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The Gendered Analysis of Self-Control on Theft and Violent Delinquency: An Examination of Hong Kong Adolescent Population
Abstract
Despite previous gender-based studies of Gottfredson and Hirschi’s self-control theory, limited empirical attempts have been made outside of the Western hemisphere. This study is set to examine the cross-cultural and/or national boundaries generalizability of the self-control concepts in predicting gender differences on theft and violent delinquency in a rarely examined Hong Kong adolescent population. In addition, this study is among the first to investigate the age-effect gender differences on delinquency in the East. Using a cross-sectional design, 1,377 randomly selected native-Chinese secondary school–aged male and female adolescents of nine stratified randomly selected schools were surveyed. Multivariate analyses were used to examine gender differences, with and without controlling for the adolescent age, aside from the general offending propensity among Hong Kong adolescents with respect to their self-control level. Overall findings suggest that the relationship between low self-control indicators and types of delinquency differs across gender. Hence, findings of previous gender-based self-control studies conducted in the West are generally supported in this study. Implications, limitations, and future research directions are outlined.
... Self-control even fails to predict delinquency as Cheung and Cheung (2008) included contextual variables of social learning, social control, labeling, and strain in their study of adolescents in Hong Kong. Moreover, Chui and Chan's (2016) study of native-Chinese adolescents in Hong Kong and Jo and Zhang's (2014) study of South Korean youth suggest that the relationship between self-control, external factors, and delinquency can be further complicated by gender in East Asian society. The mixed findings of these Asian studies bring into question the invariant nature of self-control in the East Asian context. ...
... 0.056]), and SRMR (0.05) all suggested that this model fit the data reasonably well (Hu & Bentler, 1995. Consistent with previous studies (Chui & Chan, 2016;Jo & Zhang, 2014), the results provide strong evidence that the Self-Control Scale is empirically valid across multiple populations and that it can also be applied to children in rural China. Table 3 displays the ordinary least squares (OLS) regression models that predict delinquency. ...
... In all, our model fits the data well, indicating that the Self-Control Scale is empirically valid and reliable across different populations and can be applied to children in rural China. Our study provides further support to the cultural validity of the Self-Control Scale used in East Asian countries, as evidenced by the previous Asian studies that assess the reliability of the scale (e.g., Chui & Chan, 2016;Vazsonyi et al., 2004). For example, Vazsonyi and colleagues (2004) used the Grasmick Scale and found supportive evidence of general similarity in the self-control construct for Japanese and U.S. male, and to some extent, female late adolescents. ...
Although self-control consistently emerges as one of the most robust correlates of delinquent behavior, limited empirical attempts have been made to explore the contextual variability of the relationship between self-control and delinquency outside of Western societies. Using data collected from 587 seventh- to ninth grade students across 10 middle schools in a rural county of Southeast China, we examine self-control’s efficacy in explaining juvenile delinquency in the presence of external environmental factors, and investigate relative strength of self-control and contextual factors in predicting delinquent behaviors. Our results confirm that self-control is an important predictor of delinquent behavior in a non-Western cultural context. However, certain environmental factors rooted in family, school,
and peer groups are also shown to be the predictors of delinquent behavior where strength seems to exceed that of self-control. These findings shed more nuanced insights on the nexus between self-control, external situations, and delinquency, and in a broader sense, contribute to the elaboration of a more comprehensive understanding of self-control theory.
... Self-control even fails to predict delinquency as Cheung and Cheung (2008) included contextual variables of social learning, social control, labeling, and strain in their study of adolescents in Hong Kong. Moreover, Chui and Chan's (2016) study of native-Chinese adolescents in Hong Kong and Jo and Zhang's (2014) study of South Korean youth suggest that the relationship between self-control, external factors, and delinquency can be further complicated by gender in East Asian society. The mixed findings of these Asian studies bring into question the invariant nature of self-control in the East Asian context. ...
... 0.056]), and SRMR (0.05) all suggested that this model fit the data reasonably well (Hu & Bentler, 1995. Consistent with previous studies (Chui & Chan, 2016;Jo & Zhang, 2014), the results provide strong evidence that the Self-Control Scale is empirically valid across multiple populations and that it can also be applied to children in rural China. Table 3 displays the ordinary least squares (OLS) regression models that predict delinquency. ...
... In all, our model fits the data well, indicating that the Self-Control Scale is empirically valid and reliable across different populations and can be applied to children in rural China. Our study provides further support to the cultural validity of the Self-Control Scale used in East Asian countries, as evidenced by the previous Asian studies that assess the reliability of the scale (e.g., Chui & Chan, 2016;Vazsonyi et al., 2004). For example, Vazsonyi and colleagues (2004) used the Grasmick Scale and found supportive evidence of general similarity in the self-control construct for Japanese and U.S. male, and to some extent, female late adolescents. ...
Although self-control consistently emerges as one of the most robust correlates of delinquent behavior, limited empirical attempts have been made to explore the contextual variability of the relationship between self-control and delinquency outside of Western societies. Using data collected from 587 seventh- to ninth-grade students across 10 middle schools in a rural county of Southeast China, we examine self-control’s efficacy in explaining juvenile delinquency in the presence of external environmental factors, and investigate relative strength of self-control and contextual factors in predicting delinquent behaviors. Our results confirm that self-control is an important predictor of delinquent behavior in a non-Western cultural context. However, certain environmental factors rooted in family, school, and peer groups are also shown to be the predictors of delinquent behavior where strength seems to exceed that of self-control. These findings shed more nuanced insights on the nexus between self-control, external situations, and delinquency, and in a broader sense, contribute to the elaboration of a more comprehensive understanding of self-control theory.
... Özbay (2008) found that a preference for simple tasks predicted offending for girls, but not boys. However, Chui and Chan (2016) found the opposite, whereas a preference for simple tasks was only related to boys' offending. This would suggest that there may be something different about the importance of the individual elements of self-control for males and females. ...
... However, other research finds that self-control has a stronger relationship with offending for adult men than adult women, which may be more in line with feminist theorists and their claims that certain gendered risk factors might occur in adulthood, and can explain female offending (Hirtenlehner & Kunz, 2017;Wolfe, 2015). Similarly, studies have found that the relationship between self-control and offending is significant for early adolescent girls and not late adolescent girls (Chui & Chan, 2016), which may point to gendered pathways occurring even earlier than feminist theorists predict. ...
... Furthermore, previous studies have demonstrated that the influence of low self-control on behavior occurs in the same way, regardless of sex (Botchkovar et al., 2015;Ivert et al., 2018). However, several other studies showed that the influence of self-control on behavior varies depending on the sex of the individuals (Chui & Chan, 2016;De Ridder et al., 2012;Flexon et al., 2016), reinforcing the need for further research (Pechorro et al., 2021). ...
... Also, it would be interesting that future studies explore and analyze the potential maintenance of the results found with samples with low, medium, and high levels of antisocial and delinquent behavior, and not just normative ones, as the one used in the current study, while exploring further the gender differences for the relationships analyzed in the current study (particularly considering the mixed results found in previous studies, as described above; e.g., Braza et al., 2015;Chui & Chan, 2016;Pechorro et al., 2021;Pinquart, 2017). ...
The externalizing and internalizing behaviors of children and youth have been the object of extensive criminological research, mainly due to the potentially harmful impact on these individuals' future development and adjustment. The current study aimed to explore the influence of parenting styles on the emergence of children and youth’s externalizing and internalizing behaviors and to understand the influence of self-control in this relationship. Following a quantitative self-report approach and using a sample of 472 Portuguese middle-school children, this study found that the children’s sex, low self-control, and authoritative parenting style significantly predicted externalizing and internalizing behaviors. The data also revealed that children's age and the permissive parenting style significantly predicted externalizing but not internalizing behaviors and that the authoritarian parenting style significantly predicted internalizing behaviors. Low self-control partially mediated the relationship between parenting styles and externalizing and internalizing behaviors in most tested models. Implications for theory and practice are discussed.
... Upon reviewing the literature, significant relationships between lifelong learning motivation and gender have been found (Bayram & Ekşioğlu, 2020;Chang et al., 2012;Wielkiewicz & Meuwissen, 2014). Additionally, significant relationships between self-control and gender have been observed (Turner & Piquero, 2002;Chui & Chan, 2013;Steinberg et al., 2008;Winfree et al., 2006). These findings are inconsistent with the findings of the present study. ...
... Similarly, significant findings were reached regarding lifelong learning motivation and age (Heatherton & Wagner, 2011;Johnson et al., 2011). Finally, many studies have demonstrated significant relationships between self-control and age (Beaver et al., 2009;Chui & Chan, 2013;Steinberg et al., 2008;Winfree et al., 2006). These findings are different from the results of the current study. ...
... Upon reviewing the literature, significant relationships between lifelong learning motivation and gender have been found (Bayram & Ekşioğlu, 2020;Chang et al., 2012;Wielkiewicz & Meuwissen, 2014). Additionally, significant relationships between self-control and gender have been observed (Turner & Piquero, 2002;Chui & Chan, 2013;Steinberg et al., 2008;Winfree et al., 2006). These findings are inconsistent with the findings of the present study. ...
... Similarly, significant findings were reached regarding lifelong learning motivation and age (Heatherton & Wagner, 2011;Johnson et al., 2011). Finally, many studies have demonstrated significant relationships between self-control and age (Beaver et al., 2009;Chui & Chan, 2013;Steinberg et al., 2008;Winfree et al., 2006). These findings are different from the results of the current study. ...
... Upon reviewing the literature, significant relationships between lifelong learning motivation and gender have been found (Bayram & Ekşioğlu, 2020;Chang et al., 2012;Wielkiewicz & Meuwissen, 2014). Additionally, significant relationships between self-control and gender have been observed (Turner & Piquero, 2002;Chui & Chan, 2013;Steinberg et al., 2008;Winfree et al., 2006). These findings are inconsistent with the findings of the present study. ...
... Similarly, significant findings were reached regarding lifelong learning motivation and age (Heatherton & Wagner, 2011;Johnson et al., 2011). Finally, many studies have demonstrated significant relationships between self-control and age (Beaver et al., 2009;Chui & Chan, 2013;Steinberg et al., 2008;Winfree et al., 2006). These findings are different from the results of the current study. ...
... Upon reviewing the literature, significant relationships between lifelong learning motivation and gender have been found (Bayram & Ekşioğlu, 2020;Chang et al., 2012;Wielkiewicz & Meuwissen, 2014). Additionally, significant relationships between self-control and gender have been observed (Turner & Piquero, 2002;Chui & Chan, 2013;Steinberg et al., 2008;Winfree et al., 2006). These findings are inconsistent with the findings of the present study. ...
... Similarly, significant findings were reached regarding lifelong learning motivation and age (Heatherton & Wagner, 2011;Johnson et al., 2011). Finally, many studies have demonstrated significant relationships between self-control and age (Beaver et al., 2009;Chui & Chan, 2013;Steinberg et al., 2008;Winfree et al., 2006). These findings are different from the results of the current study. ...
