behaviors. To some extent, the behavior of the dog while undisturbed in the cage was reflected in the responses to a person entering the cage.
The different individual responses detected in this study raise an important question concerning their role and existence throughout the entire peri-operative period, especially during the post-anesthetic recovery phase when behavioral characteristics are commonly used to assess patient welfare. The results also emphasize the need for further investigations to explore the effects of pre-operative stressors on canine surgical patients, and the factors contributing to them.
The model discussed here should help to provide an understanding of the range of stimuli that each dog needs for the maintenance of emotional homeostasis and the interplay between these stimuli and events in the dog's [table: see text] environment. In turn, this should aid in diagnosis and the setting of appropriate treatment plans.
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Efficacy of clomipramine in the treatment of canine compulsive disorder Separation-related problems in dogs BSAVA Manual of Canine and Feline Behavioural Medicine. British Small Animal Veterinary Association Separation-related problems in dogs and cats
- C J Hewson
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Animal behavior case of the month Changes in duration of scratching with medication
- D Frank
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Separation-related problems in dogs and cats BSAVA Manual of Canine and Feline Behavioural Medicine
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