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Salivary IgA Response and Upper Respiratory Tract Infection Symptoms During a 21-Week Competitive Season in Young Soccer Players
Abstract and Figures
Moreira, A, Mortatti, AL, Arruda, AFS, Freitas, CG, de Arruda, M, and Aoki, MS. Salivary IgA response and upper respiratory tract infection symptoms during a 21-week competitive season in young soccer players. J Strength Cond Res 28(2): 467-473, 2014-Sports training and competition are significant sources of stress, especially for young athletes. It is well known that physiological and psychological stressors induce neuroendocrine responses that could modulate immune system function. However, to date, little is known about the immune responses of young soccer players during a competitive season. Therefore, this study examined the effects of a 21-week competitive season divided into preseason, competitive season, and detraining on salivary immunoglobulin A (SIgA), upper respiratory tract infection (URTI) symptoms, and salivary cortisol in preadolescent male soccer players. Thirty-four young soccer players agreed to participate, and 26 (12.9 ± 0.2 years) completed the entire study. The investigation period was structured as follows: a 12-week preparatory training phase (preseason training), a 7-week competitive and a 2-week detraining phase. Resting saliva samples were taken to determine cortisol and SIgA responses. The players were required to complete a weekly log during the entire investigation reporting every sign or symptoms consistent with URTI. A significant increase in SIgA secretion rate and a decrease in URTI symptoms were observed after the 2-week detraining period (p < 0.05). No change was observed for cortisol during the study. These results indicate that training and competition demands affect the mucosal immune responses of young athletes. In addition, a short-prophylactic period (2-week detraining period) after a competitive period may attenuate mucosal immunosuppression related to URTI symptoms. Sport coaches should monitor markers of mucosal immune function to minimize illness that ultimately might lead to a decrease in performance.
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... However, there are important points to note regarding the interpretation of s-SIgA levels quantified using the LFD method, in particular, regarding the saliva flow rate (saliva volume). In many studies, the s-SIgA secretion rate calculated from the product of the s-SIgA concentration and saliva flow rate has been used to evaluate s-SIgA [12,[19][20][21]. This is because even if the s-SIgA concentration shows an apparently high value due to condensation, the absolute amount of s-SIgA may not necessarily increase when corrected by the amount of saliva per unit of time. ...
Background/Objectives: Volleyball training camps are known to reduce salivary secretory immunoglobulin A (s-SIgA); however, when it begins to decrease is unclear. The validity of a simple device for quantifying s-SIgA is lacking; hence, this study aimed to observe detailed s-SIgA changes during a volleyball training camp after moving to a high altitude and to investigate the difference in s-SIgA response between the two quantification methods, namely, the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and lateral flow device (LFD). Methods: Twenty-four male university volleyball players participated in the observational study. Measurements were collected at three points of the training camp (days 1, 4, and 7). The s-SIgA was quantified using conventional ELISA and the new LFD method. Results: The s-SIgA concentrations quantified using the two methods decreased significantly by day 4 (p < 0.05) and continued to decrease until day 7 (p < 0.05). A significant positive correlation was found between the s-SIgA concentrations quantified using the LFD and ELISA (p < 0.05, rs = 0.319). Conclusions: These results indicate that a high-altitude volleyball training camp may suppress oral immune function by day 4 and that the evaluation of s-SIgA concentration using the LFD method is beneficial. A faster and easier method for assessing s-SIgA could contribute to athletes’ condition management strategies.
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Background
A high-performance sport like soccer requires training strategies that aim to reach peak performance at the right time for the desired competitions. Thus, the investigation of biochemical markers in saliva is a tool that is beginning to be used in athletes within the physical training process. There is still no evidence on universal saliva collection and analysis protocols in soccer. This review aims to map the use of saliva as a tool for analyzing athletic performance in soccer, from the biomarkers used to the validated protocols for these analyses.
Methods
A broad systematic literature search was carried out in the electronic databases Web of Science, Livivo, Scopus, PubMed, LILACS and gray literature (Google Scholar and ProQuest). Two reviewers selected the studies and extracted data on the type of salivary collection used, the salivary biomarker evaluated and monitored.