In this study, a research model was created to explain whether the relationship between life satisfaction and motivation levels of adults depends on self-control. The dependent variable of this study is adults' life satisfaction (Y), the moderating variable is self-control (W), and the independent variable is adults' lifelong learning motivation (X) level. The research was conducted using the relational survey method. The convenience sampling method was applied in the research. 276 people in total. The bootstrapping method was used to test the significance of the moderating effect. The measurement tools used were the "Adult Life Satisfaction Scale," "Lifelong Learning Motivation Scale," and "Brief Self-Control Scale." According to the study results, the moderating effect of adults' motivation and self-control levels on life satisfaction was found to be significant. As a result, if individuals' self-control is high, the effect of lifelong learning motivation on life satisfaction will be higher. This suggests that the relationship between lifelong motivation and life satisfaction is regulated by self-control. ARTICLE HISTORY
... Upon reviewing the literature, significant relationships between lifelong learning motivation and gender have been found (Bayram & Ekşioğlu, 2020;Chang et al., 2012;Wielkiewicz & Meuwissen, 2014). Additionally, significant relationships between self-control and gender have been observed (Turner & Piquero, 2002;Chui & Chan, 2013;Steinberg et al., 2008;Winfree et al., 2006). These findings are inconsistent with the findings of the present study. ...
... Similarly, significant findings were reached regarding lifelong learning motivation and age (Heatherton & Wagner, 2011;Johnson et al., 2011). Finally, many studies have demonstrated significant relationships between self-control and age (Beaver et al., 2009;Chui & Chan, 2013;Steinberg et al., 2008;Winfree et al., 2006). These findings are different from the results of the current study. ...
... Upon reviewing the literature, significant relationships between lifelong learning motivation and gender have been found (Bayram & Ekşioğlu, 2020;Chang et al., 2012;Wielkiewicz & Meuwissen, 2014). Additionally, significant relationships between self-control and gender have been observed (Turner & Piquero, 2002;Chui & Chan, 2013;Steinberg et al., 2008;Winfree et al., 2006). These findings are inconsistent with the findings of the present study. ...
... Similarly, significant findings were reached regarding lifelong learning motivation and age (Heatherton & Wagner, 2011;Johnson et al., 2011). Finally, many studies have demonstrated significant relationships between self-control and age (Beaver et al., 2009;Chui & Chan, 2013;Steinberg et al., 2008;Winfree et al., 2006). These findings are different from the results of the current study. ...
In this study, a research model was created to explain whether the relationship between life satisfaction and motivation levels of adults depends on self-control.
... Long-term maltreatment repeatedly exposes children to strain scenarios and affects their self-development (Agnew et al., 2011). The GST claims that repeated exposure to strain can reduce selfcontrol, thus leading to delinquent behavior (Bunch et al., 2018;Chui & Chan, 2016). Many empirical studies have shown that childhood maltreatment is negatively correlated with self-control (Walters, 2018), and self-control can partially mediate the effects of childhood maltreatment on alcohol dependence and dating violence (Gover et al., 2011;Shin et al., 2019). ...
... The general theory of crime states that the core of all criminal behaviors and aggression is the lack of self-control (Chan, 2021;Hirschi & Gottfredson, 1993). Individuals with high self-control can initiatively impose effects on cognition, emotion, and behaviors according to social norms, as well as restrain adverse reactions, thereby inhibiting aggression and other harmful behaviors (Chui & Chan, 2016;Lei et al., 2020;Pung et al., 2015). Moreover, many studies demonstrate that aggression can be decreased by enhancing selfcontrol ability (Chan & Chui, 2017;Denson et al., 2011;Sofia & Cruz, 2015). ...
This study examines the impact of childhood maltreatment on aggression among incarcerated adolescents, primarily focusing on the mediating roles of self-esteem and self-control. In the present study, 454 male incarcerated adolescents from two juvenile correctional facilities, ranging in age from 14 to 18 years old, completed a set of questionnaires. These questionnaires comprised the childhood trauma questionnaire, the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, the Brief Self-Control Scale, and the Buss–Perry Aggression Questionnaire. The results revealed that childhood maltreatment, self-esteem, and self-control correlated with aggression. The structural equation modeling analysis and the bootstrap test indicated that self-esteem and self-control completely mediated the effects of childhood maltreatment on aggression. The findings expanded the outcomes of previous research and illuminated how childhood maltreatment was related to aggression. Implications and limitations of the present study are also discussed.
... 그 후 주제 탭에서 <theft>, <shoplifting>, <juvenile delinquency>, <delinquency>, <adolescence>, <juvenile delinquents>, <adolescent>, <juvenile delinquents -psychology>를 선택하여 검색하였 다. 추가적으로, Google Scholar에서 "adolescent", "Young Offenders" "Juvenile" "children" "delinquency" "steal" "stealing" "theft" "shoplifting" "shoplifter" 의 단어를 조합하여 검색 하였다. 개입 (노정구, 김상조, 2002;이태 영, 송미경, 이동훈, 2013;조미영, 이동훈, 2013;Anderson & Linden, 2014;Chui & Chan, 2016;Drozda, 2006;Forney & Crutisinger, 2001;Li, 2009). 높은 자극 자극추구성향은 또래 동조성에 영향을 미치고, 그들의 삶이 지루하고 단조롭다고 생각하게 하며, 쉽게 흥미를 잃게 한다 (노정구, 김 상조, 2002;이태영 외, 2013;조미영, 이동훈, 2013;Li, 2009 (Li, 2009). ...
... 반사 회적 성향의 특징 중 낮은 도덕성 또한 청소년의 절도비행을 설명할 수 있는 요인으로 여겨지는데(Forney, Crutsinger & Forney, 2006;Judy & Nelson, 2000), 도덕적으로 무관심한 청소년은 사 회적인 문제에 관심을 가지지 않고 자신의 쾌락만 을 위해 물건을 훔칠 수 있다(Forney et al., 2006). 셋째, 청소년의 높은 충동성은 절도비행을 예측 하는 변수가 될 수 있다(Carrasco, Barker, Tremblay & Vitaro, 2006;Chui & Chan, 2016). 절도비행청소년들은 스트레스를 해소하고 순간적 인 만족을 위해 충동적으로 절도 행동을 하였다(김세진, 2018).마찬가지로 ...
Juvenile theft shows a very high incidence and recidivism rate among juvenile crimes. Also, the age of crime is gradually decreasing and there is a trend that is linked to other crimes. Therefore, this study attempted to propose a theoretical framework by exploring and synthesizing the causes and interventions of theft by analyzing the documents related to the theft of adolescents. To this end, 27 academic literature related to domestic and foreign juvenile theft and 9 intervention-related materials were selected and analyzed. Results were as follows. Personal causes related to youth theft include sensation-seeking
tendencies, antisociality, impulsivity, low self-esteem, and emotional problems. Developmental issues consisted of peer conformity, the pursuit of superiority, bonds with delinquent youth, juvenile delinquency, and juvenile law. Environmental issues were divided into home and school. In Korea, several programs have been studied based on various theories, but in the case of overseas, there have been very few programs that only target juvenile thefts in addition to the programs that are actually operated in the community. Based on these results, suggestions for follow-up studies related to juvenile thefts and the significance and limitations of this study were discussed.
... Low self-control as a predictor of offline deviant behaviors Academic dishonesty (Cochran et al., 1998) Cigarette smoking (Stylianou, 2002) Drunk driving (Piquero and Tibbetts, 1996) Embezzlement (Seipel and Eifler, 2010) Gambling (Arneklev et al., 1993;Taiwon, 2005) Physical violence or psychological aggression in the family context (Avakame, 1998;Kerley et al., 2008). School bullying (Moon et al., 2011) Sexual assault (Franklin et al., 2012;Nagin and Paternoster, 1993) Substance abuse (Abdel-Salam, 2013;Winfree and Bernat, 1998) Theft (Chui and Chan, 2016;Wood et al., 1993) Low self-control as a predictor of online deviant behaviors Illegal use of others' identification online (Moon et al., 2010) Internet Journal of Information Technology 00(0) Prompt: During the last 6 months, how frequently have you engaged in the following acts toward your supervisors, coworkers, or subordinates by means of ICTs (email, enterprise social media, mobile phone, tablet, etc.)? Scaling: 1 = never; 2 = one time; 3 = monthly (up to two to three times a month); 4 = weekly (up to three to four times a week); 5 = daily WCB1: Forward someone's work information to third parties in order to harm him/her WCB2: Publicly criticize someone's work WCB3: Withhold information or files someone needs, making his/her work more difficult WCB4: Unfairly blame someone for work problems WCB5: Bypass someone in group communications that are relevant to his/her work role WCB6: Send conflicting work information to someone WCB7: Send unreasonable work demands to someone Low self-control (LSC) Adapted from Grasmick et al. (1993) Prompt: To what extent do you agree or disagree with the following statements: Scaling: 5-point scale anchored on 1 = strongly disagree . . . 5 = strongly agree. ...
... abuses at work (Li et al., 2018) Juvenile cyber deviance (Holt et al., 2012) Software piracy (Burruss et al., 2013) The predictive power of low selfcontrol in different cultures and societies 25 European countries (Vazsonyi et al., 2001) 4 nations (Vazsonyi and Crosswhite, 2004) 32 national settings (Rebellon et al., 2008) Argentina (Bobbio et al., 2019) China(Chui and Chan, 2016) Hispanic(Miller et al., 2009) Thailand (Kerley et al., 2008 ...
Extant research on the antecedents of workplace cyberbullying pays little attention to the role of perpetrator traits in influencing workplace cyberbullying, as well as the unique occurrence context that distinguishes workplace cyberbullying with juvenile cyberbullying, workplace bullying, and adult cyberbullying in general. To fill these gaps, we consider the antecedents of workplace cyberbullying under the theoretical lens of the general theory of crime and routine activities theory. We build a model incorporating low self-control, a widely discussed perpetrator trait in criminology theories, with three types of routine activities representing the unique occurrence context for workplace cyberbullying--mWork, boundary spanning in ESM, and proactive email checking. We tested our model with 2025 employees in the U.S.. Our findings demonstrate that low self-control and the three routine activities are strong motivators for workplace cyberbullying. Our findings further show that the effect of low self-control on workplace cyberbullying is amplified by the three routine activities. The study contributes to our understanding of why workplace cyberbullying occurs and offers potential implications for managers interested in reducing incidences of workplace cyberbullying in their organization.
... Self-control Self-control was measured using the 23-item scale introduced by Grasmick et al. (1993). This measure is the most frequently adopted self-control scale in the deviance literature and has been shown to have good construct reliability in Western samples (Longshore & Turner, 1998;Romero et al., 2003;Vazsonyi et al., 2004), Asian samples (Cheung, 2016;Chui & Chan, 2016), and across genders (Chui & Chan, 2016;Gibson et al., 2010). The 23 items of the self-control scale represented the six dimensions of self-control (Gottfredson & Hirschi, 1990): impulsivity, a preference for simple over complicated tasks, risk-taking, a preference for physical over mental activities, self-centeredness, and a volatile temper. ...
