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Environmental and Health Impacts of Artificial Turf: A Review
Abstract
With significant water savings and low maintenance requirements, artificial turf is increasingly promoted as a replacement for natural grass on athletic fields and lawns. However, there remains the question of whether it is an environmentally friendly alternative to natural grass. The major concerns stem from the infill material that is typically derived from scrap tires. Tire rubber crumb contains a range of organic contaminants and heavy metals that can volatilize into the air and/or leach into the percolating rainwater, thereby posing a potential risk to the environment and human health. A limited number of studies have shown that the concentrations of volatile and semi-volatile organic compounds in the air above artificial turf fields were typically not higher than the local background, while the concentrations of heavy metals and organic contaminants in the field drainages were generally below the respective regulatory limits. Health risk assessment studies suggested that users of artificial turf fields, even professional athletes, were not exposed to elevated risks. Preliminary life cycle assessment suggested that the environmental impacts of artificial turf fields were lower than equivalent grass fields. Areas that need further research to better understand and mitigate the potential negative environmental impacts of artificial turf are identified.
... As stated earlier, the presence of numerous hazardous and carcinogenic substances in rubber crumbs threatens the individual's health, especially in industries such as artificial turf and children's playgrounds. Exposure can be influenced by the frequency of field use, duration of exposure, hand-to-playground contact, and hand-to-mouth contact [67]. Furthermore, a number of variables, including the age of the synthetic turf, light irradiation, ambient temperature, and ventilation rate, may have an impact on the chemical exposure from crumb rubber [18,68]. ...
... Skin absorption, accidental ingestion, and inhalation are the main routes of exposure to dangerous substances. Individuals may be exposed to organic compounds and heavy metals present on the surfaces of artificial turf fields and playgrounds, potentially through skin contact or unintentional ingestion [18,67,70]. Nevertheless, there is currently no evidence suggesting that the exposure to hazardous substances in crumb rubber through hand-to-mouth contact can lead to any adverse health effects [71]. ...
... On the other hand, evaporation of VOCs from artificial turfs and playgrounds can be inhaled. However, studies have demonstrated that the quantities of PAHs and VOCs in the air near synthetic turf fields are negligible to pose a risk to human health [67,72]. ...
Objectives
With approximately 1.5 billion tires produced annually, the management and disposal of waste tires pose significant environmental challenges worldwide. While tire recycling has the potential to mitigate some environmental issues, existing studies reveal notable gaps and associated risks to human health and the environment, highlighting the need for a comprehensive review.
Methods
This study utilized primary search engines, including Scopus, Web of Science, and PubMed, in conjunction with relevant keywords, to identify pertinent studies published in peer-reviewed journals. Data and information regarding the application of waste tires in environmental and health-related contexts were systematically extracted.
Results
Out of 1275 potential articles, 80 studies met the criteria for inclusion in this review. The majority of these studies focused on the use of discarded tires in the construction sector, with 49 % specifically addressing their application in artificial turf fields.
Conclusions
A comprehensive assessment of the health and environmental implications of various recycling methods is essential to determine their feasibility. The increasing utilization of recycled tires across diverse sectors raises new concerns that warrant such investigations. Understanding the health effects associated with recycled tire products can provide valuable insights for both researchers and policymakers.
... The rate of uptake for synthetic turf fields for a variety of applications continues to increase in Australia and abroad (Armada et al., 2023;Fleming, 2011;Holderness-Roddam, 2020;Madden et al., 2018). Numerous issues regarding synthetic turf fields have had some degree of investigation including maintenance, sports injuries, ecological considerations, as well as health impacts (Brooks and Francis, 2019;Claudio, 2008;D'Andrea, 2020;Cheng et al., 2014;Nilsson et al., 2008;Wellings, 2013;Krüger et al., 2013). Less studied however, is the impact of the odours emitted from synthetic turf fields. ...
... There is anecdotal understanding that this odour is stronger in synthetic fields that have a crumb rubber base, and that temperature increases exacerbate the odour (Government of Western Australia, 2011, Wellings, 2013Nilsson et al., 2008). Nilsson et al. (2008) provides a further description by stating that artificial turf suffers from a "rubber smell" caused by volatile sulfur compounds, volatile organic acids such as butyric and valeric acid and terpenes, among other odorants; these claims are somewhat supported by other research (Cheng et al., 2014). Sulfurs including dimethyl trisulphide and hydrogen sulfide, valeric acid, and butyric acid are well known odorants of concern and may contribute to nuisance odours and community impacts (Fisher et al., 2018;Hayes et al., 2020). ...
... The crumb rubber component of synthetic turf fields has been cited as the likely culprit for objectionable odour (Cheng et al., 2014). However, studies have focused on odours from processing and vulcanization of rubber while far less research has investigated crumb rubber in the field. ...
... Although there are advantages and disadvantages of both field types, facility administrators have concerns regarding cost, and the initial cost of installation is sometimes prohibitive. Studies have reported that the cost of synthetic turf, including upfront costs and infill costs, is higher than that of natural turfgrasses (Cheng et al. 2014;STMA 2009). However, synthetic turf eliminates the need for inputs such as fertilizer and herbicides required for natural turfgrasses, which can lower the labor and material costs (TURI 2016). ...
... In addition to the cost, there are several advantages and disadvantages of selecting synthetic turf over natural turfgrass for sports fields. Specifically, the two main areas of concern associated with synthetic turf and natural turfgrass are the health risks and environmental impacts of synthetic turf (Brooks and Francis 2019;Cheng et al. 2014;Dragoo and Braun 2010). Synthetic turf is associated with the risks of injury and health; for example, friction created by synthetic turf, especially among older generations, can lead to higher rates of abrasions and burns (Twomey et al. 2019). ...
... Furthermore, increased temperatures can occur on turf during prolonged exposure (Fleming 2011;Jim 2017;Liu and Jim 2021;Williams and Pulley 2008). However, for the average participant, and even for professional athletes, there does not appear to be an increased risk of health risks with the use of synthetic turf (Cheng et al. 2014). This is especially true for younger athletes, who do not appear to be at increased risk for injury when using synthetic turf (Fuller et al. 2007;Steffen et al. 2007;Williams et al. 2013). ...
Both natural turfgrass and synthetic turf fields have distinct advantages and disadvantages and present unique challenges. The challenges evolve over time because of climate change, players’ ever-changing needs, and the development of technologies. It is imperative to identify these challenges and devise effective solutions to overcome them. We conducted a survey of 97 administrators and managers from various organizations in the United States who were responsible for managing community sports fields. Our findings identified budget constraints as the biggest challenge for natural turfgrass field management, followed by issues related to use/scheduling and weather/climate. For synthetic turf field management, the top three challenges included budget constraints, use/scheduling, and other challenges (mainly safety issues). Additionally, administrators and managers consistently indicated increased funding as a solution for addressing challenges of both natural turfgrass and synthetic turf field management. We discuss the implications of these findings and provide potential ways to address these challenges.
... Plastic fibres are a potential source of heavy metals, particularly lead (Pb). Some manufacturers produced plastic fibres encapsulated with a lead chromate pigment however this is no longer a common approach (Cheng, et al., 2014). Excessive levels of lead had been found in some artificial turf fibres made of nylon or polyethylene/nylon blends, while fibres made of polyethylene commonly contained very low or undetectable levels of lead (Cheng, et al., 2014). ...
... Some manufacturers produced plastic fibres encapsulated with a lead chromate pigment however this is no longer a common approach (Cheng, et al., 2014). Excessive levels of lead had been found in some artificial turf fibres made of nylon or polyethylene/nylon blends, while fibres made of polyethylene commonly contained very low or undetectable levels of lead (Cheng, et al., 2014). Leaded pigment particles do not leach from intact nylon fibres but deterioration of these fibres over time can result in the formation of leadcontaining dust (Cheng, et al., 2014). ...
... Excessive levels of lead had been found in some artificial turf fibres made of nylon or polyethylene/nylon blends, while fibres made of polyethylene commonly contained very low or undetectable levels of lead (Cheng, et al., 2014). Leaded pigment particles do not leach from intact nylon fibres but deterioration of these fibres over time can result in the formation of leadcontaining dust (Cheng, et al., 2014). ...
Summary on constituent materials used in the synthetic surfaces. The brief summary report informed the guidelines on the use of synthetic turf in public spaces prepared by the NSW Chief Scientists .
... Last, installing artificial turf will have an impact on the local environment. Research show that the use of specific types of performance infill lead to leaching of heavy metals (e.g., Zinc) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) (Berger 2021;Celeiro et al. 2021b;Cheng et al. 2014;Marsili et al. 2015;Rabben 2020). ...
... 54% of studies geographical affiliation from Scandinavia and 90% from Europe. Only three articles are affiliated outside Europe: two in USA (Massey et al. 2020;Pochron et al. 2017) and one in China (Cheng et al. 2014). ...
... Interviews One article use semi-structured interview as method, in addition to document analysis and an openended questionnaire, to investigate barriers for sustainable practices within the artificial turf industry (de Bernardi and Waller 2022). Two grey reports use interviews with experts in the field and industry leaders, or municipalities, as their main method ( Literature review Literature review is used by five articles as the main method, to understand the environmental impact of PAHs, VOCs, and heavy metals (Cheng et al. 2014;Gomes et al. 2021;Massey et al. 2020), microplastics (Kole et al. 2023;Verschoor et al. 2021). One reviewed published articles, books, and grey literature (Cheng et al. 2014). ...
Artificial turfs represent a large environmental issue in terms of waste, microplastic pollution and leaching of chemicals. Artificial turfs are made of several components, the shock absorbing pad, backing, stabilizing infill, performance infill and artificial grass fibers. Common for these, except the stabilizing infill, is being made of plastic and chemicals being released to the environment. The purpose of this article is to investigate current research on the environmental impact of artificial turfs for football fields. This is done by presenting the state-of-the-art through a review of 40 articles and grey reports. Studies concerning the chemical content of rubber granules and microplastics lost to the environment represent most of the findings. The methods applied vary to a great extent, and more research is needed to further understand the environmental impact of artificial turfs. This study provides an overview of the previous work performed and highlights knowledge gaps and will be of help during further research on the environmental impacts of artificial turfs.
... Synthetic turf is becoming more prevalent, gradually replacing natural grass on sports grounds, especially football fields (Kemikalieinspektionen, 2006). These synthetic turfs are engineered to emulate the appearance and characteristics of natural grass, including resistance to sliding and slipping, energy recovery, shock absorption, vertical deformation, and wear resistance (Cheng et al., 2014). The Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) has established standards for synthetic field quality, primarily focusing on enhancing the game and safeguarding players, clubs, and associations by endorsing products that adhere to high-quality standards. ...
... The Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) has established standards for synthetic field quality, primarily focusing on enhancing the game and safeguarding players, clubs, and associations by endorsing products that adhere to high-quality standards. Synthetic fields are marketed as a more affordable and ecologically benign alternative, attributed to water savings, the absence of a need for fertiliser or pesticides, and the reuse of rubber from scrap tires (Cheng et al., 2014;Russo et al., 2022). However, synthetic fields can potentially have a negative impact on human health and the environment due to the contaminants released by the tire rubber infill (Gomes et al., 2021;Krüger et al., 2012;Li et al., 2010;Menichini et al., 2011;Murphy and Warner, 2022;Van Ulirsch et al., 2010). ...
... Synthetic fields are constructed with a carpet backing that has perforations to retain the fibre and includes an integrated drainage system (Cheng et al., 2014;Harris, 2008). Plastic grass is typically made from high-density polyethene, nylon, or a combination of both. ...
... The term "artificial turf" refers to synthetic surfaces that are designed to "mimic the appearance and sports performance" of natural turfgrasses (Cheng et al. 2014). Benefits of artificial turf surfaces include lower input requirements and higher surface consistency and durability, especially during or after weather events (Cheng et al. 2014;Fleming, 2011;Serensits et al. 2013). ...