Results
Ninety-three articles were included. The most frequently analyzed salivary biomarkers were cortisol ( n = 53), testosterone ( n = 35), secretory immunoglobulin A (SIgA) ( n = 33), salivary alpha amylase ( n = 7), genetic polymorphisms ( n = 4) and miRNAs ( n = 2). The results of the studies indicated beneficial effects in monitoring salivary biomarkers in the assessment of sports performance, although most studies did not include a control group capable of comparison. Salivary collection and analysis protocols were varied and commonly not reported.
Conclusions
This scoping review provides a comprehensive overview of the current landscape of salivary biomarker research in soccer. The findings underscore the importance of these biomarkers in assessing athletes’ physiological responses and overall well-being. Future research should focus on refining methodologies, exploring additional biomarkers, and investigating the practical implications of salivary biomarker monitoring in soccer and other sports.
... Intensive training has been reported to decrease the secretion of SIgA, making athletes more vulnerable to URTI, which may further interfere with their training and increase the likelihood of missing training days [6]. A study reported that soccer players experienced a significant increase in SIgA secretion rate and a decrease in URTI following a 2-week detraining period after the competitive season [7]. Moreover, another study also indicated that the typical decline of an individual's relative SIgA over the 3 weeks before an URTI appeared to precede and contribute to the URTI risk [8]. ...
Background
Maintaining proper immune function and hormone status is important for athletes to avoid upper respiratory tract infection (URTI) and insufficient recovery, which is detrimental to sport performance and health. The aim of this study was to evaluate whether three-week supplementation of L-glutamine could benefit the mucosal immunity and hormonal status of combat-sport athletes as well as their rates of upper respiratory tract infection (URTI) and subjective feelings of well-being after intensive training.
Methods
Twenty-one combat-sport athletes from the National Taiwan University of Sport were recruited in this study. After intensive training, two groups of the participants were asked to consume powder form of 0.3 g/kg body weight of L-glutamine (GLU group) or maltodextrin (PLA group) with drinking water in a randomized design at the same time every day during 3 weeks. Saliva samples were collected to measure immunoglobulin A (IgA), nitric oxide (NO), testosterone (T) and cortisol (C) before and after three-week supplementation; moreover, Hooper’s index questionnaires were completed for wellness assessment. The incidence and duration of URTI were recorded by using a health checklist throughout the entire study period.
Results
Supplementation of L-glutamine significantly enhanced the concentrations of IgA and NO in saliva; additionally, the incidence of URTI was significantly reduced. Regarding hormones, T concentration was significantly decreased in the PLA group, whereas C concentration was significantly increased, resulting in a significant decrease of T/C ratio. In contrast, the GLU group showed a significant increase of T/C ratio, while the mood scores of the Hooper’s index questionnaire were higher in the PLA group.
Conclusions
Three-week supplementation of L-glutamine after intensive training enhanced the mucosal immunity, improved hormonal status and reduced the rate of URTI of combat-sport athletes while feelings of well-being were also enhanced. Therefore, L-glutamine would be beneficial for the sports performance and recovery of athletes.
... Furusawa et al. [70] found no significant differences in upper respiratory tract infection rates in a cohort of wheelchair marathon racers. Conversely, Moreira et al. [71] monitored salivary IgA, salivary cortisol, and upper respiratory tract infection symptoms within a cohort of 34 soccer players during practice season, competition and post-season. They found that the number of upper respiratory symptoms significantly reduced, while salivary IgA significantly increased 2 weeks after the competition season ended. ...
Background:
Physiological and biochemical processes across tissues of the body are regulated in response to the high demands of intense physical activity in several occupations, such as firefighting, law enforcement, military, and sports. A better understanding of such processes can ultimately help improve human performance and prevent illnesses in the work environment.
Methods:
To study regulatory processes in intense physical activity simulating real-life conditions, we performed a multi-omics analysis of three biofluids (blood plasma, urine, and saliva) collected from 11 wildland firefighters before and after a 45 min, intense exercise regimen. Omics profiles post- versus pre-exercise were compared by Student's t-test followed by pathway analysis and comparison between the different omics modalities.