... Self-control Self-control was measured using the 23-item scale introduced by Grasmick et al. (1993). This measure is the most frequently adopted self-control scale in the deviance literature and has been shown to have good construct reliability in Western samples (Longshore & Turner, 1998;Romero et al., 2003;Vazsonyi et al., 2004), Asian samples (Cheung, 2016;Chui & Chan, 2016), and across genders (Chui & Chan, 2016;Gibson et al., 2010). The 23 items of the self-control scale represented the six dimensions of self-control (Gottfredson & Hirschi, 1990): impulsivity, a preference for simple over complicated tasks, risk-taking, a preference for physical over mental activities, self-centeredness, and a volatile temper. ...
Despite the emergence of literature on gender differences in gambling problems, few empirical studies have explored how gender norms inform the gender dynamics involved in the development of gambling disorder. This study addresses this research gap by applying general strain theory to gambling disorder across genders. The objectives of this study are twofold. First, we examine the role of gender norms in the social strain—gambling disorder relationship across genders. Second, we explore the extent to which males and females who conform to traditional gender norms are likely to express strain-induced negative emotions that result in gambling disorder. These relationships are examined with data from a cross-sectional survey of 1,620 Chinese married couples in Hong Kong. Our results indicate that gender norms function differently between genders. Specifically, gender norms exacerbate the effect of social strain on gambling disorder in males but mitigate the effect of social strain on gambling disorder in females. In addition, gender norms amplify the effect of strain-induced negative emotions on gambling disorder in males only.
... Furthermore, while the majority of studies recruited school samples (Chan and Chui 2015;Chapple, McQuillan, and Berdahl 2005;Chui and Chan 2012a), there is a notable dearth of studies that focus on active youth street gangs, particularly to uncover gendered effects of social bonds and delinquency. In the present study, surprisingly, measures of social bonds significantly associated not only with dimensions of nonviolence, as argued by Kempf (1993) and Peterson et al. (2016), but also violent forms of delinquency (Chui and Chan 2016) in the sample of youth street gang members. Furthermore, buttressing the importance of gendered analyses of social influences on delinquency (Chapple, McQuillan, and Berdahl 2005), although male and female subsamples of youth street gang members did not share any statistically significant associations between measures of social bonds and type of delinquency in the regression models, the majority of the effects did not qualify as being significantly different between genders. ...
... As there are no studies that have yielded similar findings in the at-risk youth population, nor specifically investigated the relationship between female youth street gang members' delinquency in relation to their perception of law and order in Hong Kong, this finding breaks new ground for future studies to explore further. Granted that scholars have noted the city's criminal justice system to be more punitive toward young male offenders (see Chui and Chan 2016), one may speculate that the positive association between theft and a weak moral regard for the law and mainstream norms among female youth street gang members is shaped by an understanding that their law-breaking actions exist outside the watchful eye of the criminal justice system. As such, female youth street gang members may perceive that there is ample opportunity to engage in theft and, in turn, they may be more willing to do so without paying much attention to the potential legal ramifications or its cultural appropriateness. ...
This study examines the differential impacts of social bonds and organized crime affiliation on theft and violence in a sample of 201 male and female youth street gang members in Hong Kong. Specifically, the study examines gender differences in social bonds and delinquency among active youth street gang members aged between 12 and 24 years. A purposive sample of 109 male and 92 female active youth street gang members was recruited from a public housing estate with the help of outreach social workers. A series of hierarchical regression analyses indicated that parental attachment, involvement in organizations, and Hong Kong triad affiliation were associated with theft and violence among male youth street gang members, while belief in the legal system and Hong Kong triad affiliation were associated with theft among female youth street gang members. However, only the effect of the belief social bond on (non-)violent delinquency was found to be significantly different between male and female youth street gang members. Peer attachment was not significantly associated with theft nor violence among male or female youth street gang members. Subsequently, implications for social service delivery and future studies are discussed.
... De esta manera, siguiendo con la propuesta teórica de la teoría general del delito, se podrían identificar, por una parte, aquellas conductas asociadas a elevados niveles de autocontrol como, por ejemplo, el éxito académico, hábitos alimenticios saludables y relaciones interpersonales satisfactorias (Tangney, Baumeister, & Boone, 2004). Y por otra parte, se podrían agrupar las conductas vinculadas con bajos niveles de autocontrol como el robo (Chui & Chan, 2013), el consumo excesivo de alcohol (Walters, Simons, & Simons, 2018), el uso de drogas (Baron, 2003) y la violencia escolar (Tillyer, Wilcox, & Fissel, 2018). ...
... Estos resultados concuerdan con investigaciones previas realizadas en población general (adolescentes, jóvenes y adultos) que concluyeron que a menores niveles en la variable autocontrol, mayor es la presencia de conductas antisociales (Cihan & Tittle, 2019;Ridder, Lensvelt-Mulders, Finkenauer, Stok, & Baumeister, 2018;Vazsonyi & Jiskrova, 2018). Además, nuestros resultados concuerdan con la direccionalidad y el grado de asociación que manifiesta la conducta antisocial y el autocontrol en estudios previos (Baron, Bunch, Iratzoqui, & Watts, 2018;Chui & Chan, 2013;Tillyer et al., 2018;Walters et al., 2018). Por ejemplo, en el estudio de Vazsonyi et al. (2004), quienes compararon una muestra de estudiantes universitarios de origen japonés y una de origen estadounidense, encontraron que en ambas muestras los valores de las correlaciones fueron bajas y positivas entre las siete dimensiones de la EDN y el bajo autocontrol, siendo el valor menor de correlación .16 ...
Antecedentes: la conducta antisocial refiere al conjunto de actos que violan las normas establecidas para la convivencia de una sociedad. Entre las medidas de autoinforme para valorar esta conducta se encuentra la Escala de Desviación de la Norma (EDN). Considerando que en el contexto argentino no se encontraron estudios sobre las propiedades psicométricas de la escala, el objetivo de este estudio fue analizar sus propiedades psicométricas en una muestra de jóvenes argentinos. Para este fin, se conformó una muestra de 794 participantes con edades comprendidas entre los 18 y 25 años. Método: se realizó un análisis factorial confirmatorio, se analizó el índice de confiabilidad compuesta y se estudió la validez convergente, discriminante y concurrente (utilizando una escala de autocontrol). Además, se analizó la invarianza del modelo de medida. Resultados: entre los principales resultados se confirmó la estructura factorial original de la escala sin equivalencia factorial entre los grupos evaluados considerando el sexo, y se encontraron adecuadas propiedades psicométricas para la mayoría de las dimensiones que componen el instrumento. Se discuten los hallazgos, limitaciones y futuras líneas de investigación.
... SCT has been tested outside the U.S. including Argentina (Bobbio, Arbach, and Vazsonyi 2019); China (Cretacci and Cretacci 2012;Jiang and Dong 2022;Li, Vazsonyi, and Duo 2018;Nie, Li, and Vazsonyi 2016;Sun et al. 2021;Wang et al. 2021); the Czech Republic ; Hong Kong (Cheung and Cheung 2008;Chui and Chan 2016); Hungary, Switzerland and Netherlands (Vazsonyi et al. 2001); Finland (Ellonen et al. 2021); Japan (Vazsonyi et al. 2004); Saudi Arabia (Sacarellos et al. 2015); Switzerland (Huijsman et al. 2019); South Korea (Jo and Zhang 2014;Kim, Siennick, and Hay 2018;Vazsonyi and Cho 2022); Turkey (Cihan and Tittle 2019); Ukraine and Russia (Kafafian et al. 2023); and Russia (Tittle andBotchkovar 2005a, 2005b). These studies suggest that elements of the social bond -attachment and conventional beliefs -are associated with some forms of delinquency. ...
... Este conceito surge na sequência da teoria do autocontrolo proposta por Baumeister et al., (1994) (1990), demonstra que a influência do baixo autocontrolo no comportamento se processa do mesmo modo, independentemente do sexo (Botchkovar et al., 2015;Ivert et al., 2018). Porém, uma quantidade considerável de estudos evidencia que a influência do autocontrolo no comportamento varia em função do sexo dos indivíduos (Chui & Chan, 2016;De Ridder et al., 2012;Flexon, Meldrum & Piquero, 2016). Dada a existência de resultados inconsistentes na literatura, as questões de sexo em relação ao autocontrolo permanecem, ainda, em aberto (Pechorro et al., 2021). ...
Ao longo das últimas décadas, os comportamentos de externalização e internalização das crianças e jovens têm sido considerados importantes objetos de estudo, sendo alvo de avultada investigação criminológica, principalmente devido, ao impacto nefasto que os mesmos acarretam em termos do desenvolvimento e ajustamento futuro destes indivíduos. Assim, o presente estudo tem como principal objetivo analisar, compreender e comparar a influência que variáveis de natureza familiar, em particular os estilos parentais (autoritário, autorizado e permissivo) exercem na emergência deste tipo de comportamentos. Para além disto, pretende-se perceber em que medida, o autocontrolo influencia esta relação. Para tal, procedeu-se à realização de um estudo quantitativo e transversal, com recurso a uma amostra de cerca de 896 crianças e jovens em contextoescolar e os seus respetivos encarregados de educação. Os dados foram recolhidos comrecurso a dois questionários de autorrelato, dirigidos às crianças participantes e aos seus respetivos encarregados de educação. Os resultados demonstraram que o estilo parental autorizado relatado por ambos os informantes se correlaciona negativa e significativamente com os comportamentos de externalização e internalização, enquanto que os estilos parentais autoritário e permissivo e o baixo autocontrolo se correlacionam positiva e significativamente com os comportamentos de externalização e internalização. A idade e o sexo das crianças, os estilos parentais permissivo e autorizado e o baixo autocontrolo são preditores significativos dos comportamentos de externalização, enquanto o sexo das crianças, o estilo parental autoritário e permissivo e o baixo autocontrolo são preditores significativos dos comportamentos de internalização, com base no relato das crianças. Com base no relato dos encarregados de educação, apenas o estilo parental autoritário e permissivo e o baixo autocontrolo são preditores significativos dos comportamentos de externalização. Por seu turno, o sexo e a idade das crianças, os estilos parentais autoritário e autorizado e o baixo autocontrolo são preditores significativos dos comportamentos de internalização. O baixo autocontrolo mediou parcialmente a relação entre os estilos parentais e os comportamentos de externalização e internalização, de acordo com o relato de ambos os informantes em cerca de seis dos doze modelos testados. Estes resultados são discutidos à luz da literatura científica, sendo também enumeradas as principais limitações do estudo, assim como pistas para investigações futuras.