... The term "artificial turf" refers to synthetic surfaces that are designed to "mimic the appearance and sports performance" of natural turfgrasses (Cheng et al. 2014). Benefits of artificial turf surfaces include lower input requirements and higher surface consistency and durability, especially during or after weather events (Cheng et al. 2014;Fleming, 2011;Serensits et al. 2013). Additionally, artificial turf surfaces can be used more frequently because of the lack of recovery time compared with that of natural turfgrass (Serensits et al. 2013). ...
... In addition to heat effects, artificial turf surfaces can leach heavy metals and plastics, and they contain volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that impact both human and ecological health (Massey et al. 2020;Menichini et al. 2011). Despite past work, a significant amount of further research is necessary to understand both specific aspects of artificial turf surfaces and comprehensive lifecycle and maintenance assessments (Cheng et al. 2014). ...
Green spaces comprising natural turfgrass are ubiquitous in urban areas globally and allow for a variety of ecosystem services that benefit nature and people. However, traditional natural turfgrass is often critiqued for the number of inputs (e.g., fertilizer, water) required to maintain it. With those critiques in mind, some cities have turned to artificial turf as an alternative groundcover despite environmental and human health concerns (e.g., heavy metal leaching, volatile organic compounds). Research of artificial turf has been minimal compared with that of the growth of installations, especially related to social aspects of the surface. The current research used an in-person experiential case study of park visitors in the Twin Cities Metropolitan Area of Minneapolis–St. Paul, MN, USA, to investigate how individuals perceived artificial turf compared with natural turfgrass as it relates to potential uses (e.g., resting/relaxing) and beliefs about sustainability (e.g., environmental impacts). Overall, participants preferred natural turfgrass across all uses but two (recreational and organized sports). The largest differences were observed for the use for picnic areas and the use for play areas for pets. Participants also perceived natural turfgrass as more sustainable than artificial turf, corresponding to the contribution to human health and well-being. In contrast, participants equally perceived the use of these surfaces in terms of natural resources. These findings have implications for public land managers, urban planners, city councils, and other stakeholders because they consider the adoption of artificial turf or other possible alternatives (e.g., low-input turfgrasses, bee lawns) to traditional turfgrass in the communities and their sustainability, maintenance, and cost-savings.
... The global adoption of artificial turf systems has significantly increased over the past decades, driven by their durability, safety, low maintenance requirements, and ability to provide consistent playing surfaces in various weather conditions [7,8]. These synthetic surfaces, primarily composed of polymeric materials, have become ubiquitous in sports facilities, urban landscapes, and recreational areas worldwide. ...
... The introduction of artificial turf-derived NMPs into soil ecosystems presents multiple environmental concerns. These particles can accumulate in soil matrices, potentially altering soil structure, water retention capacity, and microbial community composition [8]. A study has shown that contamination of topsoil with crumb rubber particles does not inhibit microbial respiration rates or significantly affect earthworm survivorship, but it may reduce earthworm body weight by approximately 14%, even when heavy metal levels in the contaminated soil remain within New York State's background levels and remediation targets [70]. ...
The worldwide adoption of artificial turf in sports facilities and urban landscapes, alongside the systematic transition from natural grass and soil-based grounds, has raised growing concerns about its contribution to the significant source of nano- and microplastics in ecosystems. This review examines current knowledge on the mechanisms of nano- and microplastic generation from artificial turf systems and their environmental impacts. Combined mechanical stress, ultra-violet radiation, and weathering processes contribute to the breakdown of synthetic grass fibers and infill materials, generating particles ranging from nanometer to millimeter scales. These nano- and microplastics are detected in drainage systems and surrounding soils near sports facilities. Laboratory studies demonstrate that artificial turf-derived nano- and microplastics can adversely affect soil microbial communities, aquatic organisms, and potentially human health, through various exposure pathways. While current mitigation approaches include hybrid turf, particle retention systems, and improved maintenance protocols, emerging research focuses on developing novel, environmentally friendly materials as alternatives to conventional synthetic turf components. However, field data on emission rates and environmental fate remain limited, and standardized methods for particle characterization and quantification are lacking. This review identifies critical knowledge gaps, underscoring the need for comprehensive research on long-term ecological impacts and highlights the future goal of mitigating nano- and microplastic emissions from artificial turf systems into the ecosystem.
... Switching to artificial turf permits high intensity usage of up to 50 h per week (Fleming, 2011;Klein et al., 2019). This conversion however has consequences for the surroundings; artificial turf decreases net soil infiltration of rain and leads to changes in thermal conditions (Cheng et al., 2014). Infiltration of rain into soil is decreased, because water is caught by sub-surface drainage systems and quickly discharged to sewers or surface water instead of percolating into the subsoil. ...
... Besides the negative effects on the surroundings and lack of adaptation possibilities to climate change, the very high surface temperatures of conventional artificial turf pitches can lead to unfavourable playing conditions and health risks (Kandelin et al., 1976;McNitt and Petrunak, 2007;Lim and Walker, 2009;Cheng et al., 2014;Jim, 2017). Increased surface temperatures can lead to burn injuries through direct contact (Pfautsch et al., 2022) and exertional heat illness (Liu and Jim, 2021). ...
The number of artificial turf fields in cities has increased due to increased pressure on outside sport facilities caused by a higher population density. Downsides of these fields are changes in thermal conditions and decreased infiltration of rain. Artificial turf can reach very high surface temperatures leading to unfavorable playing conditions and contributing to the urban heat island effect. In this study the possibilities of a subsurface water storage and capillary irrigation system for evaporative cooling of artificial turf based on rainwater capture, storage and reuse are investigated. The system consists of an 85 mm water-retention subbase with capillary columns, a capillary shockpad and a natural infill. First, a laboratory experiment was conducted to test the evaporative potential of the system with different types of infill and artificial turf. Next, four research plots were designed in Amsterdam, The Netherlands, which consisted of natural grass, conventional artificial turf and two versions of the cooled artificial turf system (non-infill and standard). Evaporation from the cooled artificial turf reached maximum values around 4 mm/d during summer and surface temperatures were significantly lower than at the conventional artificial turf. Rainwater was stored below the fields. By combining these functions, these fields can help cities adapt to climate change.
... Advancements around performance are possible by adding shock-pads and using different plastic blends (Uhlman, 2013). As regards health concerns, a review of infills has been carried out (Cheng et al., 2014), where six different infill materials were evaluated and compared with the traditional rubber crumbs. Other concerns such as odour and bacterial growth are addressed through maintenance and cleaning. ...
... For turf products, the rubber crumb is believed to be a source of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon (PAHs, a type of POPs). Cheng et al. (2014) reviewed various studies that measured the content of PAHs and VOCs for several ST fields and noted that various studies found an elevation of PAH and VOC content over synthetic turf. A more recent ...
The University of Sydney (USYD) through its Waste Transformation Research Hub (WTRH) was commissioned by the Office of the NSW Chief Scientist and Engineer (OCSE) to provide expert review and advice on the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of turf surfaces, aiming to identify overall trends in the environmental impact of products and to critically assess gaps in knowledge, methodology, and data surrounding the LCA of turf. This report contains the expert review, followed by a discussion on strategies around Circular Economy (CE) solutions for the emerging Synthetic Turf (ST) industry.
Section 1 explains the need to review the environmental impact of current turf, outlining the main aim of the report, which is to provide a review of the available scientific knowledge on ST LCA and CE, and to use the findings to guide the future of the ST industry in NSW. Section 2 describes the methodology chosen to compare publicly available LCAs. The results are extracted from each LCA, where a relative difference is calculated between different scenarios. This allows a comparison of the different LCA findings, without the need for excessive data streamlining. A total of 8 different LCAs were reviewed. The key findings of this review are highlighted in Section 3, where the technical results and discussion of the review are provided in Sections 6 and 7. Lastly, Section 8 discusses different strategies to make the ST supply chain more circular.
The findings and recommendations are summarised in Table 1, while the CE graphical strategy is outlined in Table 2, Figure 1, and Figure 2, in the following pages.
... Residential green gardens, often overlooked in comparison to parks and larger green spaces, are important components of urban green spaces, providing refuge for wildlife (Cameron et al., 2012;Goddard et al., 2010) as well as increasing connectivity between larger green spaces (Langemeyer et al., 2018). These key patches of greenery, together with larger areas such as football pitches and school playgrounds, are increasingly being converted to artificial surfaces, in particular to artificial turf (Cheng et al., 2014;Francis, 2018;McNitt, 2005). Artificial turf has gained popularity in a number of developed countries, with a 2019 report by Grand View Research estimating the global artificial turf market to be worth over USD 2.6 billion and projecting this figure to increase for the foreseeable future. ...
... Artificial turf has gained popularity in a number of developed countries, with a 2019 report by Grand View Research estimating the global artificial turf market to be worth over USD 2.6 billion and projecting this figure to increase for the foreseeable future. Unsurprisingly, conversion of green space to artificial turf has been shown to intensify the effects of urbanisation, including increased urban temperatures, reduced carbon sequestration, reduced water and nutrient cycling, and increased environmental pollution via contaminant release (Cheng et al., 2014;Francis, 2018;Pochron et al., 2017;Yaghoobian et al., 2010). ...
Urban green spaces are central components of urban ecosystems, providing refuge for wildlife while helping ‘future proof’ cities against climate change. Conversion of urban green spaces to artificial turf has become increasingly popular in various developed countries, such as the UK, leading to reduced urban ecosystem services delivery. To date, there is no established satellite remote sensing method for reliably detecting and mapping artificial turf expansion at scale. We here assess the combined use of very high-resolution multispectral satellite imagery and classical, open source, supervised classification approaches to map artificial lawns in a typical British city. Both object-based and pixel-based classifications struggled to reliably detect artificial turf, with large patches of artificial turf not being any more reliably identified than small patches of artificial turf. As urban ecosystems are increasingly recognised for their key contributions to human wellbeing and health, the poor performance of these standard methods highlights the urgency of developing and applying new, easily accessible approaches for the monitoring of these important ecosystems.
... Nonetheless, as elucidated in the subsequent sections, the quantities of these chemicals leaching from tires are negligible. Consequently, these leached chemicals, when assessed against regulatory limits and water-quality-based tests, do not present any threat to either the ecosystem or human health [69][70][71][72][73]. ...
Tire-derived aggregate (TDA) is an entirely recycled material created by processing scrap tires, which are shredded into a fundamental geometric shape, typically measuring from 5 to 30 cm in size. TDA possesses desirable properties such as low earth pressure, improved drainage, and a lightweight structure, making it an ideal material for numerous civil engineering applications. Unfortunately, the environmental suitability of TDA use has previously been questioned. This article outlines that TDA does not release a significant amount of potentially toxic compounds, the leaching rate in surrounding water environments is low, and TDA can even be a medium to remove nutrients and toxic organic and inorganic compounds commonly found in agricultural land and urban runoff. This study aims to collect the most up-to-date scientific data on the environmental impact of scrap tires and evaluate the data specifically for TDA applications in civil and environmental engineering applications. TDA has been proven to be an environmentally safe, long-lasting, cost-effective, and sustainable resource with many potential applications in civil engineering. Guidelines should be developed for specific projects to achieve a circular economy for end-of-life tires in the form of TDA to avoid potential environmental issues and problems.
... Over 1500 new installations are constructed each year, adding 40-45 million ft 2 as of 2014 estimates (Synthetic Turf Council, 2021). In addition to collegiate and professional athletes, children ages 5-15 are estimated to spend up to 12 hours per week playing organized sports on natural or turf fields, demonstrating a consistent exposure source across early development, particularly through inhalation and ingestion of volatilized toxicants (Kalbe et al., 2013;Cheng et al., 2014;Huang et al., 2023). Turf is also increasingly utilized in residential environments, particularly for areas in which "water-efficient" landscapes are considered better alternatives to lawns of high hydration need (Chang et al., 2021). ...