Results:
Our multi-omics analysis identified and quantified 3835 proteins, 730 lipids and 182 metabolites combining the 3 different types of samples. The blood plasma analysis revealed signatures of tissue damage and acute repair response accompanied by enhanced carbon metabolism to meet energy demands. The urine analysis showed a strong, concomitant regulation of 6 out of 8 identified proteins from the renin-angiotensin system supporting increased excretion of catabolites, reabsorption of nutrients and maintenance of fluid balance. In saliva, we observed a decrease in 3 pro-inflammatory cytokines and an increase in 8 antimicrobial peptides. A systematic literature review identified 6 papers that support an altered susceptibility to respiratory infection.
Conclusion:
This study shows simultaneous regulatory signatures in biofluids indicative of homeostatic maintenance during intense physical activity with possible effects on increased infection susceptibility, suggesting that caution against respiratory diseases could benefit workers on highly physical demanding jobs.
... EBV transmits primarily via the close contact, such as saliva. For children with RTIs, they are infected primarily through the saliva [18], which increased the transmission of EBV infection. ...
Background
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection is likely to co-occur in pediatric respiratory tract infections (RTIs). Liver injury is the common complication of EBV infection. The detailed risk factors for liver injury in EBV infection remain elusive. We aimed to investigate the incidence, characteristics and potential risk factors for liver injury in EBV infection for early risk prediction.
Methods
We retrospectively recruited the pediatric RTIs cases with EBV infection according to a predefined criteria from our hospital between January 2015 and December 2017. We extracted the clinical and laboratory data from the electronical medical records. The impact of age, gender, and various parameters on the liver injury risk was investigated. Univariate logistic regression analysis was performed to analyse the association between clinical/laboratory parameters and liver injury. The related indexes were enrolled in the multivariate logistic regression analysis. Decision curve analysis was used to yield the value of related parameters in predicting liver injury. Receiver operating curve (ROC) analysis was applied to produce the C-index of white blood cell (WBC) count for liver injury. We also tested the non-linear association between WBC count and alanine aminotransferase (ALT).
Results
A total of 216 pediatric RTIs with EBV infection were enrolled. EBV infection is more likely to occur during the winter season. Cytomegalovirus infection was independently associated with liver injury in EBV infection (OR = 6.972, 95% CI = 1.648–29.490, p = 0.008). WBC count was independently associated with liver injury in EBV infection (OR = 1.169, 95% CI = 1.051–1.301, p = 0.004). The P interaction value between WBC count and cytomegalovirus was 0.149. The decision curve analysis showed that WBC count had larger area under curve compared with platelet (PLT) and birthweight (BW). ROC analysis yielded the c-index of WBC count: 0.75 and cut-point of 8.3. The turning point of WBC count in its association with ALT was 16.8. The p value before and after the turning point was < 0.001 and 0.123, respectively.
Conclusions
Cytomegalovirus co-infection demonstrated 5.972 more times of liver injury risk in EBV infection. WBC count was an independent biomarker for liver injury before the turning point of 16.8 in EBV infection. More attention should be paid to the risk of EBV infection in the winter. Cytomegalovirus infection and WBC count merit attention in the monitoring of possible liver injury in EBV infection among pediatric RTIs.
... Отмечена существенная обратная корреляция между уровнем sIgA в слюне в здоровом состоянии и количеством перенесенных инфекций в год у детей 6 мес -6 лет [20]. Показано также, что повышение концентрации sIgA в слюне сопровождалось снижением частоты ОРВИ (такие данные выявлены у спортсменов в восстановительном периоде после интенсивных тренировок и соревнований) [51,52]. ...
Aim: To evaluate the effect of carbocysteine on cough and the level of secretory immunoglobulin A (sIgA) in saliva in children with acute respiratory viral infections (ARVI) and the presence of a correlation between the level of sIgA in saliva and the total cough index. Design: Multicentre observational study. Materials and methods. 156 children older than 2 years (4.4 ± 1.2 years) with ARVI were included in the study. All patients received carbocysteine at the age dosage. The total cough index and the concentration of sIgA in saliva were measured on days 1–2 and on days 7–10 from the onset of ARVI. Results. The total cough index significantly decreased in 98.7% of patients by the 7–10th day of illness. The level of sIgA in saliva was initially 26.49 (8.94; 56.51) μg/ml, in dynamics — 30.07 (8.52; 60.40) μg/ml (no significant differences were found). An increase in the level of sIgA in dynamics was noted in 43.6% of patients, and in the vast majority of them the increase was significant — 20% or more. A decrease in the concentration of sIgA in dynamics was noted in 55.8% of patients. A significant correlation was found between sIgA concentrations in saliva at the first and second visits (p < 0,001). There was no significant correlation between the total cough index and sIgA levels. Conclusion. A significant positive dynamic of cough was noted in patients with ARVI during treatment with carbocysteine. The concentration of sIgA in saliva varies within a wide range. A multidirectional change in the level of sIgA in saliva over time was noted in children with ARVI. Further study of the mechanisms of local mucosal immunity can help in the development of new approaches to the treatment and prevention of ARVI. Keywords: carbocysteine, secretory immunoglobulin A in saliva, acute respiratory viral infections in children, cough, mucosal immunity.