Palavras-Chave: crianças, jovens, comportamentos de externalização, comportamentos de internalização, estilos parentais, autocontrolo, efeitos indiretos.
... While many studies utilized the opportunity or risk factor frameworks to explain delinquent behavior in Caribbean countries (e.g., Blum & Ireland, 2004;Katz & Fox, 2010;Maguire & Fishbein, 2016;Williams, 2013) no studies that we are aware of have used self-control as an explanatory factor for explaining delinquency among Caribbean youth. In contrast, studies in a range of other countries have successfully utilized selfcontrol theory in explaining delinquency (e.g., Canada [T. C. Lagrange & Silverman, 1999]; Hong Kong [Chui & Chan, 2013]; Netherlands [Janssen et al., 2017]; Russia [Botchkovar & Broidy, 2013]; and the United States [Boisvert et al., 2012]). The extensive support provided for low self-control as a predictor of delinquency (e.g., Pratt & Cullen, 2000) suggests that it may be a useful explanatory variable within the Caribbean context. ...
Delinquent behavior represents a serious concern in the Caribbean. In order to provide insights useful for explaining deviant behavior among youths in Caribbean countries, this study examines the importance of self-control and parental supervision as predictors of deviant behavior. The study assesses direct as well as interaction effects of both variables. For the study, data from Guyana, St. Kitts and Nevis and St. Lucia were analyzed. The sample included 1,140 juveniles aged between 10 and 19 years. The results of regression analyses showed that self-control was a significant predictor of delinquent behavior. It was also found that the provision of parental supervision was able to mitigate the impact of low self-control on delinquency. This finding applied to males as well as females in the sample.
... China's rising crime and delinquency after the "reform and opening up" in the 1980s have sparked numerous theoretical and empirical inquiries, both within and outside mainland China. Together with other major theoretical frameworks (e.g., strain theory, social bonding theory, and social learning theory), Gottfredson and Hirschi's self-control theory (1990) has been increasingly tested and applied in empirical research (e.g., Cheung & Cheung, 2008;Chui & Chan, 2016;Jiang et al., 2020). However, "…whether a general theory of crime that is built around the quintessentially individualistic concept of self-control can serve to explain meaningful variance in crime outside Western society" (Rebellon et al., 2008, p. 334), particularly in East societies, remains inconclusive. ...
This study investigated the predictive strength of self-control relative to contextual factors in school, family, and peer groups and its interconnections with these factors in explaining adolescent delinquency among a Chinese population. Using data elicited from a survey of 587 Chinese students in 7th to 9th grades from rural areas in Guangdong Province of China, we found that self-control is an important predictor of delinquency. Moreover, contextual factors exert independent effects on delinquency with strength that rivals or exceeds that of self-control in a collectivistic cultural setting. Importantly, we found that the effects of self-control on delinquency are contingent upon contextual factors such as care-taking quality, bonding in school, and children’s involvement in unsupervised activities and association with delinquent peers. Overall, these findings shed light on the value of an integrative approach that accounts for independence and interconnection of individual and contextual mechanisms to address the complexity that self-control theory implies in cross-cultural settings.
... Despite the fact that a number of researchers have followed this groundbreaking call and insight (Cheung & Cheung, 2008;Cretacci, Rivera, & Ding, 2009;Eisner, 2001;Eisner, 2002;Morris, Wood, & Dunaway, 2006;Morris, Wood, & Dunaway, 2007;Rebellon, Straus, & Medeiros, 2008;Tittle & Botchkovar, 2005;Vazsonyi & Crosswhite, 2004;Vazsonyi, Pickering, Junger, & Hessing, 2001;Vazsonyi, Wittekind, Belliston, & Van Loh, 2004), and continue to do so (Brauer, Tittle, Antonaccio, & Islam, 2012;Bobbio, Arbach, & Vazsonyi, 2019;Cihan & Tittle, 2019;Chui & Chan, 2016;Duell et al., 2016;Jo & Zhang, 2014; Klanjsek, Nie, Li, & Vazsonyi, 2016;Rocque, Posick, Marshall, & Piquero, 2015;Sacarellos et al., 2016, Klanjšek et al., 2012Vazsonyi, Jiskrova, Ksinan, & Blatný, 2016;Vazsonyi, Mikuška, & Kelley, 2017;Udris, 2016;), large-scale (many cultures) and analytically rigorous (country level, multi-level or hierarchical modeling) studies remain largely non-existent. ...
Purpose
The current investigation tested two tenets from self-control theory regarding its cross-national validity and applicability, namely the extent to which (1) parenting behaviors (closeness and monitoring) were associated with low self-control, and (2) the extent to which opportunities (two competing operationalizations: routine activities or peer deviance) and low self-control independently (and synergistically) predicted deviant behaviors.
Methods
Data were collected as part of the Second International Self-Report Delinquency Study (ISRD-2) from 28 cultures, from seventh, eighth, and ninth grade adolescents (N = 66,859), and analyzed using hierarchical linear modeling. Country level variables included years in school, size of the prison population, unemployment rate, and life expectancy.
Results
(1) Low self-control significantly varied at both the individual- and country-levels; both closeness and monitoring negatively predicted low self-control. At the country level, more years in school and a greater prison population were positively associated with low self-control, while life expectancy was negatively associated. (2) Deviance significantly varied at the individual and country levels. Low self-control and opportunities (peer deviance and routine activities) uniquely explained variance in deviance.
Conclusions
Findings provide support for the cross-cultural application of self-control theory.
... Self-Control The individual's level of self-control was measured using the 24-item scale originally developed by Grasmick and colleagues (Grasmick, Tittle, Bursik, & Arneklev, 1993). Several studies support the reliability and validity of the Grasmick et al. scale (Chui & Chan, 2016;DeLisi, Hochstetler, & Murphy, 2003;Jones, 2017;Li & Vazsonyi, 2019;Piquero, MacIntosh, & Hickman, 2000;Venables et al., 2018). This scale includes items such as "Sometimes I will take a risk just for the fun of it" and "I lose my temper easily." ...
Self-control and psychopathy are general theories of antisociality that have considerable empirical support, are conceptually similar, and have occasionally been studied together. A recent head-to-head test of the theories and found that self-control generally outperformed psychopathy among assorted criminal outcomes among institutionalized delinquents. Using data from university students (N = 1611) and different measures of self-control (Grasmick et al. scale) and psychopathy (Levenson Self-Report Psychopathy Scale), the current study revisited this work and found that self-control had robust associations with sexual aggression, general aggression, and substance abuse problems, and extreme scores on these outcomes variables. However, the effects of self-control were negated once psychopathy was specified, suggesting that psychopathy is more important for understanding assorted forms of deviance than self-control in the undergraduate population. Given the empirical heft of both theories, we encourage further study to determine which has greater predictive validity for understanding various forms of crime among different populations spanning student, community, forensic, and correctional samples. We also encourage the specification of both self-control and psychopathy as standard control variables.
... 3. However, some research on street crimes as outcomes has also found that-in longitudinal models-effects of self-control on crime were less pronounced with high deviant peer associations (Meldrum et al., 2009), whereas other studies have produced inconsistent results (Chui & Chan, 2016;McGloin & Shermer, 2009). 4. ...
This study tests the effects of behavioral and cognitive measures of self-control on computer-focused cyber deviance and cyber victimization with survey data from 1,036 adult employees. We examine moderating effects of cyber deviant peers and gender in the relationship between self-control, and cyber deviance and victimization. Cognitive and behavioral measures of self-control are negativity associated with cyber deviance, whereas only behavioral self-control predicted reduced cyber victimization. Moderation analyses show that cyber deviant peer associations condition the relationship between self-control, and both cyber deviance and victimization. Gender moderation models reveal no consistent significant effects. The results have implications for the understanding of cognitive predictors of computer-focused cybercrime and victimization, as well as institutional cybercrime prevention policies. Our findings can inform the future integration of self-control and social learning theories in cyberspace.
... Gender is a determinant of juvenile cases across the globe. According to the statistics of Juvenile court, boys have a higher probability of being arrested than that of girls (Chui & Chan, 2016). Moreover, boys were found to initiate most of the criminal cases under trial in the juvenile courts in the US (Evans, Simons, & Simons, 2016;Savolainen et al., 2017). ...
Delinquency is a social problem attributed to the psychological developments and derived cultural traits prevalent in the society. Questionnaires were used to collect the primary data. Out of a total 203 youths participated in this study, delinquent group consisted of 107 participants, whereas the nondelinquentgroup consisted of 96 participants scoring high on Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy. To evaluate how people responded to the questions, different methods such as analysis of variance (ANOVA), multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA), discriminate analysis, and standard deviation were used. Machiavellianism increased with an increase in delinquency levels. Narcissism score was observed high among medium delinquent group as compared to the nondelinquent group. Psychopathy was high among high delinquency group. Although narcissists are moderate delinquents, they are more likely to commit a crime. While females are becoming more delinquent, Machiavellianismis manipulative. Financial income, age, gender, and education are determinants of dark triad factors in adolescents.
... Studies also show fluctuations in this gender gap across crime categories (Jones et al., 2014;Houghton et al., 2013). For example, compared to girls, boys engage more frequently in violent and public crimes such as serious physical fights, graffiti, vandalism and gang group fighting (Chapple et al., 2005;Chui and Chan, 2016). Additionally, numerous studies discover that girls' delinquency is preceded by frictions in interpersonal relationships, such as tension with their mothers (Covington, 2008;Foley, 2008;Garcia and Lane, 2010). ...
... Vários estudos posteriores corroboraram esta hipótese (e.g., Botchkovar, Marshall, Rocque, & Posick, 2015;Burton, Cullen, Evans, Alarid, & Dunaway;Shekarkhar & Gibson, 2011). Outros estudos, todavia, evidenciaram que o autocontrolo se desenvolve e manifesta de forma diferente consoante o sexo (e.g., Chui & Chan, 2016;DeLisi et al., 2010;Gibson et al., 2010;Flexon, Meldrum, & Piquero, 2016;Koon-Magnin, Bowers, Langhinrichsen-Rohling, & Arata, 2016;Shulman, Harden, Chein, & Steinberg, 2015). Desta forma, a questão das eventuais diferenças em função do sexo permanece em aberto. ...
... The effect of alternative caretaking on children's delinquency is further complicated by variation in children's individual propensities (Liu, Li, & Ge, 2009;Lu, 2012). A key individual-level factor is children's self-control, which is long considered as one of the strongest predictors of delinquency and crime in Western countries (Pratt & Cullen, 2000) and more recently in East Asia (Chui & Chan, 2016;Jo & Zhang, 2014;Vazsonyi, Wittekind, Belliston, & Van Loh, 2004), and is documented to interact with many social and situational factors in reducing or exaggerating their effects (Agnew, 2003;Hay & Forrest, 2008;Wikström, 2010). Whether the effects of alternative caretaking arrangements in rural China are conditional on children's selfcontrol, however, is not empirically investigated. ...
The purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of parental migration and alternative caretaking arrangements on children’s delinquency in rural China. Using data from the Parental Migration and Children’s Well-Being Survey, our results suggest that children’s delinquency is influenced by a dynamic interaction between caretaking arrangements and children’s self-control. More specifically, grandparenting appears to be an equivalent substitution for normative nuclear family parenting and has some advantage over caretaking by a remaining parent, especially for children with low self-control. These findings can serve as a starting point for a further conversation on the benefit of extended families and collective parenting, and on how to best use cultural resources in rural China under the constraint of parental migration and other structural barriers.
... Sexual offenders commonly describe their parents as uncaring, unsympathetic, cold, emotionally unattached, aggressive, hostile, and rejecting (Maniglio 2012;Smallbone and Dadds 1998). In turn, children of emotion-ally unattached parents are likely to develop a low level of self-control, which is a major factor in subsequent delinquency and violent crime (Chan and Chui 2015b;Chui and Chan 2013a, 2013b, 2015. Ineffective or problematic parenting styles impede these children from securing emotional attachments with other individuals. ...
Sexual violence is a serious social problem and a growing concern worldwide. Research has been devoted to understanding the etiology of sexual violence. This chapter first reviews the outcome nature of sexual homicide, with particular emphasis given to the differences between homicidal and nonhomicidal sexual offenders. A comprehensive discussion on four widely cited causal and precipitating factors leading to violent sexual offending (i.e., childhood maltreatment, deviant sexual fantasies, pornography consumption, and alcohol and drug consumption) is provided. Regardless of the lethality outcome of the offense, these four risk factors play a key role in the commission of a sexual offense. In light of the empirical findings, implications for practice in the area of crime prevention are offered.
... Unfortunately, most of the existing studies are based on crosssectional data obtained in the Western societies. Although common psychosocial correlates (e.g., self-control) were found for delinquency in the Western and Chinese cultures (Chui and Chan, 2016), cultural differences were also observed with respect to adolescent perceptions and evaluations of delinquent behaviors (Tisak et al., 2017). Therefore, much remains unknown regarding the effect of a single developmental asset on adolescent externalizing problems in the Chinese societies. ...
Based on the six-wave data collected from Grade 7 to Grade 12 students (N = 3,328 at Wave 1), this pioneer study examined the development of problem behaviors (risk and delinquent behavior and problem behavioral intention) and the predictors (moral competence and spirituality) among adolescents in Hong Kong. Individual growth curve models revealed that while risk and delinquent behavior accelerated and then slowed down in the high school years, adolescent problem behavioral intention slightly accelerated over time. After controlling the background socio-demographic factors, moral competence and spirituality were negatively associated with risk and delinquent behavior as well as problem behavioral intention across all waves as predicted. Regarding the rate of change in the outcome measures, while the initial level of spirituality was positively linked to the growth rate of risk and delinquent behavior, the initial level of moral competence was negatively associated with the growth rate of problem behavioral intention. The theoretical and practical implications of the present findings are discussed with reference to the role of moral competence and spirituality in the development of adolescent problem behavior.
... What is again interesting is that there were mixed results when the theory was tested in Asia. There has been support for the theory in some studies (Cretacci et al. 2009;Chui et al. 2013;Cheung 2014). Other studies show that there is no clear-cut causal effect (Wang et al. 2002;Cheung and Cheung 2008). ...
This chapter summarizes and reviews ideas developed by Jianhong Liu over a number of years. It draws on the 2009 paper in which he set out an agenda for Asian criminologists after becoming editor-in-chief of the Asian Journal of Criminology. It also draws on two recent papers, one to be published in a collection on Southern criminology and another on access to justice published in the Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice. Liu’s work has been concerned with identifying distinctive features of crime and criminal justice in Asian countries. He has variously termed this approach the ‘Asian paradigm’ and the ‘relational approach’ which is contrasted with Western individualism.
... Measures of low self-control are consistently related to increased risks of criminal offending (for comprehensive reviews of the literature assessing self-control theory, see Engel 2012; Pratt and Cullen 2000;Schulz 2006). Some studies found support in the Asian context (Cheung 2014;Chui and Chan 2013;Cretacci, Rivera and King 2009); and others found no support (Cheung and Cheung 2008;Wang et al 2002). Other research reported more complex results. ...
In their recent seminal paper �Southern Criminology�, Carrington, Hogg and Sozzo (2016) address the issue of the global divide between South/North relations in the hierarchal production of criminological knowledge. They point out that the divide privileges theories, assumptions and methods that are largely based on the empirical specificities of the global North. Carrington et al. contend that the dominance of global North criminology has led to a severe underdevelopment of criminology in the global South, except �in Asia, with the establishment of the Asian Criminological Society and its journal� (Liu 2009, in Carrington et al. 2016: 3). Carrington et al. propose an important task of bridging the global divide through further developing criminology in the global South. My present paper reviews the development of Asian criminology under the framework of the Asian Criminological Paradigm (Liu 2009). I primarily review the conceptual and theoretical developments, to suggest strategies that can contribute to the task of bridging the gap between global North and South. What Asian criminology has done is expand the theoretical tool box originally developed in the global North through the strategies of transportation of theories, elaboration of theories, and proposing new concepts and theories based on the empirical grounds of Asian contexts.
... Research on self-control using Chinese data has provided considerable empirical support for self-control theory, notwithstanding the null effects reported by Cheung and Cheung (2008) noted above. Assessed in various ways, selfcontrol has generally been shown to be negatively associated with deviance measured as violent and property crimes (Chui & Chan, 2013b), bullying behaviors (Chui & Chan, 2013a), gambling and intoxication (Cheung, 2014), or using a general delinquency scale (Cretacci et al., 2009). However, opposing evidence to the impeding effect of self-control on delinquency was reported in an early study based on a rather limited measure of self-control. ...
Studies have revealed that self-control theory, social learning theory, and strain theory are useful in explaining criminal activity in China. Previous research with Chinese data, however, has focused almost exclusively on samples of adolescents and the minor types of offending that are typically captured in such samples. The present study builds upon prior work by considering the extent to which these three major etiological theories of crime can help differentiate between profiles of Chinese prisoners categorized with respect to re-incarceration status. Specifically, we derive hypotheses that predict prisoners’ status as first-time inmates or inmates with multiple incarcerations. These hypotheses are assessed with recently collected data for a sample of approximately 1,800 prisoners in Southern China. The results reveal that indicators of peer criminality, low self-control, and negative emotions (a theorized outcome of experiences of strain) are all positively associated with re-incarceration status.
... A study by Wanless et al. (2013) found that girls in the United States had significantly higher individual behavioural regulation than boys; however, there were no significant gender differences reported in any Asian societies. Furthermore, Chui and Chan (2013) recently reported that adolescent females from Hong Kong were more likely than adolescent males to have a preference for simple over complex tasks (e.g. When things get complicated, I tend to quit or withdraw). ...
Background:
Few studies have been conducted in people of Asian descent that have reported to demonstrate the distinct developmental trends in good self-control and poor control. To fill this gap, we conducted a national cross-sectional survey among adolescents and young adults in China to further clarify the age and gender differences in self-control from a dual-systems perspective.
Methods:
A total of 2910 adolescents (female, n = 1698) and their parents from five different provinces in China were surveyed using the Dual-Modes of Self-Control Scale (DMSC-S) and the Parents' Perceived Self-Control Scale. The mean age of the adolescent sample was 17.47 years (ranging from 12.50 to 25.42 years).
Results:
Boys exhibited greater good self-control than girls. Poor control increased between 12 and 17 years of age and declined thereafter; however, good self-control increased over the entire study period. Both good self-control and poor control in student participants were significantly associated with parents' perceived self-control; moreover, the association between good self-control and parental self-control was mediated by SES.
Conclusion:
The roles of age, gender, parental self-control and SES varied in a dual-systems model of self-control: good self-control and poor control. Implications of these results are discussed.
... Resources for social skills trainings should also be strengthened to encourage the offenders to foster healthy and prosocial relationships with others, especially with their family members. A healthy family functioning is postulated to reduce the offenders' propensity to reoffend and eventually desist from offending with continuing family support (Chan & Chui, 2012, 2013Chui & Chan, 2012b, 2013b, 2013c. Such trainings should also aim at raising their awareness of and skills to deter themselves from deviant peer influence and potential of domestic (familial) and community (neighborhood) criminogenic effects during their rehabilitative process. ...
Recidivism research on Hong Kong’s incarcerated population is limited, and little is known about the reoffending risk of incarcerated repeat offenders. The purpose of this study is to identify the reoffending risk of a sample of incarcerated male offenders with previous incarceration record based on their anticipation of reoffending. Using a self-reported methodological design, 351 incarcerated violent and nonviolent offenders are sampled. A number of self-anticipated reoffending risk factors are identified. The offenders’ age, illicit drug use, pro-offending attitudes, negative self-perception, familial detachment, deviant peer influence, poor prosocial attachment, and domestic and community criminogenic exposures are found to have significant predictive effects on their self-anticipated reoffending risk. Implications for intervention strategies with emphasis on these risk factors are discussed.
The Dark Web represents a unique part of the Internet where anonymity is used for both good and nefarious acts. While existing research indicates Dark Web use is correlated with cybercrime victimization and offending, there is a lack of research into what traits and characteristics might lead to Dark Web use. Using survey data collected from a sample of 226 college students (62 unique Dark Web users and 160 non-users), results show that both low self-control and the Dark Triad are positively associated with Dark Web use. Additionally, this study paints a clearer picture of what a Dark Web user looks like with respect to demographics and computer skills. Limitations and recommendations for future research, including a unique validation technique for Dark Web users, are discussed.
This article examines culture, an ambiguous yet prevalent concept in comparisons of crime and justice. It investigates the extent to which culture’s application and meaning across research reflects Western-centric bias in criminological knowledge-production despite it being a concept meant to advance understanding on different groups and places beyond the “Western” worldview. The article extends the discussion on Western-centric bias but also on culture in criminology by tracing the use of this concept on East Asian populations and by identifying patterns of application and meaning in international and comparative research through a scoping review of 230 journal publications. The findings address patterns of culture’s appearance in criminology journals in the past two decades and its meaning. Similar to previous scholarship on Western-centrism in criminology, the article finds that this bias does, too, exist in uses of culture but also shows how culture’s conceptual ambiguity is conducive to this bias, in that some groups and places are given one meaning of culture while others receive another.