... Despite the gradual phase-out of leaded gasoline in recent years, the current fuel contains only trace amounts of lead, and lead emissions now primarily originate from wear rather than fuel combustion. Moreover, discarded tires are frequently used as infill material for synthetic track and turf, containing a range of organic pollutants and metal oxides such as CdO and PbO [60], which can either volatilize into the air or permeate into rainwater. The site adjacent to a synthetic track (TY2904), which had found elevated Cd concentrations, also confirmed this viewpoint. ...
Systematic and scientific assessments on heavy metal pollution are greatly important to protecting the coastal eco-environment. In this paper, the spatial distribution, pollution degree, ecological toxicity and possible sources of eight heavy metal elements collected from the 126 marine and 715 terrestrial surface sediments surrounding Dingzi Bay were analyzed by obtaining concentration measurements. The results revealed that the concentrations of heavy metals followed a pattern: inner bay > terrestrial areas > outer bay. Cr, Ni, Cu, Zn, Cd, Pb, and Hg were found to accumulate in fine particles (<0.063 mm), while As showed an association with specific particles (>0.25 mm and <0.016 mm). Spatial pollution patterns varied from non-polluted to low pollution levels overall, with localized contamination by individual elements. In addition to natural sources, four types of anthropogenic pollution were identified in the marine and terrestrial settings. Agricultural pollution, characterized by As predominance, exerted profound effects on both terrestrial and marine environments. Industrial pollution, featuring Hg dominance, was widespread in land environment and predominantly linked to atmospheric deposition. Traffic pollution, marked by elevated Pb and Cd, was concentrated around factories and densely populated areas. Maritime pollution, comprising Hg, Cr, Cd, and Zn, primarily occurred in the nearshore areas outside the bay. The findings of this study provide scientific data to the authorities in charge of sustainable coastal zone management in the South Yellow Sea.
... Outdoor sports fields often utilize third-generation STS, consisting of a synthetic grass layer supported by a thin layer of sand and an infill made of crumb rubber derived from recycled tires [17]. The gradual breakdown of crumb rubber releases organic compounds and heavy metals into the rubber matrix, from which the compounds and metals can slowly leach into the environment [18]. Analyses of samples collected from STS sports fields have demonstrated the partial transfer of these organic compounds and heavy metals into the air and runoff water [19]. ...
The urgency of addressing the climate crisis has heightened the need to make sustainable decisions. Universities and research institutions are uniquely able to help develop and disseminate useful information for industry, specifically small and medium enterprises. This case study examines the collaboration between the Guelph Turfgrass Institute (GTI) and the turfgrass industry that culminated in the creation of a “Turf Net Present Value Model”. This model enables turfgrass installers, managers, and local municipalities to determine the structure of their turfgrass systems, natural or artificial, and estimate the net present value (NPV) over an extended period. A conceptual model for effective industry-university collaboration is then used to evaluate the knowledge transfer between academia and industry, showcasing a knowledge-transfer framework for improved decision-making and sustainability in sports facilities.
... Although at very low concentrations (in comparison to D4, D5, and D6), L3 was detected in six samples, L4 in one sample, L5 in two samples, and D3 in five samples. This can be indicative of VMS volatilization (predominantly for the smaller molecules D3 and L3) or even degradation processes occurring in this type of environment (Cheng et al. 2014;Grynkiewicz-Bylina et al. 2022). In fact, the more volatile and less lipophilic D3, L3, and D4 may be more subject to climate, either from exposure to the sun or leaching from rainfall, and periodical maintenance watering (especially in outdoor pitches), hence their lower (or non-detected) levels in field CR. ...
Downcycled rubber, derived from end-of-life tires (ELTs), is frequently applied as crumb rubber (CR) as infill of synthetic turf in sports facilities. This practice has been questioned in recent years as numerous studies have reported the presence of potentially hazardous chemicals in this material. CR particles fall into the category of microplastics (MPs), making them possible vectors for emerging micropollutants. A preliminary study where volatile methylsiloxanes (VMSs) were found in CR originated the hypothesis that VMSs are present in this material worldwide. Consequently, the present work evaluates for the first time the levels and trends of seven VMSs in CR from synthetic turf football fields, while attempting to identify the main sources and impacts of these chemicals. A total of 135 CR samples and 12 other of alternative materials were analyzed, employing an ultrasound-assisted dispersive solid-phase extraction followed by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS), and the presence of VMSs was confirmed in all samples, in total concentrations ranging from 1.60 to 5089 ng.g⁻¹. The levels were higher in commercial CR (before field application), a reflection of the use of VMS-containing additives in tire production and/or the degradation of silicone polymers employed in vehicles. The VMSs generally decreased over time on the turf, as expected given their volatile nature and the wearing of the material. Finally, the human exposure doses to VMSs in CR (by dermal absorption and ingestion) for people in contact with synthetic turf in football fields were negligible (maximum total exposure of 20.5 ng.kgBW⁻¹.year⁻¹) in comparison with the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) reference doses: 1.35 × 10⁹ ng.kgBW⁻¹.year⁻¹ for D4 and 1.83 × 10⁹ ng.kgBW⁻¹.year⁻¹ for D5. Nevertheless, more knowledge on exposure through inhalation and the combined effects of all substances is necessary to provide further corroboration. This work proved the presence of VMSs in CR from ELTs, another family of chemical of concern to take into account when studying MPs as vectors of other contaminants.
... Some studies have identified car tires as a significant source of microplastic pollution, highlighting concerns about the potential negative impacts of these particles on the environment (Rochman and Hoellein, 2020;Ding et al., 2022). As a result, there is a need to evaluate the bioavailability and effects of microplastics derived from tires (Cheng et al., 2014). ...
... As a result, many municipalities have installed synthetic turf fields to increase playability and economic returns compared to natural turf fields. However, there are concerns with using artificial turf despite its promise of financial returns, including the health and impacts of participating and competing on the playing surface compared to natural turf (for a review, see Cheng et al., 2014). ...
Sport and the natural environment have an intimate relationship threatened by global warming and climate change. Individual sport organizations and events to the collective global sport sector must address climate change on two primary fronts – (1) reducing their impact on the natural environment resulting in climate change to sustain the environments individual sport organizations and events taking place and (2) sustaining sport from changing environments due to climate change. This paper examines previous research from these two fronts, and gaps are identified that can inform future research to advance our understanding of environmental sport management or sport ecology topics. The paper then discusses practical and measured responses to climate change using exam-ples from other disciplines beyond sport management to enhance these research lines and inform industry practice. As the sport sector advances, a fourth wave of the sport environmental move-ment is emerging where sport organizations encounter internal and external pressures to resolve contradictions in their stated environ-mental values and organizational operations (e.g. short-haul flights, carbon-intensive sponsors). The paper concludes with recommen-dations across these two fronts to engage fans and participants in meaningful climate action with demonstrative results.
... No Ru, Te, Re, Os, Ir, Pt, or Au was detected. Notably, these measured values agree with those reported in the literature 1,28 . ...
Whether a tire crumb rubber (TCR) playground would expose children to potentially harmful chemicals such as heavy metals is an open question. The released metals available for pickup on the surface of TCR tiles was studied by accelerated 2-year aging of the TCRs in the NIST-SPHERE (National Institute of Standards and Technology Simulated Photodegradation via High Energy Radiant Exposure). The dermal contact was mimicked by a method of composite surface wiping from US Environmental Protection Agency throughout the weathering process. The surface release of ten most concerned harmful metals (Be, Cr, Cu, As, Se, Cd, Sb, Ba, Tl, Pb) was monitored through the course of aging. The cumulative release of Cu, As, Tl, and Sb reached potentially harmful levels at various times within 3 years, although only Cr was found at a harmful level on the surface of the tiles. Taking the cleansing effect of precipitation or periodic cleansing with rain into account, TCR playgrounds may still be safe for use.
... Long-term exposure to the built environment can have negative effects on physical and psychological health, leading to increased anxiety, depression, stress, and chronic illness (Cheng et al., 2014). While most previous studies have focused on environmental variables that have disadvantages to human health, such as toxic materials and indoor air quality, less research has been conducted on the advantages of incorporating natural elements into indoor settings through biophilic design . ...
In recent years, there has been a growing interest in investigating the influence of biophilic design on occupants’ psychological comfort and well-being in the built environment. Biophilic principles aim to leverage the therapeutic effects of nature to alleviate distress, depression, anxiety, and pain. The impact of biophilic design can vary depending on the outcome measures and the design context, but studies examining diverse forms of biophilic design in hospital rooms have been limited. The study investigated how the incorporation of biophilic design elements in a virtual reality (VR) hospital patient room affects emotional and brain responses. The purpose of this experiment was to measure interactive emotions in an experimental setting, using a combination of electroencephalogram (EEG) and VR methods. A machine learning approach and statistical analysis were applied to differentiate emotional changes related to biophilic design. Seventy-five participants were divided into three groups to investigate the distinct effects of three types of biophilic design. EEG recordings were taken during experimental conditions to determine how biophilic design affects brain and emotional states. The Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS) and State-Trait Anxiety Inventory - state (STAI-s) were used to measure changes in emotion and anxiety state. The results of the machine learning application on EEG data showed that classification accuracy above 90% included the frontal region in all classification conditions, indicating that biophilic design causes changes in brain function in this region. For the classification of the control room and digital wall room, and the control room and both plant and digital wall room, alpha power for frontal regions was included with above 90% classification accuracy. The results of the statistical analysis of the EEG data found that low-frequency band, which is associated with a relaxed state, was increased by biophilic design, while high- frequency band, which is associated with high arousal state, was reduced. These findings suggested that bio- philic design in a hospital room can reduce tension. The results from PANAS and STAI-s showed that biophilic design can induce positive emotional changes. The results of PANAS suggested that adding plant walls can reduce negative emotions due to their calming effect on the human nervous system. Using both plant walls and digital elements in healthcare environments can have a complementary effect on emotional well-being by reducing negative emotions while enhancing positive emotions. The study can potentially contribute to building a deeper and unified knowledge base for developing evidence-based designs to improve mental health and well-being. Moreover, the study provides insights into the potential benefits of different forms of biophilic design and their impact on human well-being.
... The widespread demand for indoor and outdoor landscaping has projected its market to reach around $3.8 billion by 2025 (Grand View Research, n.d.). Artificial turfs are made up of polymer-based grass blades and base materials such as PA, PE, PET, and PP with recycled rubber as infill material (Cheng et al., 2014). The wear and tear of artificial turf laden with other contaminants are also sources of small plastic debris in soil (Kleunen et al., 2020). ...
The agricultural sector is increasingly dependent upon the use of plastic products to enhance productivity. In addition to many incidental inputs, plastic fragments are progressively accumulating in soil following the degradation of plastic products. Microplastics (MPs, <5 mm) and nanoplastics (NPs, <1 µm) in agricultural soils have caused substantial concerns recently. The insidious interactions between plants, soil, and MPs/NPs in the agricultural environment could affect soil health, crop productivity, and threaten food safety and human health. Importantly, finer NPs can be taken up by plants, induce oxidative stress and negatively affect plant growth. Even though interactions of MPs/NPs with plants in the plant-soil nexus have been reported, a comprehensive review of the state of knowledge is lacking, which hinders continued progress in this emerging field. This review aims to fill the gap by extensively summarizing MPs/NPs sources in agriculture, techniques to investigate, impact on soil properties and accumulation in the plants. The synergistic effect of organic and inorganic co-contaminants and MPs/NPs are highlighted due to the widespread presence of these chemicals in agricultural soils. This review also presented possible mechanisms of MPs/NPs phytotoxicity. Although new information is emerging there is a paucity of data on the fate and impact of MPs/NPs in the plant-soil nexus. More efforts are needed to elucidate the fate and impact of MPs/NPs in agricultural soils to gain a deeper understanding of their health and safety implications.