Physical activity is important for people of all ages as it plays a significant role in maintaining overall health, including enhancing the immune system. This review study aims to investigate how physical exercise can have an impact on the immunological response among adolescents. The study performed a literature search in the Medline through EBSCO, Cochrane Library, Scopus and PUBMED database in December 2023. This review included English-language scientific articles published between 1 st January 2010 and 31 st January 2024, empirical research exclusively and studies on healthy adolescents. The review was conducted according to the PRISMA principles (PRISMA-ScR) and scoping studies’ methodological framework. The results of the scoping search through the above-selected databases showed that there were 1887 articles. During the full-text review, 134 papers were initially included. Ultimately, only 12 articles were included in the final review, with 122 excluded for not meeting the inclusion criteria. These studies collectively suggested that regular exercise can have significant positive effects on various aspects of the immune system in adolescents, such as reducing inflammation and increasing anti-inflammatory cytokines. Improvements in physical fitness and body composition were also noted, especially with long-term interventions. Some studies showed that exercise can influence immune responses, potentially reducing infection risk. However, exercise intensity and duration played crucial roles in determining the extent of immunological and inflammatory responses. Future studies should integrate consistent aerobic and strength training, while also ensuring that physical activities are pleasurable and varied to foster sustained participation among teenagers.
Sporcu Sağlığında Probiyotiklerin Yeri The Role Of Probiotics in Athlete Health Ayşe Nur KAHVE*1 *1Sorumlu Yazar, Selçuk Üniversitesi Sağlık Bilimleri Fakültesi Beslenme ve Diyetetik Bölümü; Konya, Türkiye aysenurkahve@aksaray.edu.tr https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6960-7204 ÖZET Düzenli fiziksel aktivite ve düşük/orta yoğunlukta egzersiz faydalı adaptasyonlardır. Epitel hücreleri arasındaki sıkı bağlantı proteinlerin parçalanmasını önleyip ısı şoku proteinlerinin ısı stresine tepkisini azaltarak bağırsak bariyerinin uzun vadeli direncini artırmaktadır. Ancak yoğun fiziksel egzersizlerin uygulanması, üst solunum yolu enfeksiyonlarının görülme sıklığının artmasıyla ilişkili olarak bağışıklığın baskılanması, oksidatif stresin artması ve gastrointestinal sistem (GIT) bozuklukları ile ilişkilidir. Bu koşullar genellikle yarışma dönemlerinde (daha yoğun antrenman dönemi) meydana gelmekte ve sporcunun sağlığını ve fiziksel performansı olumsuz etkilemektedir. Probiyotik takviyelerinin bu semptomları önleyebileceği mekanizmalar nedene göre farklılık göstermekle birlikte umut verici olduğu ileri sürülmektedir. Probiyotiklerin bağışıklık fonksiyonu ve özellikle de solunum yolu enfeksiyonlarına karşı direnci iyileştirme potansiyeline sahip olduğu ve sporcularda bu özelliklerinin kullanım alanları bu makalede derlenmiştir. Mevcut araştırma sonuçlarında probiyotiklerin ve mekanizmalarının sporculardaki uzun vadeli müdahale etkilerinin hala belirsizliğini koruduğu düşünülmektedir. Probiyotik uygulamalarına yönelik geniş ölçekli, uzun vadeli, randomize kontrollü çalışmaların yapılmasına ihtiyaç vardır. Anahtar Kelimeler: egzersiz, immün sistem, probiyotik takviyesi, sporcu sağlığı ABSTRACT Regular physical activity and low to moderate intensity exercise are beneficial adaptations. The tight junction proteins between epithelial cells prevent the breakdown of tight junctions and increase the long-term resilience of the intestinal barrier by reducing the response of heat shock proteins to heat stress. However, the implementation of intense physical exercises is associated with the suppression of immunity, increased frequency of upper respiratory tract infections, heightened oxidative stress, and gastrointestinal (GI) disorders. These conditions typically occur during competition periods (more intense training periods) and adversely affect the athlete's health and physical performance. The mechanisms through which probiotic supplements may prevent these symptoms vary depending on the cause, yet they hold promise. The article compiles the potential of probiotics to enhance immune function, particularly in combating respiratory tract infections, and discusses their applications in athletes. In light of current research findings, it is considered that the long-term intervention effects of probiotics and their mechanisms in athletes still remain uncertain. There is a need for large-scale, long-term, randomized controlled trials on probiotic interventions. Keywords: exercise, immune system, probiotic supplementation, athlete health