Agnew's revised conditioning hypothesis tests in general strain theory have received considerable attention in delinquency studies. Yet, rarely has past research focused particularly on correlations among Composite Conditioning Risk (CCR), perceptions of Traditional Gender Norms (TGN), and problem gambling. This study adds a gender perspective to the revised conditioning hypothesis in a wider spectrum of deviant acts. Through a cross-sectional survey of 1,620 Chinese married couples in Hong Kong, we investigate the role of CCR in moderating the relationships between social strain/strain-induced negative emotions and disordered gambling among married couples and how this confluence is governed by TGN perceptions. Results indicate that CCR exacerbates the effect of composite strain on gambling disorder specifically among traditional men. However, TGN does not affect the risk and link between strain-induced negative emotions and disordered gambling for either gender.
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This study extends the testing of situational action theory (SAT) to a Chinese population, and sheds new light on the directions of the moderation relationships between self-control and morality, and between crime propensity and criminogenic exposure on delinquency. Relying on a large, representative sample of middle school students from two areas of Guizhou, China ( N = 2,498), we find that both self-control and morality have significant inhibiting effects on delinquency. Moreover, self-control has a more profound curbing effect on delinquency among adolescents with higher levels of morality. Meanwhile, the promoting effect of crime propensity on delinquency decreases when levels of risky exposure increase. When adolescents have more unsupervised activities and delinquent peers, their crime propensity affects delinquency to a lesser extent. Our study confirms that individual and situational factors interlock in determining delinquency, and reiterates the value of empirical testing across cultures to validate and possibly improve general theories of crime.
The study examined the mediating role of adolescents’ self-control on the relationship between parenting styles and problem behaviors. A parenting style questionnaire, adolescents’ self-control questionnaire, and the Youth Self-Report were administered to 611 adolescents (335 boys, and 276 girls, M age = 13.17, SD = 0.46) to assess their parenting styles, self-control, and problem behaviors. The results indicated that paternal rejection was positively associated with externalizing problems and maternal rejection was positively associated with internalizing problems. Moreover, adolescents’ self-control played a mediating role in the relationship between paternal rejection and externalizing problems and between paternal rejection and internalizing problems. The findings showed that paternal and maternal rearing styles have different influences on adolescents’ internalizing and externalizing problems, respectively, and adolescents’ self-control played a mediating role in these different relationships. This study has great significance for revealing the mechanism of parenting styles on adolescents’ problem behaviors.
Since early June 2019, Hong Kong has been experiencing ongoing social unrest in response to the anti-extradition bill. These demonstrations and rallies have often ended with violent clashes between protestors and the police. Moreover, the frequent mass demonstrations that initially focused on the bill have since evolved into pro-democracy protests directed at the government and the police. This phenomenon may be associated with a growing acceptance of violence and with individuals’ pro-violence attitudes. The literature has shown that those who hold pro-violence attitudes are more likely to engage in criminal and violent activities. Using a sample of 1,024 Hong Kong adults (Mage = 29.15, age range = 18–69, 66.4% females), this cross-sectional study explores the psychosocial risk factors (i.e., deviant behavior learning, positive and negative affect, general mental health, self-control, and social bonds) underlying favorable attitudes toward violence among Hong Kongers during this period of social turmoil. Grounded in the theoretical propositions of mainstream criminology (i.e., social learning, routine activity, general strain, self-control, and social control), our findings show that female participants generally report stronger attitudes toward violence than male participants. Multivariate analyses indicate that increased positive and negative affect, stronger social bonds, and reduced self-control are significant risk factors for holding pro-violence attitudes. These findings have important research and practical implications in the areas such as public education and policy development/refinement, with the primary aim to reduce the likelihood of holding pro-violence attitudes that may prevent future escalations into actual violence.
This chapter comprehensively discusses the role of sexual sadism and psychopathy in sexual homicide, and how the presence of these two mental disorders exacerbates the severity of the offense. Despite the many different definitions proposed to define sexual sadism, disagreement continues to exist in regard to the subjective defining and diagnostic criteria of this disorder. Research on the developmental stability of psychopathy has found that individuals who are diagnosed as having psychopathy in adolescence are likely to persist with their psychopathic behaviors into adulthood. In particular, the interpersonal or affective features of psychopathy are likely to remain constant across the life course. In fact, psychopathy is found to be the single most reliable predictor of sexual recidivism, for both males and females. The most frequently reported underlying motivation of sadistic sexual killers is to exert power, control, and domination upon their victim for sexual pleasure and gratification.
Gottfredson and Hirschi’s (1990) self-control theory is perhaps one of the most parsimonious, yet debated, criminological theories. Researchers have applied the theory to several deviant behaviors, and it also addresses the issue of behaviors analogous to crime. Using the Grasmick scale (Grasmick, Tittle, Bursik, & Arneklev, Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 30, 5–29, 1993) with Higgins’ (Criminal Justice and Behavior, 34(2), 157–178, 2007) revisions, this chapter aims to demonstrate specific behaviors that measure individual levels of self-control. Michael Scott of NBC’s The Office often engages in behaviors that reflect the six constructs of the scale: impulsivity, simple tasks, risk-seeking, physical activities, self-control, and temper. Though his actions often led to feelings of frustration, irritation, and anger among his employees, Michael’s hijinks kept viewers enthralled for seven seasons and made the show one of the most iconic in history.
The study tested the mediating role of social concern – or intrinsic unselfish motivations – in the relationship among teacher bonds, deviant peer association, and youth delinquency in Korea, a cultural setting that promotes social concern. Multi-group path analysis with nationally representative data of Korean adolescents (N = 2,089) indicated that teacher bonds predicted lower levels of delinquency, whereas deviant peer association predicted higher levels. Bonding with teachers was significantly related to social concern; however, social concern predicted less deviant behavior for boys only. Prevention policies that improve the quality of teacher-youth relationships may more effectively restrain self-interested behavior than intensified punishment.
This study examines the impacts of self-control and strain variables as integrated and exclusive forces on trajectory class membership of delinquent peer association and the mediating role of self-control in GST predictions. The study also examines how later delinquency (online and offline) varies on class membership. Using longitudinal data of 2351 Korean adolescents, it employs a latent class growth analysis to identify distinct subgroups, each having a similar pattern of delinquent peer association trajectories over a five-year period. The analysis yields three subgroups: early-onset (0.9% of the sample), late peak (3.5%), and normative trajectory (95.6%). The results reveal that low self-control and strain have an exclusive influence on delinquent peer association for only the early-onset group, compared to the normative group. Low self-control partially mediates the strain-peer delinquency relationship in the early onset group. The late peak group has a higher likelihood of engaging in later delinquency and cyber-deviance.
Self-control refers to the ability to override impulses and behave in accordance with societal norms, and deficits in self-control are strongly associated with conduct problems, externalizing disorders, crime, and violence. Here, we examine the psychometric properties of the Brief Self-Control Scale (BSCS) and its refined version (BSCS-R) among a forensic sample (n=131) of incarcerated male youth and a school sample of male (n=257) and female (n=213) youth from Portugal. Confirmatory factor analysis indicated that the original one-factor structure of the BSCS and the refined two-factor structure of the BSCS-R obtained adequate fit. The BSCS demonstrated strong measurement invariance across gender and setting (forensic versus school), while the BSCS-R only revealed gender measurement invariance. The BSCS also tended to perform better that the BSCS-R in terms of other psychometric properties, including internal consistency measured by Alpha and Omega coefficients, discriminant and convergent validities, criterion validity, and known-groups validity. Findings support the use of the BSCS among justice-involved and community youth, but caution is advised regarding the use of its refined version in forensic settings.
Limited information is known about the offending phenomenon of Hong Kong adolescents, specifically from a theoretical standpoint. Using a sample of 892 secondary school students, this study aims to explore the criminogenic risk factors of juvenile delinquency in Hong Kong adolescents. Grounded in the theoretical propositions of mainstream criminological theories (i.e., self-control, social control, social learning, general strain, and routine activity), the adolescents’ types of delinquent behavior (i.e., violent, nonviolent, and general delinquency) are examined. Findings indicate that male adolescents reported significantly higher levels of violent, nonviolent, and general delinquency than female adolescents. Relative to females, males are also reported significantly higher levels of pro-violence attitudes, deviant peer influence, alcohol and drug use, and perceived neighborhood disorganization. However, female adolescents are found to have higher levels of self-control, social bonding, and negative temperament than their male counterparts. Multivariate analyses demonstrate that deviant peer influence in addition to alcohol and drug use is found to be general risk factors for engaging in all sorts of delinquent activity. A high level of pro-violence attitudes is significantly associated with violent offending, while low self-control is a significant predictor of nonviolent offending and general delinquency. Social bonding, negative temperament, and perceived neighborhood disorganization are found to be important factors associated with general delinquency. Implications of the findings are offered to address the adolescents’ criminogenic risk factors and prevent their propensity to engage in violent, nonviolent, and general delinquency.
Little is known about victims of crime in Hong Kong, particularly from a theoretical standpoint. Using a sample of 1306 secondary school students, this study aims to explore the criminogenic risk factors of victimization in Hong Kong adolescents. Grounded in the theoretical propositions of mainstream criminological theories (i.e., self-control, social control, social learning, general strain, and routine activity), the adolescents' types of victimization (i.e., overall, interpersonal, and property) are examined. The findings indicate that male adolescents reported significantly more overall and interpersonal victimization than female adolescents. Relative to female adolescents, male adolescents had significantly higher levels of pro-violence attitudes, alcohol and drug use, and perception of neighborhood disorganization, but lower levels of self-control, social bonds, and deviant peer influence. Multivariate analyses indicate that deviant peer influence and perception of neighborhood disorganization are significant risk factors of overall and interpersonal victimization, while self-control and alcohol and drug use are significantly associated with adolescents' experience with property victimization. Implications of the findings are suggested to address adolescents' criminogenic risk factors in order to reduce their probability of falling prey to victimization.
The purpose of the present study is to examine the theoretical efficiency of Hirschi’s reconceptualization of self-control in two groups of Chinese adolescents. The study also incorporates the well-established attitudinal scale from Grasmick et al. to examine whether there are any differences in the explanatory power between the two self-control scales among a comparison group of Chinese adolescents (N = 2,048). Structural equation modeling is applied to investigate the underlying theoretical structure of the self-control construct and the robustness of the scales across diverse samples. Our results provide evidence that Grasmick’s attitudinal scale has more explanatory power than that of Hirschi’s revised measure in predicting Chinese juvenile delinquency. Both measures show a better model fit in the offender sample than in the student counterparts. Our empirical test provides solid evidence for Grasmick’s attitudinal scale as a consistent predictor of Chinese juvenile delinquency compared with Hirschi’s revised measure. Theoretical and empirical directions for future research are discussed.
Gottfredson and Hirschi's (1990) general theory of crime is appealing because of its versatility and simplicity: in the general theory, criminal behavior is a function of low or absent individual self-control. However, the theory does not adequately account for distinctive features of male violence committed against women nor does it adequately consider the implications for women of taking primary responsibility for caregiving and socialization, those aspects of parenting that are most critical to the development of self-control. Gottfrcdson and Hirschi's inattention to gendered power differences and inequalities results in a theory of crime that does not challenge social relations and institutions, creates a false gender-neutrality when gender specificity is appropriate, and implicitly blames woman-dominated childcare for contemporary criminal behavior.