... Up to now, limited scientific studies have investigated the behaviour of crumb rubber in contact with water and its potential to release heavy metals and trace elements [17], or reported the concentrations of leached As, Ag, Ba, Cd, Cr, Hg, Pb, and Se from tyre rubber used in artificial turfs [18], or examined the zinc leaching from tyre crumb rubber through column tests for a duration of 96 h. The latter study reported an initial pulse of elevated zinc leaching of 3 mg/L before settling down to a steady-state value of 0.2 mg/L. ...
A new impact-absorbing material is being developed to protect vulnerable road users in urban areas and has been produced and tested, mechanically and environmentally in the laboratory. The main constituent of this innovative material is the rubber recycled from end-of-life tyres to foster a circular use of resources and exploit rubber’s elastic properties. The study aims to provide a complete Uniaxial Compression Test (UCT) and leaching analysis of the material to propose and optimise a mix that is mechanically sound, durable, and respectful of the environment, in view of in-situ applications. Therefore, the UCT and Dynamic Surface Leaching Test (DSLT) were carried out on rubberised asphalt specimens with different mix designs. The 64 days cumulative concentrations of leached heavy metals and trace elements from unit surface of specimens were calculated and quantified, according to the CEN/TS 16637 standard. In parallel, thanks to a specific mechanical characterisation, compressive stress–strain curves were obtained, and the relaxation and elastic modulus were evaluated. The results from the compression tests showed that the A-mixes have the best elastic and absorbing behaviour, especially those made with an SBS-modified bituminous emulsion (A4). The results from DSLT showed that the cumulative concentration of released elements, per unit surface of specimens were lower than the Dutch Soil Quality Decree (SQD) thresholds, taken as a reference. The low and early release of leachant observed for the mixtures, especially A4 as the most promising one, leave the possibility to handle the leaching with several solutions, including rubber coating treatment or water washing before their incorporation into the mix to limit and prevent their leaching while permitting very high injury reduction performances.
فضاهای سبز شهری نقش اساسی در ساختار سیمای شهری و بهبود شرایط اکولوژیکی، اقلیمی و حتی سلامت شهروندان دارند. اما در سالهای اخیر مشکل فزاینده خشکی، گسترش و ایجاد فضاهای سبز جدید را با محدودیت روبرو نموده و لزوم حرکت به سمت گیاهان مقاوم را به خوبی نشان میدهد. چمن ها به عنوان گیاهان عمده در این زمینه، نیاز آبی بالا و هزینههای نگهداری زیادی دارند که مناسب شرایط فعلی نمی باشند. گزینه مناسب در جایگزینی نسبی آنها گیاهان پوششی و بومی بوده که شرایط نگهداری آنها آسان و نیازهای کمتر و مقاومت بالاتری در شرایط نامناسب محیطی دارند. کاشت گیاهان پوششی بسیاری از معضلات و مشکلات نگهداری مربوط به چمن را نداشته و از لحاظ اقتصادی بسیار مقرون به صرفه بوده است. به همین سبب موجب کاهش هزینهها در اعتبارات شهرداری میشوند. در شهر تبریز حدودا 300 هکتار چمن کاشته شده که 40% از کل آب مورد استفاده برای نگهداری فضای سبز تبریز مصرف آبیاری چمن می شود. نتایج هم نشان میدهد با جایگزینی گیاهان پوششی با بخشی از چمن کاریها باعث کاهش هزینه های نگهداری، آبیاری و کاشت میشود. بنابراین کاشت گیاهان پوششی هم جذابیت بیشتری به محیط بخشیده و از طرف دیگر به دلیل معضل کاهش ذخایر زیرزمینی آب، صرفهجویی قابل توجهی در مصرف آب شده است.،
واژههاي كليدي: فضای سبز، خشکی، جمن، گیاهان پوششی
With the WHO stating that nearly 99% of the global population is exposed to air pollution levels that increase the risk of chronic diseases, the question of exercising in polluted environments is relevant to the health of athletes. Major sporting events held under conditions of poor air quality (AQ) have highlighted the lack of answers to concerns raised by organisers and athletes about the associated health risks. This evidence-based narrative review compiles current knowledge and identifies gaps regarding the relationship between AQ and sport. It is a summary of a more comprehensive report prepared for the International Olympic Committee (IOC) Medical and Scientific Commission. This article discusses the various sources of air pollutants encountered during exercise, summarises current AQ guidelines and provides insights into AQ conditions during the Paris 2024 Olympic and Paralympic Games (OPG) as well as in Los Angeles over the past four summers, in preparation for the 2028 OPG. It also summarises the effects of air pollution on the respiratory health and performance of athletes, while proposing mitigation strategies, with a particular emphasis on AQ education.
Dust released from widely established plastic sports courts and synthetic turf poses potential environmental and health risks. Herein, we systematically investigate the metal(loid) characteristics, potential sources, and health risks of 162 dust samples from 17 campuses in Beijing, using complementary analytical techniques. Bulk analysis revealed higher levels of Zn, Pb, Cu, Sb, Cd, and Cr than background values, suggesting excessive anthropogenic contamination. Pb and Cr in plastic basketball court and track dust and Zn and Sb in synthetic turf dust were higher than those in other sports facilities. Multielement single-particle inductively coupled plasma time-of-flight mass spectrometry (spICP-TOF-MS) revealed more Fe-, Al-, Si-, Ti-, and Pb-containing particles in the dust. At least 92% toxic Pb-containing particles were composed of multiple elements. The significant correlations between Pb and Cr contents on individual dust particles support their common potential source from inorganic pigments (crocoite, PbCrO4). Pb, Sb, As, and Cr in the dust pose higher health risks through intake. The risks were estimated to be approximately 3–5 times higher for children than for adults. Additionally, highly toxic Cr(VI) and As(III) species were observed in the sweat and gastric juice leachate of dust, highlighting severe threats of the metal(loid)s to human health.
Beard and Green compiled one of the earliest reviews on the environmental and societal (cultural) benefits that living turfgrass systems (e.g., home lawns, athletic fields, golf courses, roadsides, and grounds) provide to humans and associated contemporary issues with turfgrass. Today, the benefits of vegetation systems are called ecosystem services, and the associated negative aspects are called disservices. Since 1994, a significant amount of research has been conducted to further understand these ecosystem services and disservices and discover new ecosystem services and disservices, which we summarize and identify the knowledge gaps in this review. Turfgrass systems provide positive economic benefits to the US economy and help increase property values; however, many of these ecosystem services are environmental and societal. Some environmental services include (1) improving soil health, quality, and stability; (2) oxygen production; (3) reducing stormwater runoff; (4) filtering water to protect waterways and recharging groundwater; (5) providing evaporative cooling and reducing sunlight glare to improve human comfort levels; (6) offering vertebrate and invertebrate habitat; and (7) offering solutions for recycling wastewater and biosolids. Some societal (cultural) services include (1) outdoor spaces that improve human mental and physical health, (2) increasing community and social harmony, (3) helping deter crime, and (4) reducing human contact with noxious weeds and human‐disease insect vectors. Research, cooperative extension, and education efforts must be increased on these topics to continue to provide additional evidence of these ecosystem services to the public, policymakers, turfgrass practitioners, homeowners, students, and future generations.
Plain Language Summary
Mowing turfgrass serves various purposes, such as supporting sports, enhancing aesthetics, meeting cultural and social expectations, and ensuring safety and pest control. While mowing has its benefits, it faces criticism, mainly due to the labor involved and the emissions from mowers. This paper reviews the pros and cons of mowing turfgrasses in lawns, parks, golf courses, sports fields, and other areas through an ecosystem services and disservices lens. It discusses both the benefits and negative effects of mowing, as well as strategies to reduce negative impacts. Understanding these aspects can guide better decisions and policies. The review also highlights areas for future research and aims to find ways to minimize the downsides of mowing while maximizing the environmental benefits of well‐maintained turfgrass.
Wasted tires are one of the most harmful wastes and are a challenging environmental problem. This project utilized wasted tire crumbs as thermal energy storage and solar photothermic conversion medium for solar water heating. The functionality of the compacted system has been proven experimentally. A solar collector model is developed comprising an open water flow in a U-shape copper piping immersed in a 0.15-m-wide x 0.08-m-high x 1.0-m-long compartment filled with tire crumbs and covered by a Perspex sheet to permit the penetration of the solar radiation. Three water flow rates of 10, 20, and 30 L/h have been used to investigate the system performance. Measurement results show that the tire crumbs could convert solar energy to thermal energy and transfer it to the water inside the pipe. The system performance shows a mean efficiency of 30.5%, 57.5%, and 73% for the 10, 20, and 30 L/h water flow rate cases. The results show that the waste tires are rich in energy materials for solar photothermic energy conversion and thermal energy storage. It is recommended to extend the study by mixing the crumbs with another sensible or latent thermal energy storage material and evaluate the performance in close loop water flow rate.
Artificial turf has gained widespread use in sporting fields as it is considered a water-saving and maintenance-free alternative to natural turfgrass. However, the high surface temperatures that occur during the day are a potentially important unfavorable feature of artificial turfgrass. The objective of this study was to establish the temperatures experienced on an artificial turf surface and to evaluate the effect of irrigation on artificial turf surface temperature. Data was collected over five surfaces across a sports facility on the campus of the University of Thessaly in Larissa, Greece. Results showed surface temperatures on artificial turf (AT) as significantly higher than running track (RT), asphalt (AS), bare soil (BS), and natural grass (NG), with maximum surface temperatures of 72oC. Solar radiation accounted for most of the variation in surface temperature of the artificial turf (r2=0.92) as opposed to air temperature (r2=0.38), and relative humidity (r2=0.50). To lower surface temperature, four irrigation regimes were used (1x60 min, 1x30 min, 2x15 min, and 3x5 min water application). Irrigation reduced the surface temperature by as much as 30°C compared to the unirrigated surface, but these low temperatures were maintained for 90 to 120 minutes long. The most effective cooling effect occurred when water was applied in a 3-cycle, 5-minute duration, where the irrigated surface temperature remained below the unirrigated surface throughout the time after the first watering.
El libro 61 de “Gestión del Conocimiento. Perspectiva Multidisciplinaria” de la Colección Unión Global, es resultado de investigaciones. Los capítulos del libro son resultados de investigaciones desarrolladas por sus autores. El libro es una publicación internacional, seriada, continua, arbitrada de acceso abierto a todas las áreas del conocimiento, que cuenta con el esfuerzo de investigadores de varios países del mundo, orientada a contribuir con procesos de gestión del conocimiento científico, tecnológico y humanístico que consoliden la transformación del conocimiento en diferentes escenarios, tanto organizacionales como universitarios, para el desarrollo de habilidades cognitivas del quehacer diario. La gestión del conocimiento es un camino para consolidar una plataforma en las empresas públicas o privadas, entidades educativas, organizaciones no gubernamentales, ya sea generando políticas para todas las jerarquías o un modelo de gestión para la administración, donde es fundamental articular el conocimiento, los trabajadores, directivos, el espacio de trabajo, hacia la creación de ambientes propicios para el desarrollo integral de las instituciones.