This systematic review synthesizes evidence on biomarker responses to physiological loads in professional male team sport athletes, providing insights into induced fatigue states. Structured searches across major databases yielded 28 studies examining various biomarkers in elite team sport players. Studies evaluated muscle damage markers, anabolic/catabolic hormones reflecting metabolic strain, inflammatory markers indicating immune activity and tissue damage, immunological markers tied to infection risk, and oxidative stress markers showing redox imbalances from excessive physiological load. Responses were examined in official matches and training across competitive seasons. The evidence shows that professional team sports induce significant alterations in all studied
biomarkers, reflecting measurable physiological strain, muscle damage, oxidative stress, inflammation, and immunosuppression during intensive exercise. These effects tend to be larger and more prolonged after official matches compared to training. Reported recovery time courses range from 24-h to several days post-exercise. Monitoring biomarkers enables quantifying cumulative fatigue and physiological adaptations to training/competition loads, helping to optimize performance while mitigating injury and overtraining. Key biomarkers include creatine kinase, testosterone, cortisol, testosterone/cortisol ratio, salivary immunoglobulin-A, and markers of inflammation and oxidative stress. Further research should extend biomarker monitoring to cover psychological stress and affective states alongside physiological metrics for deeper insight into athlete wellness and readiness.
Antrenman iç yükü, antrenman veya yarışma esnasında sporcu organizmasının maruz kaldığı stresler sonucunda oluşan fizyolojik ve psikolojik tepkilerdir. Antrenman iç yük ölçümleri sporcudaki fizyolojik süreçlerle ilgili daha detaylı ve objektif bilgiler sunmaktadır. İç yükü ölçebilmek için TRİMP (training impulse), laktat konsantrasyonları, kalp atım hızı, immünolojik-hormonal belirteçler, oksijen tüketimi gibi yöntemler bulunmaktadır. Sporcuda oluşan antrenman iç yükleri takip edilirken biyokimyasal parametrelerin hesaplanmasında genellikle sporculardan kan örnekleri alınarak biyokimyasal-hormonal unsurlar ve bu unsurların sporcuda oluşturduğu antrenman yükleri görüntülenmeye çalışıldığı bilinmektedir ancak bu uygulama hem maliyetli hem de antrenörler için uygulama açısından zorlayıcı olması sebebiyle, yakın zamanda bu fizyolojik belirteçlerin ölçülmesinde tükürük örneklerinin kullanıldığı görülmektedir. Tükürük örneklerinin kullanılması uygulayıcılar açısından kullanım kolaylığı sağlayarak maliyetin de düşmesini sağlamaktadır. Antrenörler ve spor bilimcilerin, sporcularda maksimum verimliliğe ulaşabilmek için gerekli olan en uygun antrenman miktarını belirlemede antrenman yükü takibinden faydalanmaları oldukça önemli bir uygulama haline gelmiştir. Bu derleme çalışması, 2022-2023 yılları arasında, Web of Science, Pub Med, Elsevier, Semantic Scholar ve Google Scholar veri tabanlarında, "Training", "İnternal Loading", " Biochemical Parameter" anahtar kelimeleri kullanılarak ulaşılan bilimsel çalışmalar ve kitaplar ışığında yapılmıştır.Antrenman iç yükü her sporcu için doğru analiz edilirse, sporcularda antrenmanlara karşı oluşan uyumlar belirlenebilir, ihtiyaç duyulan dinlenme süreleri ayarlanabilir, antrenmanlara verilen farklı bireysel yanıtlar anlaşılabilir ve sporcuların sakatlık riskleri azaltılabilir. Sonuç olarak, bu çalışma ile literatürdeki ilgili çalışmalardan yola çıkarak antrenman iç yük görüntülenmesinde kullanılan yöntemler için teorik bilgiler vermek, sakatlıkların önüne geçmek ve performansı optimum düzeye getirmek için antrenman yüklerini görüntülemenin önemi amaçlanmıştır.