A consistent finding within criminology is the large sex gap in offending. Although research has examined this phenomenon extensively, the sex gap is still largely unexplained. This study proposes the sex gap in offending can be better understood through exploring the relationship between self-control and gender identity. Using data collected as part of the Tucson Youth Project, this study found gender identity was a crucial link between sex, self-control, and involvement in deviant behavior. Specifically, femininity was associated with greater self-control, and both these variables predicted deviance, even when controlling for sex. In contrast, masculinity had no effect on deviant behavior.
In this report I examine institutionalized sexism in the underworld. Crime in its more organized and lucrative dimensions
is virtually a male phenomenon. Still, sex-segregation in the underworld is variable, being more common in some crime groups
than in others. To explain this, I offer a series of propositions and hypotheses linking female access to crime groups to
their structure and methods of operation. The proposed framework elaborates on Cloward's opportunity theory by discriminating
among illegitimate opportunities depending on whether they are for underworld or upperworld crime, for organized or unorganized
crime, for lucrative or petty crime. The scheme can be extended, as well, to an interpretation of race and kinship segregation
in the underworld and to an interpretation of sex differences in upperworld crime.
Self-control theory is one of the most tested theories within the field of criminology. However, one of the basic assumptions of the theory has remained largely ignored. Gottfredson and Hirschi stated that the focus of their general theory of crime is the “connection between the self-control of the parent and the subsequent self-control of the child” (1990:100). However, no study to date has specifically tested this relationship. Using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, this study finds that mothers with low self-control do indeed produce children with lower self-control. To begin to understand the mechanism responsible for this relationship, several parenting practices used by the mothers are examined. The analysis shows that the self-control of the mother influences her choice of punishments, as well as having moderate impacts on how she supervises her children. In turn, higher supervision and several choices of punishments affect the development of self-control in the child. This study therefore provides support for a vital, yet previously unexamined, piece of the general theory of crime.
Gottfredson and Hirschi's (1990) general theory of crime is appealing because of its versatility and simplicity: in the general theory, criminal behavior is a function of low or absent individual self-control. However, the theory does not adequately account for distinctive features of male violence committed against women nor does it adequately consider the implications for women of taking primary responsibility for caregiving and socialization, those aspects of parenting that are most critical to the development of self-control. Gottfredson and Hirschi's inattention to gendered power differences and inequalities results in a theory of crime that does not challenge social relations and institutions, creates a false gender-neutrality when gender specificity is appropriate, and implicitly blames woman-dominated child-care for contemporary criminal behavior.
This paper presents a clinical inquiry at how one young male ex-offender described his time in custody, how his time had been constructively spent during detention, and the effect of a detention center order on his offending behavior one year after his discharge. In so doing, it allowed him to talk about his institutionalized experience and to assess the impact of detention on him. The rich, long and in-depth interview data was presented in the form of direct quotations. First, an investigation of that insider's knowledge of the initial detention experience was given. Second, a description of how he ‘did’ his time in a place where a ‘short, sharp shock’ punishment was heavily stressed. Third, he was also asked to comment on the usefulness of detention on reducing criminal behavior. Finally, concluding thoughts on the corrective programs are given.
This study examines self-control theory using the criminal records of 500 adult arrestees. Four indicators taken from official rap sheets (aliases, Social Security numbers, and dates and places of birth) were used to create a self-control measure. Negative binomial regression models indicated that offenders who scored low on the self-control measure accumulated significantly more violent Index, property Index, white-collar, and nuisance arrests net the effects of control variables. These findings contribute to the empirical support for self-control theory and indicate that self-control is salient using a criminal sample.
Prior research examining the effect of self-control and delinquent peers on crime suggests that both variables are strong correlates and that controlling for one fails to eliminate the effects of the other. Yet prior research was based on indirect and possibly biased indicators of peer delinquency. Recent research using direct measures of delinquent peers, as reported by respondents' peers themselves, indicates that the relationship between peer delinquency and self-reported delinquency is smaller than when respondents report on their peers' behavior. The present study extends this line of work by examining the effect of self-control on delinquency when controlling for these two measures of delinquent peers. The results indicate that the effect of self-control is greater in magnitude in models using the direct measure of peer delinquency relative to models that rely on the traditional measure of delinquent peers. An interaction between self-control and the direct measure of peer delinquency was also found. Implications for future theory testing are discussed.
This article addresses two propositions on white-collar crime derived from a general theory of crime recently proposed by Gottfredson and Hirschi. This theory predicts that white-collar offenders are (a) as criminally versatile and (b) as prone to deviance as common offenders. To assess the validity of these propositions, the authors investigate the criminal records of white-collar and common offenders and their respective levels of participation in deviant activities. As the general theory predicts, some white-collar offenders are involved in crime and deviance to much the same degree as typical street criminals. A large majority differ significantly from street criminals in these regards, contradicting the theory and limiting its generality. The authors argue that the theory's rejection of motives as important causal forces is misguided and that a more complex causal structure is needed to account for patterns of white-collar offending.
In 1999, Schreck extended Gottfredson and Hirschi's (1990) self-control theory to explain victimization and the victim-offender overlap. His analysis of college students revealed that low self-control was significantly associated with victimization. We build on Shreck's work by assessing whether low self-control contributes to victimization among a sample of female offenders while controlling for routine activities/lifestyle behaviors. We advanced two research questions: (1) Can self-control theory account for variations in victimization? (2) Do risky lifestyle behaviors mediate the effects of self-control? The results were consistent with the hypothesis that low self-control is a risk factor for victimization, even after lifestyle behaviors were controlled.
In this essay we sketch core elements of feminist thought and demonstrate their relevance for criminology. After reviewing the early feminist critiques of the discipline and the empirical emphases of the 1970s and early 1980s, we appraise current issues and debates in three areas: building theories of gender and crime, controlling men's violence toward women, and gender equality in the criminal justice system. We invite our colleagues to reflect on the androcentrism of the discipline and to appreciate the promise of feminist inquiry for rethinking problems of crime and justice.
Gottfredson and Hirschi's recently introduced general theory of crime has received considerable empirical support. Researchers have found that low self-control, the general theory's core concept, is related to lawbreaking and to deviant behaviors considered by Gottfredson and Hirschi to be “analogous” to crime. In this article, we extend this research by assessing the effects of low self-control on crime and analogous behaviors and by using two distinct measures of self-control, an attitudinal measure and the analogous/behavior scale. Thus, following Gottfredson and Hirschi, we use analogous imprudent behaviors as outcomes of low self-control and as indicators of low self-control's effects on crime. We also examine an important but thus far neglected part of the theory: the claim that low self-control has effects not only on crime but also on life chances, life quality, and other social consequences. Consistent with the general theory, we found that both measures of self-control, attitudinal and behavioral, have effects on crime, even when controlling for a range of social factors. Further, the analysis revealed general support for the theory's prediction of negative relationships between low self-control and social consequences other than crime—life outcomes and quality of life.
Gender’s role in self-control measures has been largely neglected. Although studies show that males have lower self-control than females, rarely have researchers questioned whether items used to measure self-control should be used for both groups. This study uses a Rasch rating scale analysis to assess item functioning of Grasmick et al.’s 24-item self-control scale for males and females. Using a sample of young adults, results indicate that 33% of the scale items showed differential functioning or item bias; that is, after controlling for self-control, females found one third of the items to be either more or less agreeable than males. Once biased items were removed from the scale, males, on average, still had lower self-control than females. In addition, after excluding biased items from the scale, the effect of self-control on criminal behavior and other outcomes was similar to the effect found with the full 24-item scale. Suggestions for future research on Grasmick et al.’s self-control scale are offered, and limitations of the current study are discussed.
Analysis presented provides strong support for considering individual differences along personality dimensions to predict self-reported delinquency. The paper provides an explicit test of the Gottfredson and Hirschi concept of self-control and its utility in explaining variation in interpersonal delinquency, theft, vandalism, legal substance use, illegal substance use, and impnident behaviors. Multivariate analysis demonstrates that while the predictive power of the composite self-control measure is substantial, the six dimensions of self-control outlined by Gottfredson and Hirschi should not be combined into one self-control construct, but should instead be treated as six different personality characteristics when seeking (o explain different types of delinquency. The self-control construct and its six dimensions are tested independently on a sample of 975 juvenile respondents from Oklahoma who participated in a self-report survey in 1991. Findings suggest the dissagregation of both the Gottfredson and Hirschi self-control measure, and composite measures of delinquency commonly used in delinquency research.
This article assesses empirically whether Gottfredson and Hirschi's “general theory” can account for the “gender gap” in crime and, when rival theories are included in the analysis, can explain criminal behavior for both males and females. Based on a sample of 555 adults, the results indicate that the relationship of gender to crime becomes nonsignificant when self-control is introduced into the analysis. Further, when males and females are analyzed separately, self-control is related, albeit differently, to males' and females' criminal involvement. These results suggest that Gottfredson and Hirschi's general theory should be incorporated into future empirical assessments of gender and crime.
Several empirical studies have attempted to estimate the effect of low self-control on criminal and "analogous" behaviors. Most of these studies have shown that low self- control is an important feature of the cause(s) of crime. Although research is begin- ning to emerge that targets more specifically the "roots" of self-control via parental socialization (the most salient factor in the development of self-control according to Hirschi and Gottfredson), researchers have yet to explore the degree to which the structural characteristics of communities may influence patterns of parental social- ization and, in turn, individual levels of self-control. To address this question, the authors employ longitudinal data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY) to examine community-level influences on parental socialization and self- control. The results indicate (1) self-control was predicted both cross-sectionally and longitudinally by both parental socialization and adverse neighborhood conditions, (2) the total effect of adverse neighborhood conditions on children's levels of self- control was just as strong as the total effect for indicators of parental socialization, and (3) important race differences did emerge, particularly with regard to the inter- relationships between our neighborhood-level measures and parental socialization.
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Agnew's general strain theory (GST) and Gottfredson and Hirschi's self-control theory represent significant theoretical developments in sociology of deviance over the last two decades. Both theories offer unique insights into the well-known controversy of gender disparity in crime and delinquency. Incorporating their ideas and testing them in a Chinese context, this study investigates the role of self-control, which has been seldom included in GST assessments, in moderating the strain-delinquency relationship and analyzes whether this conditioning effect varies by gender. Using data from 1,015 Chinese students in Hong Kong, negative binominal regression models found that self-control is a gender-specific conditioning factor of strain. Self-control mitigates the effects of certain strains on delinquency for females only. Yet, unexpectedly, coercive parenting decreases male delinquency and moderates the impact of low self-control in males. The implications of Chinese cultural forces for the perception of strain and the conditioning influence of self-control merit closer attention.