Brisk walking is a simple exercise for older adults. We aimed to assess the cardiovascular response to a short bout of brisk walking on walking loops in an innovative senior playground in Thailand. Twenty older adults were randomly assigned to brisk walking on artificial turf (AT group, n = 10) or an uneven surface (US group, n = 10). We assessed cardiovascular parameters, average walking speed, and rate of perceived exertion. Blood pressure, heart rate, rate-pressure product, and rate perceived exertion were significantly increased, while the mean RR interval of heart rate variability was significantly decreased in both AT and US groups after exercise compared with pre-exercise (p < 0.05). A greater change in systolic blood pressure was observed in the US group than in the AT group (p < 0.05). These data indicated that brisk walking on AT and US increases cardiovascular response. Our findings provide information on planning exercise programs for older adults.
Sustainability is the highly demanded practice for continued success in the manufacturing and consumption of different products. In order to reduce the carbon footprint and the energy demands, manufacturers are turning to sustainable approaches in their products. Major brands, already, have turned to sustainable approaches and practices in their manufacturing processes and products either by increasing the life cycle of the product or by reusing the recycled products. Sports textile is one of the major areas of technical textiles where textile materials are used in artificial turfs, sports rackets, balls, shoes, and many more products related to sports and games, besides sportswear. Reused and recycled materials are extensively promoted and used in various sports related products. In this chapter, approaches and methods used to introduce/improve the sustainability of the products are discussed.KeywordsArtificial turfSustainabilityShoeRecycleReuseCarbon footprint
Quantifying the response of infill used to construct contemporary artificial turf is critical to the development of computational models and providing insights to reduce sports injury associated with artificial turf. In the current study, confined compression and direct shear tests were performed on typical infill materials (sand, SBR and two mixtures (33%: 67%) by-weight). The experimental tests exhibited a progression from high strength and stiffness (sand) to low strength and stiffness (SBR) with the mixtures having intermediate values. Increasing particle size, particularly sand, tended to increase the resistance of the infill to deformation. The experimental results were implemented into a soil constitutive material model and the experimental tests were simulated using a smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH) method to verify the implementation in a commercial explicit finite element solver. The SPH method successfully captured the initial loading up to yield, material flow and post-yield behavior, enabling large-scale particle flow that will be necessary to simulate artificial turf. The simulation results predicted the test force-displacement response well for SBR and mixture infills. The proposed methodology demonstrated the ability to measure properties of contemporary artificial turf infills in both compression and shear for pure sand, pure SBR and mixtures of the two, and use these properties to accurately represent the infill in a computational environment. The resulting model can be extended to large-scale turf models, to investigate athlete performance and injury risk when interacting with artificial turf.
This manuscript considers public discourse surrounding the link between playing surface and lower-extremity injuries within the context of a case study on New York Giants’ wide-receiver Sterling Shepard’s anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) tear, with an aim to identify and explain the use of narratives as a function of commenters’ stakeholder groups and expressions of fandom. Such an effort extends scholarship on issues of athlete health policy to non-cognitive and depersonalized injuries and offers insight into which publics are adopting specific cultural frameworks. Bottom-up framing and social identity theory (SIT) were used as frameworks for interpreting the variance in responses. The consideration of 2,633 public tweets revealed six categories, including thematic framing, episodic framing, health-first narratives, performance narratives, sharing the news, and ambiguous negative commentary. Additionally, patterns associated with stakeholder groups and public expressions of fandom offered both support and challenges to heuristic and theoretical bases of knowledge. This manuscript suggests public sporting audiences are embracing more health-conscious frameworks in social media discourse but that the scope of their focus is directed subsequently by their expression and fandom and concern for their teams.
Introduction: Artificial turf or synthetic grass releases hazardous substances such as heavy metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Objective: The current study aimed to evaluate the concentration levels of hazardous substances that are emitted from artificial turf as a result of sunlight effect; and to assess the expected exposure risks to such emitted substances during various activities.The current study aimed to evaluate the concentration levels of hazardous substances that are emitted from artificial turf as a result of the effect of sunlight. And to assess the expected risks of exposure to these substances emitted during the various activities. Study design: VOCs emitted from artificial turf samples were monitored and collected in the ambient air of three football fields, the ambient air around a piece of new artificial turf that has not yet been used on playing fields, but has been exposed to sunlight within one year and in the indoor air around a piece of new artificial turf. Which has not yet been used on the playgrounds and was placed at room temperature and away from sunlight. Results: The current study shows that average afternoon morning VOCs levels were 277, 333, 405 and 509 mg/m3 in winter, autumn, spring and summer, respectively. The most predominant PAHs compounds present in the samples were compounds with 3-rings and 4-rings.The average daily intake (ADI) for three exposure routes (ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact) was calculated for different age categories (3–6, 7–15, 16–18, 19–22, 23–55, and 56–70 year). Non-Carcinogenic exposure risk as hazard quotient (HQ) and hazard index (HI) were detected. Conclusion: All HI values were 3–6 years.
Six polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) including naphthalene (Nap), fluorene (Flu), phenanthrene (Phe), fluoranthene (Fla), pyrene (Pyr), and chrysene (Chr) were detected in runoff from five athletic fields during three rainfall events. The event mean concentration (EMC) of ∑6PAHs ranged from 3.96 to 23.23 μg/L, which was much higher than the EMC in urban traffic area runoff. Except for Nap, the PAH concentrations followed in the order of artificial turf > badminton court > basketball court > plastic runway > optennis court. The surface characteristics of the athletic fields, such as the composition of materials and roughness, played an essential role in the release of PAHs. ∑6PAHs concentration during the 2nd rainfall event (July 22nd) was the highest among the three rainfall events, indicating that high rainfall intensity facilitated the PAHs release. PAHs during three rainfall events showed little first flush effect except for the artificial turf during the 2nd (22nd July) and 3rd (29th July) rainfall events. The first flush effect could be affected by rainfall characters, PAH properties, and surface characteristics of athletic fields. Ecological risk assessment showed that PAHs in runoff corresponded to moderate-to-high risk, while health risk assessment showed that PAHs could pose a potential carcinogenic danger to human health via dermal contact.
HIGHLIGHTS
The event mean concentration of ∑6PAHs in athletic field runoff ranged from 3.96 to 23.23 μg/L.;
4-ring PAHs were more significant than 2- and 3-ring PAHs.;
High rainfall intensity facilitated the PAHs release.;
The first flush effect was affected by rainfall, PAH properties and athletic field surface characters.;
PAHs in runoff corresponded to moderate-to-high risk but pose a potential carcinogenic danger to human health via dermal contact.;
The accumulation of, and environmental hazards associated with, tire rubber and its disposal are major global concerns. The complex composition and structure of tire rubber and its additives make it highly resistant to natural degradation, but recently, microbial methods of detoxification and degradation of tire rubber have been developed. The polymers in tire rubber can be devulcanized by the activity of aerobic and anaerobic microbes and both the metabolic pathways and associated enzymes involved are becoming better known. Combining and adapting different rubber treatment processes could ultimately lead to more efficient ways of degrading and recycling tire rubber waste.
Undisturbed grasslands can sequester significant quantities of organic carbon (OC) in soils. Irrigation and fertilization enhance CO2 sequestration in managed turfgrass ecosystems but can also increase emissions of CO2 and other greenhouse gases (GHGs). To better understand the GHG balance of urban turf, we measured OC sequestration rates and emission of N2O (a GHG ˜ 300 times more effective than CO2) in Southern California, USA. We also estimated CO2 emissions generated by fuel combustion, fertilizer production, and irrigation. We show that turf emits significant quantities of N2O (0.1-0.3 g N m-2 yr-1) associated with frequent fertilization. In ornamental lawns this is offset by OC sequestration (140 g C m-2 yr-1), while in athletic fields, there is no OC sequestration because of frequent surface restoration. Large indirect emissions of CO2 associated with turfgrass management make it clear that OC sequestration by turfgrass cannot mitigate GHG emissions in cities.
Previous whole animal bioassays with scrap tireleachates demonstrated an antagonistic interactionbetween salinity and toxicity, but it is unknown ifthe effect is due to an interaction between saltsand toxic mode of action, or release of toxicantsfrom the rubber matrix. Microtox bacterialluminescence bioassays were performed on tireleachate solutions in a gradient of salinities from0 to 25 ppt to assess salt/toxicant interactions.Leachate solutions generated at specific salinitieswere amended to higher salinities to assess theeffect of sea salt on toxicity vsleachability/solubility of toxicants. Salineleachate solutions were also diluted with freshwaterleachate. Original leachates and samples amendedwith additional salt were aged for 8 days andretested to assess longer term interactions betweensalt and toxicants. The toxicity of leachatesdecreased with increasing salinity up to 15 ppt,with no significant change at higher salinities.Adding sea salt to leachate solutions did notimmediately decrease toxicity significantly, exceptfor samples starting at zero salinity. This wasinterpreted as an indication of interaction betweensea salt and the toxic constituent(s) in theleachate. Salinity decreases also indicated a directeffect of sea salt on toxicants. Ageing samplesindicated a long term interaction between sea saltand leachate toxicants, but not degradation, over atleast a two week period. Tire leachates are probablya greater threat to freshwater habitats thanbrackish or marine habitats, but bioaccumulation ofpersistent organic contaminants from tires is an unknown.
In 2007, a synthetic turf recreational field in Newark, New Jersey, was closed because lead was found in synthetic turf fibers and in surface dust at concentrations exceeding hazard criteria. Consequently, public health professionals across the country began testing synthetic turf to determine whether it represented a lead hazard. Currently, no standardized methods exist to test for lead in synthetic turf or to assess lead hazards.
Our objectives were to increase awareness of potential lead exposure from synthetic turf by presenting data showing elevated lead in fibers and turf-derived dust; identify risk assessment uncertainties; recommend that federal and/or state agencies determine appropriate methodologies for assessing lead in synthetic turf; and recommend an interim standardized approach for sampling, interpreting results, and taking health-protective actions.
Data collected from recreational fields and child care centers indicate lead in synthetic turf fibers and dust at concentrations exceeding the Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act of 2008 statutory lead limit of 300 mg/kg for consumer products intended for use by children, and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's lead-dust hazard standard of 40 µg/ft² for floors.
Synthetic turf can deteriorate to form dust containing lead at levels that may pose a risk to children. Given elevated lead levels in turf and dust on recreational fields and in child care settings, it is imperative that a consistent, nationwide approach for sampling, assessment, and action be developed. In the absence of a standardized approach, we offer an interim approach to assess potential lead hazards when evaluating synthetic turf.
The disposal of scrap tires has become a major environmental concern. The reuse of scrap tires in the reinforcement of earth structures can provide an attractive solution in reducing the number of used tires disposed in overcrowded landfills. This paper, the second in a series of three papers, discusses the behaviour of slopes reinforced with scrap tires and proposes design recommendations. A mat-reinforced slope can either fail by pull-out of the reinforcement or due to rupture of the attachment tying the tires. A large number of pull-out tests were performed on whole tires and tires with one sidewall removed embedded in sand and cohesive backfill. The pull-out resistance of tire mat reinforcement was primarily governed by the effective shear strength of the soil, and therefore it can provide an efficient means of reinforcement. However, large displacements were required to fully mobilize the ultimate pull-out capacity which must be considered in design.
Rust Remedial Services, Inc. (RRS) recently conducted a major study on the effectiveness of additives, both virgin and recycled, in the immobilization of low-level organics in soils. Using a clean soil spiked with a mixture of hazardous organic chemicals, twelve different stabilization formulations were comparatively tested using leaching (TCLP) and total analysis (TCA) methods. TCLP reduction levels illustrated the effectiveness of the stabilization treatment on a wide variety of low level organics in contaminated soil, with the proper selection of stabilization admixtures. A specially prepared, comminuted, rubber particulate was especially effective in reducing the apparent presence of certain semi-volatile organic compounds in soil, as measured by TCA methods. Most semi-volatile organic compounds were so strongly held by the rubber particles that they were not recovered in the analytical procedure.