This resource is the leading reference work designed to support and challenge those involved in developmental exercise science and medicine. This paediatric sub-specialty has become firmly established as a major component of sport and exercise medicine, which is reflected by a marked increase in research activity and publication. Experimental methods pioneered with adults have been successfully adapted for use with children and new non-invasive techniques have been developed and applied to paediatric research to provide new insights into understanding the exercising child.
Purpose
To develop and evaluate a questionnaire that quantifies the self-reported frequency, duration and severity of illness symptoms in highly-trained athletes. We examined whether runners had more symptoms than recreationally-active individuals, and whether runners more prone to illness were undertaking more strenuous training programs.
Methods
A daily illness questionnaire was administered for three months during the summer to quantify the type, frequency, duration, and severity of illness symptoms as well as the functional impact on the ability to undertake exercise performance. A total of 35 participants (12 highly-trained runners living in a community setting and 23 recreationally-active medical students) completed the questionnaire.
Results
Runners had a similar frequency of illness (2.1 ± 1.2 vs. 1.8 ± 2.3 episodes, mean ± SD, P = 0.58), but substantially longer duration (5.5 ± 9.9 vs 2.8 ± 3.1 days, P < 0.01) and illness load (7.7 ± 16.2 vs 4.5 ± 4.8 units, P = 0.001) than age- and sex-matched recreationally-active individuals respectively. Runners more prone to illness symptoms had marginally higher training loads.
Conclusions
The athlete illness questionnaire is useful for quantifying the pattern of self-reported symptoms of illness in field settings. Highly-trained runners experience longer episodes of illness with a greater impact on daily activity than recreationally-active individuals.
We have tested the hypothesis that salivary cortisol increases after a competitive training match in top-level male professional
soccer players divided in team A (n=11) versus team B (n=11). Saliva samples collected before and after the match were analyzed. Salivary cortisol concentrations were measured
by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The results from a two-way ANOVA with repeated measures showed no significant changes
in salivary cortisol between either teams or time points (P>0.05). Further investigation regarding competitive matches in a competition environment is warranted. In summary, the influence
of intensive competitive training match alone appears to be minimal on salivary cortisol changes in top-level soccer adapted
to this type of stress. From a practical application, the variability of the responses among the players leads us to suggest
that there is a need to individually analyse the results with team sports.
The present study examined the effect of a 20-day period of competition on salivary cortisol, mucosal immunity, and upper respiratory tract infections (URTI) in young male soccer players (n = 14). The players were monitored during the main under-19 Brazilian soccer championship, in which 7 matches were played in 20 days. Saliva samples were collected in the morning of each match and analyzed for cortisol and immunoglobulin A (IgA). Signs and symptoms of URTI were assessed across the study and a rating of perceived exertion (RPE) was obtained for each match. Compared with match 1, a significant increase in player RPE was observed in matches 4-7 (p < 0.05). Significant (p < 0.05) increases in the reporting of URTI occurred between matches 2 and 3, and 6 and 7, and this was accompanied by significant decreases in salivary IgA levels. Significant (p < 0.05) correlations were also seen between the individual reports of URTI and the decrease in IgA levels in match 2 (r = -0.60) and match 6 (r = -0.65). These results suggest that decrements in mucosal immunity, as measured by salivary IgA concentrations, may lead to a greater incidence of URTI in elite young soccer players. It may be speculated that the physiological and psychological stressors imposed by training and competition in a short timeframe are major contributing factors to these responses. Thus, the monitoring of salivary IgA could provide a useful and noninvasive approach for predicting URTI occurrences in young athletes during short-term competitions, especially if frequent sampling and rapid measurements are made.