The purpose of this study was to examine the utility of social control theory's “attachment” and “involvement” bonds as protective factors to examine gender differences in reports of delinquency and academic achievement in a sample of 7th to 12th graders. Attachment bonds were operationalized as attachment to parents, to nonparent adults, and to peers; involvement bonds were operationalized as time spent in various school- and non-school-based activities. It was expected that, with respect to delinquency and academic achievement, attachment bond variables would be more protective for females than the involvement bond variables, whereas the involvement bond variables would be more protective for males than the attachment bond variables. The findings suggest that although several of the involvement bond variables of social control theory are predictive of both delinquency and academic achievement for both genders, only the attachment bond variables provide such an overall protective function for females. Implications for theory and practice are discussed.
Three alternative theories of the continuity of delinquent behavior throughout childhood and into adolescence were evaluated with a series of nested structural equation models in a sample of 840 middle adolescents. Longitudinal analyses revealed that childhood behavior problems were related directly and indirectly (through age-graded social control variables) to adolescent delinquency among boys. Childhood behavior problems had unmediated effects on girls' major delinquency but were only indirectly related to girls' minor delinquency.
From learning and opportunity perspectives, peer group structural dimensions shed light on social processes that can amplify or ameliorate the risk of having delinquent friends. Previous research has not accounted for a primary criminological variable, self-control, limiting theoretical clarity. The authors developed three hypotheses about self-control's potential role in deviant peer structure: it may underlie and explain the (spurious) relationship between deviant peers or peer structure and delinquency, be partially exogenous to deviant peers and deviant peer structure, and moderate the effects of deviant peers and deviant peer structure. To test these hypotheses, the authors used data from a longitudinal sample of adolescents containing peer self-reports of delinquency. The results suggest that self-control and deviant peers are complementary. This is the first study demonstrating this relationship with self-reports of deviance rather than perceptions. Less support was found for the conditioning impact of deviant network structure than in previous work. Some differential patterns also emerged by gender and race. Implications of these findings are discussed.
In A General Theory of Crime, Gottfredson and Hirschi propose that low self-control, in interaction with criminal opportunity, is the major cause of crime. The research reported in this article attempts to test this argument while closely following the nominal definitions presented by Gottfredson and Hirschi. A factor analysis of items designed to measure low self-control is consistent with their contention that the trait is unidimensional. Further, the proposed interaction effect is found for self-reported acts of both fraud and force (their definition of crime). Inconsistent with the theory are (a) the finding that criminal opportunity has a significant main effect, beyond its interaction with low self-control, on self-reported crime and (b) the substantial proportion of variance in crime left unexplained by the theoretical variables. Suggestions are offered for modifying and expanding the theory.
Research evaluation of rehabilitation programs has used minimal contribution or participation from the ex-offenders who are the subjects or objects of study, and little attention has been paid to those who receive these services. This article looks at what young ex-offenders said about their experience of residential treatment programs in the probation homes and the detention center in Hong Kong. Based on in-depth, qualitative interviews with five young male ex-offenders, this small-scale study may shed light on how they perceive the advantages and disadvantages of treatment programs for them. Although loss of freedom, pains of detention, and doing time are a result of being locked up, some report their residential experiences as a fruitful way to enable them to grow out of crime and to cause them to reevaluate relationships with their families. Finally, an outline of what further research or policy evaluation could and should be done is given.
We examined the relation between personality traits and crime in two studies. In New Zealand we studied 18-year-old males and females from an entire birth cohort. In Pittsburgh we studied an ethnically diverse group of 12- and 13-year-old boys. In both studies we gathered multiple and independent measures of personality and delinquent involvement. The personality correlates of delinquency were robust in different nations, in different age cohorts, across gender, and across race: greater delinquent participation was associated with a personality configuration characterized by high Negative Emotionality and weak Constraint. We suggest that when Negative Emotionality (the tendency to experience aversive affective states) is accompanied by weak Constraint (difficulty in impulse control), negative emotions may be translated more readily into antisocial acts. We review additional evidence about the developmental origins and consequences of this personality configuration and discuss its implications for theories about antisocial behavior.
Social control theory has been one of the most influential explanations of crime and delinquency for many years. Gottfredson and Hirschi propose a new general theory of crime that includes individual restraints on behavior, or “self‐control,” as distinguished from social restraints. The elements of self‐control include an ability to defer gratification, the tendency to be cautious and diligent, cognitive ability, and sensitivity toward others. In this paper we analyze the construct of self‐control and its relationship to official and self‐reported measures of juvenile delinquency.
This article presents an empirical test of Gottfredson and Hirschi's general theory of crime. Measures of crime equivalents were regressed on a measure of self-control and other relevant independent variables to determine their independent effects. Self-control was found to have the strongest effect.
According to Gottfredson and Hirschi (Gottfredson, M. R., & Hirschi, T. [199021.
Gottfredson MR
Hirschi T (1990) A general theory of crime Stanford Stanford University Press View all references]. A general theory of crime. Stanford: Stanford University Press), individuals with low self‐control are likely to have unstable personal relationships and select into similar peer groups. Although a great deal is known about the effect of peers on delinquency, and research indicates that low self‐control is associated with poorer personal bonds in adults, the relationship between self‐control, peer relations, and adolescent delinquency is less well known. Developmental research suggests that impulsive children are more likely to be rejected by their peers and may have few conventional peer choices. This research investigates the process through which self‐control influences peer relations and delinquency. Significant direct effects of self‐control on peer rejection, association with deviant peers and delinquency were found, while self‐control remained a significant predictor of delinquency net of association with deviant peers. Implications for the general theory of crime, peer relations, and causes of delinquency are discussed.
This paper builds on work by Nagin and Paternoster in which they contend that two recent developments in criminological theory, self-control and rational choice, have been explored separately rather than in conjunction with one another. In their analysis, Nagin and Paternoster found direct effects for variables from each of these theories and called for more research into simultaneous examination of the two. We build on their work by delineating a more highly specified model of rational offending, in which we observe that the research thus far has not examined the indirect effects of low self-control. We believe that this area is grossly underdeveloped and that such an examination is necessary for a more complete understanding of criminal offending. We advance three hypotheses concerning the integration of low self-control into a rational choice framework: (1) that low self-control will have both direct and indirect effects via situational characteristics on intentions to shoplift and drive drunk; (2) that situational characteristics will have direct effects on intentions to deviate, as well as effects on other situational factors; and (3) that a model uniting the effects of low self-control and situational characteristics will provide a good fit to the data. We find support for all these hypotheses and suggest that future theoretical developments will be improved by the integration of low self-control with situational characteristics in a more general model of offending.
This paper tests the relationship between self-control, social-control, gender, age, ethnicity, social class and delinquent behaviour. The data source is a survey of senior and junior high school students in Alberta, Canada. Results offer strong support for the General Theory of Crime (Gottfredson and Hirschi, 1990), in that self-control is the strongest predictor of all types of delinquency. Moreover, self and social-control interact in their relationship with delinquency, as suggested by the control theories. However, among various dimensions of self-control, risk-seeking followed by impulsivity are more predictive of delinquent behaviour than other dimensions. Contrary to our hypothesis, present orientation, carelessness and restlessness are unrelated to delinquency. Finally, gender, age and ethnicity maintain a significant relationship with delinquency even after controlling for self-and social-control.
In this study, the authors tested two hypotheses drawn from the general theory of crime. The first hypothesis is that low self-control is a major individual-level cause of crime. The second, that the effect of self-control is contingent on criminal opportunity. The measure of self-control used was a 23-item self-report index. To measure criminal opportunity, two proxy variables were used: gender and crime-involved friends. Crime measures included number of criminal acts of force and number of criminal acts of fraud reported in a 6-month recall period by a sample of 522 criminal offenders. Self-control was lower among offenders reporting more crimes of force and fraud, but the variance explained by self-control was low in each case. The relationship between self-control and fraud crimes was contingent on criminal opportunity, but the relationship between self-control and force crimes was not. Implications of these findings for the general theory of crime are reviewed.
A self-report instrument that included a parental management scale, a self-control scale, and measures of deviance was administered to 289 university students. Models based on Gottfredson and Hirschi's general theory were tested by using path analysis. The analysis generally supported Gottfredson and Hirschi's theory, and suggested the usefulness of a measure of self-control that includes cognitive, affective, and behavioral aspects.
This article argues that existing delinquency theories are fundamentally inadequate to the task of explaining female delinquency and official reactions to girls' deviance. To establish this, the article first reviews the degree of the androcentric bias in the major theories of delinquent behavior. Then the need for a feminist model of female delinquency is explored by reviewing the available evidence on girls' offending. This review shows that the extensive focus on disadvantaged males in public settings has meant that girls' victimization and the relationship between that experience and girls' crime has been systematically ignored. Also missed has been the central role played by the juvenile justice system in the sexualization of female delinquency and the criminalization of girls' survival strategies. Finally, it will be suggested that the official actions of the juvenile justice system should be understood as major forces in women's oppression as they have historically served to reinforce the obedience of all young women to the demands of patriarchal authority no matter how abusive and arbitrary.
In explaining crime, some criminological theories emphasize time-stable individual differences in propensity to offend while others emphasize more proximate and situational factors. Using scenario data from a sample of college undergraduates we have found evidence to support both positions. A measure of criminal propensity (poor self-control) was found to be significantly related to self-reported decisions to commit three offenses (drunk driving, theft, and sexual assault). Even after considering differences in self-control, there was evidence to suggest that the attractiveness of the crime target, the ease of committing the crime with minimum risk, and perceptions of the costs and benefits of committing the crime were all significantly related to offending decisions. Our results suggest that theories of criminal offending should include notions pertaining to persistent individual differences in criminal propensity and choice-relevant variables.
Recently, Gottfredson and Hirschi proposed a general theory of crime. Central to the theory is the assumption that most criminal behavior is impulsive and reflects a lack of self-control. Thus criminals are seen as risk takers who are less restrained than noncriminals from illegal activities. In a secondary analysis of data from a roadside traffic survey, this study attempts to test Gottfredson and Hirschi's theory by examining the relationship between self-control and driving under the influence of alcohol. Using several indicators of self-control, the results support the existence of a relationship for both men and women between low self-control and driving under the influence of alcohol.
Using a sample of 400 homeless street youth, this article examines the role that self- control plays in the generation of crime and drug use as well as its link to negative social consequences. It also explores if these social consequences are themselves related to crime as predicted in strain and differential association theory, or if their impact is eliminated by the presence of low self-control. The results reveal that low self-control predicts a range of criminal behaviors as well as drug use. Consistent with the general theory, low self-control influences the association with deviant peers, the adoption of deviant values, length of unemployment, and length of homelessness. However, the results reveal that a number of social consequences; including deviant peers, deviant values, length of homelessness, relative deprivation, and monetary dis- satisfaction; have an effect on criminal behavior and drug use controlling for self- control lending support to other theoretical perspectives. Results are discussed in terms of developing the general theory by incorporating other perspectives.