Two field trials were constructed to investigate the effect on water quality of tire chip fills placed above the groundwater table. Control wells were used to distinguish the substances naturally present in groundwater from those that leached from tire chips. There was no evidence that tire chips increased the level of substances that have a primary drinking water standard. In addition, there was no evidence that tire chips increased the levels of aluminum, zinc, chloride or sulfate which have secondary (aesthetic) drinking water standards. Under some conditions iron levels may exceed their secondary standard. It is likely that manganese levels will exceed their secondary standard, however, manganese is naturally present in groundwater in many areas. Two sets of samples were tested for organics. Results were below the method detection limit for all compounds.
The need to provide tire compounds with improved resistance to ozone has been very largely met by the use of N,N′ disubstituted-p-phenylenediamines as protective agents. These chemicals are for this reason commonly thought of as antiozonants but they also possess important antioxidant properties and in considering their role in modern compounding, it is necessary to distinguish between their antiozonant and antioxidant functions. The choice of protective system used in any particular tire component depends a good deal on the nature of the polymer. The relative behavior of natural rubber and SBR with respect to ozone cracking and flexcracking is demonstrated by data given in the paper and it is shown how a typical “antiozonant” such as isopropyl phenyl-p-phenylenediamine (IPPD) will protect SBR tread and sidewall compounds principally from static and dynamic ozone cracking and natural rubber compounds not only from ozone attack but also from various oxidative processes such as flexcracking, cut-growth and heat degradation. The effects of the partial replacement of natural rubber and SBR by polybutadiene on the antiozonant and antioxidant requirements of such tire compounds are also briefly considered.
Each of the three analysis methods contributes to an understanding of the degradation processes which occur in environmentally exposed tire-wear particles. Extraction-pyrolysis-GC is the most reliable method since it treats the whole sample rather than a few particles. In 16 months, 52% of the polymer in tread-wear particulate was degraded in soil samples. In glass beads, only 36% of the polymer in tread-wear particulate degraded, perhaps because soil microorganisms were not available to degrade sulfur linkages in the vulcanized portion of the polymer. Fresh tread particles of the same size showed no degradation. The pyrolysis-GC results showed wider scatter, presumably because only a few rubber particles could be analyzed and all the particles did not degrade at the same rate. However, this method showed that the unsaturated bonds of polybutadiene undergo oxidative degradation more rapidly than do the aromatic bonds of styrene units. These results strongly suggest that one important mode of degradation of tread-wear paniculate is atmospheric oxidation. The TGA results showed that biodegradation did not reduce the total carbon content of the tread-wear particulate in this 16-month study. However, more than half of the extender oil was oxidized sufficiently to increase its vaporization temperature to the polymer temperature range. Biooxidation may have detoxified some of the polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon portion of the oil. Overall, these results suggest that microbial attack of tread-wear particulate is less significant than attack by-atmospheric oxygen. To match the amount of rubber observed at the California freeway site, the removal rate by all mechanisms must be 0.67% per day. For this high removal rate, the amount of rubber at the roadside would reach a steady-state value within the first two years of a freeway's use at a level equivalent to five months of tire-wear. The rate of environmental degradation found in this study is 0.15 per day, or 22% of the total removal rate found in the California study. Wind erosion and water runoff probably also contribute to the total removal rate. Most importantly, we have shown that tread-wear particles degrade at a faster rate than tread-rubber itself, and that environmental degradation plays an important role in the fate of tire-wear particulate.
Tire shred processors use various mechanical means to reduce the waste stream of tires to components including rubber and steel. There is a stockpile of shredded rubber material in many states that is currently marketed mainly for use as Tire Derived Fuel (TDF). Civil engineering applications such as light landfill cover, and potentially landfill drainage layers are also attractive applications for shredded rubber material. Local environmental protection agencies and state public health officials have been reluctant, however, in some regions to allow recycled rubber to be used in civil engineering applications. An absence of data concerning long-term effects is often cited as justification for these bans. We summarized recent laboratory investigations conducted to quantify possible leachates from various recycled tire compounds. Extension of these results to reported field tests detailing the impact of recycled rubber on air, soil and water quality is also considered, as well as biological and toxicity issues. Finally, we identify areas where additional research is required and suggest approaches supporting "Better Use Determinations" for use of recycled tire rubber in these applications.
Potential release of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from cured rubber materials containing carbon black as reinforcing agent was studied on the basis of seven standard formulations prepared with different loadings of a carbon black grade specifically selected for its high PAH content. A specific test method involving Soxhlet extraction with toluene was developed and validated for quantification of the US-EPA and EU priority PAHs in the rubber materials containing up to 350 ppm of these compounds. PAH migration into aqueous media was assessed by total immersion of rubber sheets into drinking water, artificial sweat, saliva and rainwater for 7 days at 30 °C. GC/MS and internal deuterated standards were applied for PAH determination in all tests. Migration of PAHs from the cured rubber into aqueous media was not detected for the EU PAHs including benzo(a)pyrene and proved to be very low for the combined US-EPA PAHs, not exceeding 1.2 μg/dm2. Migration-derived PAH concentrations for drinking water were at least 105 lower than those in the rubber compounds. This study demonstrates that once incorporated into a rubber matrix, the PAHs originating from carbon black are scarcely available to aqueous media. These results should be considered while developing PAH exposure assessments for rubber articles.
Zinc oxide is a widely used compound in the rubber industry due to the excellent properties that it shows as activator, and consequently, its role in the mechanism of accelerated sulfur vulcanization has been extensively studied. Due to the increased concern about its environmental effects, several research studies have been carried out in order to substitute it with different metal oxides such us MgO. The effect of the activator system in order to minimize the environmental impact of the rubber goods has been explored. The work developed is presented in two parts. In Part 1, the influence of different mixtures of ZnO and MgO on the vulcanization of natural rubber has been investigated. In Part 2, model compound vulcanization has been used to study the role of MgO on the mechanism to gain a better understanding of the differences shown in Part 1. [doi:10.5254/1.3672428]
The purpose of this article is to review the developments in antioxidants for rubber over the past 25 years since the publication of Davis and Blake's “Chemistry and Technology of Rubber”. The intent is to provide a guide for rational use and further development. Accordingly, the organization of the material is as follows: a) Outline of the mechanism of oxidative attack and antioxidant action. b) Critical review of methods of evaluation. c) Survey of antioxidants in the literature. Numerous reviews of antioxidants in one or more aspects have been published. These have been duplicated only so far as necessary to form a complete outline. Patent references are included only when the specification cites experimental data in support of the claims of antioxidant action. Usage divides rubber antioxidants into four categories: 1) Polymer stabilizers, which are added in the polymerization plant to repress the action of oxygen during drying and storage of the uncured rubber. 2) Antioxidants, which are adde...
This study focused on the microbial desulfurization of ground tire rubber (GTR) by Thiobacillus ferrooxidans, which selected from the soil of an iron mine had strong sulphur oxidizing capacity. GTR was desulfurizated in the modified Silverman medium during the cultivation of T. ferrooxidans for 30 days, and T. ferrooxidans was able to maintain a high biomass. The continuous increase of SO42− in the medium indicated that the sulfur on the surface of GTR was oxidized. FTIR-ATR and XPS spectra revealed that a rupture of conjugated CC bonds and a reduction of sulfur content on the surface of GTR had occurred during desulfurization. The sol fraction of GTR increased from its original 4.69%–7.43%. Compared with GTR sheet, desulfurizated GTR (DGTR) sheets had much smoother surfaces, better physical properties, and higher swelling values. NR vulcanizates filled with DGTR (with 10–40 phr loading) had lower crosslink density and better mechanical properties than those filled with GTR at the same loading. The results determined by DMA suggested that NR vulcanizates filled with DGTR had a reduction of molecular chain friction resistance during glass transition and SEM photograph indicated a better interface coherence between DGTR and NR matrix.
A field trial was constructed beneath a secondary state highway in North Yarmouth, Maine, to investigate the water-quality effects of tire shred fills placed above the groundwater table. Samples were collected in three 3-m2 geomembrane-lined basins located beneath the shoulder of the road. Two of the basins are overlaid by 0.61 m of tire shreds with a 75-mm maximum size topped by 0.72 to 1.37 m of granular soil. The third basin serves as a control and is overlaid by only 0.72 m of granular soil. Quarterly samples for inorganic constituents were taken from January 1994 through June 1999. In addition, samples were taken for volatile and semivolatile organic compounds on three dates. Filtered and unfiltered samples were analyzed for the following substances, which have a primary drinking water standard: barium, cadmium, chromium, lead, and selenium. There was no evidence that the presence of tire shreds altered the concentrations of these substances from their naturally occurring background levels. In additi...
Initial screening of the moderately volatile range of the tire fire oil prior to fractionation was performed using capillary gas chromatography with dual, simultaneous detection. Samples were analyzed with a postcolumn split to a flame ionization capture detector (FID) and an electron capture detector (ECD); no peaks were detected by the ECD. Using another system with the column split to an FID and a thermionic specific detector (TSD) sensitive to nitrogen- and phosphorus-containing compounds, several components were detected that were not evident in the complex FED chromatogram. The TSD-FID response data complemented the mass spectral data for identifications. 2 tables, 4 figures.
Turfgrasses have been utilized by humans to enhance their environment for more than 10 centuries. The complexity and comprehensiveness of these environmental benefits that improve our quality-of-life are just now being quantitatively documented through research. Turfgrass benefits may be divided into (i) functional, (ii) recreational, and (iii) aesthetic components. Specific functional benefits include: excellent soil erosion control and dust stabilization thereby protecting a vital soil resource; improved recharge and quality protection of groundwater, plus flood control; enhanced entrapment and biodegradation of synthetic organic compounds; soil improvement that includes CO2 conversion; accelerated restoration of disturbed soils; substantial urban beat dissipation-temperature moderation; reduced noise, glare, and visual pollution problems; decreased noxious pests and allergy-related pollens; safety in vehicle operation on roadsides and engine longevity on airfields; lowered fire hazard via open, green turfed firebreaks; and improved security of sensitive installations provided by high visibility zones. The recreational benefits include a low-cost surface for outdoor sport and leisure activities enhanced physical health of participants, and a unique low- cost cushion against personal impact injuries. The aesthetic benefits include enhanced beauty and attractiveness; a complimentary relationship to the total landscape ecosystem of flowers, shrubs and trees; improved mental health with a positive therapeutic impact, social harmony and stability; improved work productivity; and an overall better quality-of-life, especially in densely populated urban areas.
The volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions from pasture at a site in southeastern Victoria, Australia, were monitored over a 2 year period using a static chamber technique. Fluxes up to 23,000 mug(C)m-2h-1 were detected, with the higher fluxes originating from clover rather than from grass species. Gas chromatographic analyses indicated that emissions from both grass and clover were high in oxygenated hydrocarbons including methanol, ethanol, propanone, butanone, and ethanal, and extremely low in isoprene and monoterpenes. In the case of clover, butanone made up 45-50% of the total emissions. When grass and clover were freshly mown, there were significantly enhanced emissions of VOCs. These enhanced emissions included both those oxygenates emitted from uncut pasture and also C6-oxygenates, including (Z)-3-hexenal, (E)-2-hexenal, (Z)-2-hexen-1-ol, (Z)-3-hexen-1-ol, and (Z)-3-hexenyl acetate. Emissions from the undisturbed pasture increased markedly with temperature and the intensity of solar radiation, peaking at midday and ceasing at night. The fluxes, when normalized to a temperature of 30°C and a light intensity of 1000 muEm-2s-1 were, for grass and clover respectively, about one eighth and two fifths of the equivalent fluxes reported to occur from U.S. woodlands. The annual integrated emission from the pasture was approximately 1.9 g(C)m-2 or 1.3 mg(C)g-1 (dry matter). The large transient fluxes that occurred following physical damaging of the pasture, when integrated over time, could be of the same order as those emissions that were observed from undisturbed pasture. In the case of methanol, and perhaps ethanol, the emissions from grasslands may be significant global sources of these gases.
A natural overconsolidated fissured clay, Keuper Marl, was mixed with shredded tire, 1–4 and 4–8 mm angular size particles, in weight percentages between 6 and 15%, and examined for use as a constituent in a landfill liner in terms of compaction, unconfined compressive strength, stress-strain behavior, permeability to water and paraffin, leachability, free swell behavior and swelling pressure. The results showed that the compacted dry density reduced solely due to the lighter weight of the tire and the unconfined compressive strength of the mixture was as low a 40% of the strength of the clay alone. In stress-strain behavior the clay-tire mixtures produced a prolonged strain range at failure of roughly double that observed for the clay alone. The permeability to paraffin was reduced by more than 50 times compared to that of water. The leachability results showed different leached levels of copper and nickel from the NRA and TCLP leaching tests which will need to be assessed in relation to appropriate standards. Paraffin caused considerable swelling of the clay-tire mixtures compared to the clay alone and caused the development of swelling pressures of up to 600 kPa. Combinations of the various test results will need to be assessed in relation to the design requirement of the specific landfill liner being designed.
A reinforced earthfill was constructed using approximately 10 000 scrap tires. Water samples were collected from a drainage system installed below the tire-reinforced earthfill and analyzed for chemical quality. Additional tests on water quality were performed in laboratory test columns in which tire chips were embedded in sand or clay to provide a conservative estimate of the potential release of toxic compounds. Field monitoring of the effluent indicated that no significant adverse effects on groundwater quality had occurred over a period of 2 years. Laboratory batch tests performed on tire chips embedded in sand provided evidence of an increase in solution of certain metal elements which in some cases exceeds their respective drinking-water standards. This increase was attributed to the exposed steel reinforcement found in the tire chips. The amount of organic compounds leached from the tire chips decreased with the number of exposure periods or pore volumes flushed through the soil.Key words: whole scrap tires, water quality, tire chips, field investigation, laboratory lysimeter tests.
Pararaquat (1,1'-dimethyl-4,4-bipyridlnium) and its dichioride salt (1,1'-dimethyl-4,4-bipyridinium dichloride) are broad-spectrum contact plant killers and herbage desiccants that were introduced commercially during the past 25 years. Today, they rank among the most widely used herbicides globally and are frequently used in combination with other herbicides. The recommended paraquat field application rates for terrestrial weed control usually range between 0.28 and 1.12 kg/ha (0.25 and 1.0 lb/acre), and for aquatic weed control the range is 0.1-2.0 mg/L. Target plant species are unable to metabollze paraquat and tend to contain elevated residues; paraquat-resistant strains of terrestrial flora, whose numbers are increasing, require greater concentrations for control and may contain proportionately greater residues. Paraquat from decayed flora is usually adsorbed to soils and sediments. Paraquat in surface soils generally photoecomposes in several weeks, but paraquat in subsurface soils and sediments may remain bound-and biologically unavailable-for many years without significant degradation.
This account is a selective review and synthesis of the technical literature on nickel and nickel salts in the environment and their effects on terrestrial plants and invertebrates, aquatic plants and animals, avian and mammalian wildlife, and other natural resources. The subtopics include nickel sources and uses; physical, chemical, and metabolic properties of nickel; nickel concentrations in field collections of abiotic materials and living organisms; nickel deficiency effects; lethal and sublethal effects, including effects on survival, growth, reproduction, metabolism, mutagenicity, teratogenicity, and carcinogenicity; currently proposed nickel criteria for the protection of human health and sensitive natural resources; and recommendations for additional research.
Synthetic athletic tracks and turf areas for outdoor sporting grounds may release contaminants due to the chemical composition of some components. A primary example is that of zinc from re-used scrap tires (main constituent, styrene butadiene rubber, SBR) - that might be harmful to the environment. Thus methods for the risk assessment of those materials need to be developed. Laboratory leaching methods like batch and column tests are widely used to examine the soil-groundwater pathway. We tested several components for artificial sporting grounds with batch tests at a liquid-to-solid (LS) ratio of 2 L/kg and column tests with an LS up to 26.5 L/kg. We found a higher zinc release in the batch test eluates for all granules, ranging from 15 % higher to 687 % higher versus data from column tests for SBR granules. The accompanying parameters, especially the very high turbidity of a special ethylene propylene diene monomer rubber (EPDM), or thermoplastic elastomer (TPE) eluates, reflect the stronger mechanical stress of batch testing. This indicates that the batch test procedure might not be suitable for the risk assessment of synthetic sporting ground components. Column tests on the other hand represent field conditions more closely and allow for determination of the time dependent contaminants release.
Because tires contain approximately 1-2% zinc by weight, zinc leaching is an environmental concern associated with civil engineering applications of tire crumb rubber. An assessment of zinc leaching data from 14 studies in the published literature indicates that increasing zinc leaching is associated with lower pH and longer leaching times, but the data display a wide range of zinc concentrations, and do not address the effect of crumb rubber size or the dynamics of zinc leaching during flow through porous crumb rubber. The present study was undertaken to investigate the effect of crumb rubber size using the Synthetic Precipitation Leaching Procedure (SPLP), the effect of exposure time using quiescent batch leaching tests, and the dynamics of zinc leaching using column tests. Results indicate that zinc leaching from tire crumb rubber increases with smaller crumb rubber and longer exposure time. Results from SPLP and quiescent batch leaching tests are interpreted with a single-parameter leaching model that predicts a constant rate of zinc leaching up to 96 hr. Breakthrough curves from column tests displayed an initial pulse of elevated zinc concentration (~3 mg/L) before settling down to a steady-state value (~0.2 mg/L), and were modeled with the software package HYDRUS-1D. Washing crumb rubber reduces this initial pulse but does not change the steady-state value. No leaching experiment significantly reduced the reservoir of zinc in the crumb rubber.
Life-cycle assessment models attempt to quantify the environmental implications of alternative products and processes, tracing pollution discharges and resources use through the chain of producers and consumers. Present life-cycle assessments must draw boundaries that limit consideration to a few producers in the chain from raw materials to a finished product. We show that this limitation considers only a fraction of the environmental discharges associated with a product or process, thereby making current assessments unreliable. We propose an approach that uses economic input-output analysis and pollution discharge data and apply the model to automobiles, refrigerators, and computer purchases, and to a comparison of paper and plastic cups.
The formation/decomposition of several compounds from the pyrolysis of tire wastes is compared in three different types of equipment. The types of laboratory equipment consist of a Pyroprobe, where the secondary reactions are minimized, and a horizontal pyrolysis furnace, where the cracking is severe. The yields obtained in both types of equipment are compared with those previously obtained in a fluidized bed reactor. On the other hand, the kinetic severity function (KSF) has been proposed as a measure of the cracking undergone by the tars produced. This paper focuses on the production of semivolatiles from tire wastes.
Methods were developed for simulating a rubber vulcanization process in the laboratory and for analyzing the volatile organic compounds released. Vapors generated from a typical stock and from individual compounding ingredients were collected on activated charcoal and were then eluted with diethyl ether. Specific peaks in the subsequent gas chromatogram were correlated with retention times of volatiles released from various additives. Combined gas chromatography-mass spectrometry was employed to identify individual substances in the C6 to C25 boiling range.
While a new tire may have excellent resistance to crack initiation and propagation between the steel belts, an aged tire of the exact same construction can exhibit dramatically reduced crack growth resistance, which in some cases may contribute to tire failure. This article will review the research that has gone into quantifying the rate of oxidation the steel belt rubber oxidizes in different climates from tire samples retrieved from consumers' vehicles. The information obtained from the field is then compared to data collected from various resources attempting to develop accelerated tire aging pro-tocols. Finally, methods for potentially improving tire aging are reviewed.
To reduce the ZnO levels in rubber compounds, mixed metal oxide nanoparticles of zinc and magnesium (Zn1−xMgxO) have been synthesized and used as activator. The aim is to obtain better curing properties due to its nanosize and to take advantage of the behavior of both ZnO and MgO in sulfur vulcanization. The model compound vulcanization approach with squalene as a model molecule for NR and CBS as accelerator has been used to study the role of the mixed metal oxide along the reaction. The results found show that with Zn1–xMgxO nanoparticles the reaction of CBS becomes faster, higher amounts of MBT are formed at shorter reaction times, and the consumption of sulfur occurs faster in comparison with standard ZnO. Furthermore and more important, an increased crosslink degree calculated as the total amount of crosslinked squalene is obtained. All these findings indicate that Zn1−xMgxO is a promising candidate to reduce the ZnO levels in rubber compounds. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2011
Thiobacillus ferrooxidans, T. thioparus, Acidianus brierleyi and TH2 Lund, an archaeal isolate, were tested for sulphur oxidising capacity on ground rubber from spent car tyres. T. ferrooxidans converted 8 % (w/w) of the sulphur in cryoground spent rubber to sulphate in 20 days. Desulphurization of fresh made natural rubber was studied with scanning electron microscope with energy-dispersive x-ray spectrometer and electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis. The average depletion of sulphur on the treated surface was 24 % compared to the bulk region. Oxidised sulphur species were detected on the surface after microbial treatment. Rapid Science Ltd. 1998
Degradation of rubber particles from tyre treads, having diameters from 0.8 to 2.3 mm, was achieved using Nocardia sp. 835A-Rc, a mutant strain with strong rubber-degrading ability. The entire surface of the particles was uniformly attacked by the organism either without stirring of the culture medium or at a very low stirring rate of 40 rpm. At a higher rate of stirring, however, a small number of large microbial colonies were formed on the rubber surface and separate deep semi-spherical cavities were observed after the removal of microbial cells by washing. The number of microbial colonies decreased with increasing stirring rate but each one of the colonies became larger at the same time. As the result of these two counteracting effects of stirring on microbial activity, the weight loss of the particles increased when the stirring rate was raised from 0 to 40 rpm but decreased when the rate was increased from 40 to 70 or 150 rpm. At the stirring rate of 40 rpm, the weight losses of the particles with mean diameters of about 0.8, 1.1 and 2.3 mm were 57, 50 and 36%, respectively, after 8 weeks. The rate of microbial degradation increased again when the stirring was raised from 150 to 300 rpm.
The growth of a Nocardia sp. occurs essentially on the insoluble rubber substrate and the cells are tightly bound to the rubber in the initial stage of the growth in spite of vigorous stirring of the cultures. The colonization of rubber pieces was followed by staining with Schiff reagent, and it was revealed that not only the thickness of rubber pieces, but also their length and width greatly influenced microbial colonization and degradation of natural rubber products. Among rubber pieces of various shapes, long strips were most rapidly covered by many microbial colonies and experienced the highest rate of rubber degradation. The rate of degradation (expressed by % weight loss) of the long strips of rubber was a linear function of surface area per unit weight of rubber. Thin and wide films of rubber were also rapidly colonized and degraded, while the colonization and degradation of short and narrow pieces were substantially slower and less extensive.
During storage and service, exterior tire rubber compounds are subject to aging due to multiple factors. This process cannot be accurately represented by conventional single factor tests. The overall goal of our research is to develop an accelerated, service-simulating, artificial aging test for exterior rubber compounds. During the first part of this work, a cyclic test consisting of a series of single factor sub-tests was proposed and compared to dynamic outdoor aging and two standard single factor test: thermal aging and dynamic ozone aging. Although this cycle test shows promise, it does not account for interactions and is time consuming and inefficient making it unattractive for industrial use. In the present paper, an outdoor accelerated aging simulator is designed, build and tested. It includes the aging factors of heat, ozone, ultraviolet light, dynamic stretching, and aqueous solutions. The chamber is compared against dynamic outdoor aging and the above-mentioned cyclic aging test by characterizing the degradation as a function of aging time. Four formulations of exterior tire rubber compounds are used as experimental materials. The experimental results demonstrate that the chamber runs show excellent correlation with the cyclic and dynamic outdoor aging test. For all the tests completed, the static modulus initially increases, then reaches a maximum, and then decreases. The final chamber test run provided an acceleration factor of roughly 7.5 times the rate at which aging occurs in the dynamic outdoor aging test. It was found that the size of the specimen has a significant affect on the aging rate, which can be utilized to accelerate the aging without elevating the temperature.
In the present study the rubber portion of used car tires was transformed by atmospheric pyrolysis into oil, gas and char. The experiments have been performed in a captive sample reactor at atmospheric pressure, under helium atmosphere. The effect of temperature on the products yield was investigated. In a second step, alternative uses of pyrolysis char such as combustion, gasification and active carbons preparation were examined, in order to produce fuels and high added value materials. First, pyrolysis char was burned and its reactivity was measured in function with pyrolysis temperature. Second, char was gasified with Steam and CO2 to produce fuel gases, in a tubular stainless steel reactor. It was also activated to produce high added value materials. It was shown that tire chars present higher reactivity with steam than with CO2 and also active carbons produced from tire chars possess surface areas, comparable with those of commercially available active carbons.
Aging of tire rubber compounds in real service is affected by multiple factors. This process cannot be accurately represented by conventional single-factor tests. A novel cyclic aging test is proposed as a multiple factor, service simulating, accelerated aging test method. It includes four sub-tests of oxygen bomb, dynamic ozone, ultraviolet light, and water solution attack. The proposed cyclic test is compared against thermal, dynamic ozone, and dynamic outdoor aging by characterizing material property degradation as a function of aging time. Four formulations of exterior tire rubber compounds are used as experimental materials. The experimental results show that the proposed cyclic aging test is closer to dynamic outdoor aging than the conventional dynamic ozone and thermal aging tests. The static modulus increases with thermal aging, and decreases with dynamic ozone aging time. For dynamic outdoor and cyclic aging, the modulus initially increases, but then later decreases, showing traces of both of the previously mentioned results. It is also found that the size of the specimen has a significant affect on aging. Such effect can be utilized to accelerate the artificial aging without elevating the temperature.
Forty-seven percent of a tire tread strip with a natural rubber content of 100 phr (parts per hundred of rubber) was completely mineralized by a mutant strain, Rc, of the rubber-degrading organism, Nocardia sp. strain 835A, while 34% was disintegrated into very small particles after a cultivation period of 8 weeks.
A laboratory study was conducted to determine if automobile tires immersed in fresh water leach chemicals which are toxic to aquatic biota. Three tire types were examined - tires obtained from a floating tire breakwater; road-worn tires from the same vehicle; and new tires. Whole tires were immersed in 300 L of water (natural groundwater) and subsamples (40 L) of water were removed at 5, 10, 20 and 40 d for use in acute static lethality tests. Overlying water from both new and used tires was lethal to rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) but leachate from used tires was more toxic (96-h LC50s - 11.8 to 19.3 %v/v) than leachate from new tires (96-h LC50s - 52.1 to 80.4 %v/v). In addition, leachate remained relatively toxic to rainbow trout over time (8 d for new and 32 d for used) after tires were removed from the aquaria indicating that the chemicals responsible for toxicity degrade slowly and are non-volatile. No toxicity to cladocerans (Daphnia magna; 48-h exposure) or fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas; 96-h exposure to leachate from 20 and 40 d only) was observed with these same leachates. Tires from a floating tire breakwater which had been installed for several (10) years did not release chemicals which were toxic to any species tested. In separate experiments, concentrated (10X) leachate from tires immersed for 25 d in water inhibited bioluminescence in the marine bacterium, Photobacterium phosphoreum, (Microtox™ test), the enzyme, β-galactosidase, in mutant Escherichia coli (ToxiChromo™ Test) and the enzyme, NADH-coenzyme Q reductase, in the inner membrane of mitochondria (beef heart submitochrondria particle test). Several other screening tests (e.g., nematode lethality/mutagenicity test; bacterium (Spirillum volutans) motility inhibition test and the SOS-Chromotest with and without S-9 activation) were not sensitive to tire leachates. Further studies to identify the toxic compounds and to determne the extent of toxicity under field conditions of dilution are necessary.
Ground discarded tires adsorb naphthalene, toluene, and mercury ions (Hg2+) from aqueous solutions. Their sorption properties and kinetics were determined by batch equilibration techniques at 20°C. The isotherms were linear for naphthalene and toluene and their sorption coefficients were about 1340 and 255 (ml/g), respectively. Sorption of the organic compounds by the ground rubber particles was relatively fast (within 30 min). However, the mercury isotherms were non-linear, and its sorption was slow as compared to the sorption of the organics. The rubber particles had a strong affinity for Hg2+. These results show that ground discarded tires are effective in removing organic compounds and Hg2+ from wastewater and other contaminated environments. In addition it would be a useful, environmentally friendly use of discarded tires (one tire per year per capita is discarded in the United States).
Eight tires were analyzed for 15 high molecular weight (HMW) polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), using pressurized fluid extraction. The variability of the PAH concentrations determined between different tires was large; a factor of 22.6 between the lowest and the highest. The relative abundance of the analytes was quite similar regardless of tire. Almost all (92.3%) of the total extractable PAH content was attributed to five PAHs: benzo[ghi]perylene, coronene, indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene, benzo[e]pyrene, and benzo[a]pyrene. The difference in the measured PAH content between summer and winter tires varied substantially across manufacturers, making estimates of total vehicle fleet emissions very uncertain. However, when comparing different types of tires from the same manufacturer they had significantly (p = 0.05) different PAH content. Previously, there have been no data available for carcinogenic dibenzopyrene isomers in automobile tires. In this study, the four dibenzopyrene isomers dibenzo[a,l]pyrene, dibenzo[a,e]pyrene, dibenzo[a,i]pyrene, and dibenzo[a,h]pyrene constituted <2% of the sum of the 15 analyzed HMW PAHs. These findings show that automobile tires may be a potential previously unknown source of carcinogenic dibenzopyrenes to the environment.
The artificial-turf granulates made from recycled rubber waste are of health concern due the possible exposure of users to dangerous substances present in the rubber, and especially to PAHs. In this work, we determined the contents of PAHs, metals, non-dioxin-like PCBs (NDL-PCBs), PCDDs and PCDFs in granulates, and PAH concentrations in air during the use of the field. The purposes were to identify some potential chemical risks and to roughly assess the risk associated with inhalation exposure to PAHs. Rubber granulates were collected from 13 Italian fields and analysed for 25 metals and nine PAHs. One further granulate was analysed for NDL-PCBs, PCDDs, PCDFs and 13 PAHs. Air samples were collected on filter at two fields, using respectively a high volume static sampler close to the athletes and personal samplers worn by the athletes, and at background locations outside the fields. In the absence of specific quality standards, we evaluated the measured contents with respect to the Italian standards for soils to be reclaimed as green areas. Zn concentrations (1 to 19 g/kg) and BaP concentrations (0.02 to 11 mg/kg) in granulates largely exceeded the pertinent standards, up to two orders of magnitude. No association between the origin of the recycled rubber and the contents of PAHs and metals was observed. The sums of NDL-PCBs and WHO-TE PCDDs+PCDFs were, respectively, 0.18 and 0.67×10(-5) mg/kg. The increased BaP concentrations in air, due to the use of the field, varied approximately from <0.01 to 0.4 ng/m(3), the latter referring to worst-case conditions as to the release of particle-bound PAHs. Based on the 0.4 ng/m(3) concentration, an excess lifetime cancer risk of 1×10(-6) was calculated for an intense 30-year activity.
Grass, and particularly cut grass, recently has been shown to emit significant amounts of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) into the atmosphere. Some components of these emissions are highly reactive and may contribute to photochemical smog in urban areas. A simple model for estimating the VOC emissions from grass and for grass cutting that allows these processes to be included in urban/regional emissions inventories is presented here. Using previous work and recent literature values, estimates are made of these biogenic volatile organic compound (BVOC) emissions for two typical urban airsheds, those including the cities of Sydney and Melbourne in Australia. Grass and cut grass could contribute approximately 2% for Sydney and 3% for Melbourne of the total VOCs emitted into these urban atmospheres annually. These contributions could rise to 4 and 5%, respectively, during the weekends of the summer growing season and, thus, could contribute to weekday/weekend ozone differences. It is recommended that the emissions of BVOCs from grass and cut grass be included in urban and global emissions inventories so that more accurate predictions of smog chemistry can be determined.
The use of algae as a feedstock for biodiesel production is a rapidly growing industry, in the United States and globally. A life cycle assessment (LCA) is presented that compares various methods, either proposed or under development, for algal biodiesel to inform the most promising pathways for sustainable full-scale production. For this analysis, the system is divided into five distinct process steps: (1) microalgae cultivation, (2) harvesting and/or dewatering, (3) lipid extraction, (4) conversion (transesterification) into biodiesel, and (5) byproduct management. A number of technology options are considered for each process step and various technology combinations are assessed for their life cycle environmental impacts. The optimal option for each process step is selected yielding a best case scenario, comprised of a flat panel enclosed photobioreactor and direct transesterification of algal cells with supercritical methanol. For a functional unit of 10 GJ biodiesel, the best case production system yields a cumulative energy demand savings of more than 65 GJ, reduces water consumption by 585 m(3) and decreases greenhouse gas emissions by 86% compared to a base case scenario typical of early industrial practices, highlighting the importance of technological innovation in algae processing and providing guidance on promising production pathways.
As one of the countries with large amounts of dioxin releases, the control of dioxins is a major challenge for China. Municipal solid waste (MSW) incineration should be considered a high priority source of dioxin emissions because it is playing an increasingly more important role in waste management. MSW incineration in China has much higher emission rates of dioxins than in the developed countries, partially resulting from the gaps in the technologies of incineration and flue gas cleaning. Moreover, the current management policies and practices also contribute significantly to the problem. We recommend lowering dioxin emission standard, strengthening fly ash management, and improving regulation enforcement to reduce dioxin releases into the environment from MSW incineration. We also propose that alternative strategies should be considered on dioxin control and call for an expansion of economic instruments in waste management to reduce waste generation and thus the need for incineration.
Crumb rubber material (CRM) used as infill on artificial turf fields can be the source of a variety of substances released to the environment and to living organisms in the vicinity of the CRM. To assess potential risks of major volatilized and leached substances derived from CRM, methods were developed to identify organic compounds and elements, either in the vapor phase and/or the leachate from CRM. A qualitative method based on solid phase micro-extraction (SPME) coupled with gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC-MS) was developed to identify the major volatile and semi-volatile organic compounds out-gassing from CRM samples under defined laboratory conditions. Direct vapor phase injection into the GC-MS was applied for the quantitative analysis. Ten organic compounds were identified in the vapor phase by the SPME method. Volatile benzothiazole (BT) was detected at the highest level in all commercial CRM samples, in the range 8.2-69 ng g(-1) CRM. Other volatile PAHs and antioxidants were quantified in the vapor phase as well. A decrease of volatile compounds was noted in the headspace over CRM samples from 2-years-old fields when compared with the virgin CRM used at installation. An outdoor experiment under natural weathering conditions showed a significant reduction of out-gassing organic compounds from the CRM in the first 14 d; thereafter, values remained consistent up to 70 d of observation. Zinc was the most abundant element in the acidified leachate (220-13000 microg g(-1)), while leachable BT was detected at relatively low amounts.