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Environmental Improvement Potentials of Meat and Dairy Products (EUR 23491)
Abstract and Figures
This report first presents a systematic overview of the life cycle of meat and dairy products and their
environmental impacts, covering the full food chain. It goes on to provide a comprehensive analysis of the
improvement options that allow reducing the environmental impacts throughout the life cycle. Finally, the
report assesses the different options regarding their feasibility as well as their potential environmental and
socioeconomic benefits and costs.
The report focuses on improvement options in three main areas:
• Household improvements, mainly to reduce food losses (wastage) and to reduce car use for
shopping;
• Agricultural improvements, mainly to reduce water and air emissions (in particular nitrate,
ammonia and methane) and land requirements;
• Power savings in farming, food industry, retail, catering, and for household appliances.
The study presents the consequences that the adoption of these options might have on a broad range
of different environmental issues, including global warming, eutrophication, respiratory health impacts,
etc. It shows that when all environmental improvement potentials are taken together, the aggregated
environmental impacts (external costs) of meat and dairy products may be reduced by about 20 %. The
study has also quantified the economic costs and benefits of implementing the different options.
Figures - uploaded by Bo Pedersen Weidema
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... Much work has been done on the environmental assessment of meat production through life cycle assessment (LCA) studies. For example, in a Weidema study [4], household storage accounted for 20% of the total energy consumption in the life cycle of meat products. Calderon et al. [5] identified transportation as a second priority step in the environmental impact of canned pork. ...
... According to Davis and Sonnesson [6], reducing the environmental impact of eating a poultry-meat-based meal is as important as improving the environmental performance of manufacturing a ready-to-eat product. Some improvements have been proposed in three aspects of the life cycle of meat products: utilization (reducing food waste transportation), agricultural steps (reducing water use and emissions to the environment, as well as land use), and energy consumption (reducing agricultural consumption, food processing, distribution, and household consumption) [4]. ...
... However, most studies still stop at the farm gate [7][8][9]. Life cycle steps occurring before the farm gate (livestock feed and animal husbandry) are mainly responsible for the total environmental impact, with over 80% contribution to acidification and eutrophication and 60% to 80% contribution to greenhouse gas emissions [4,[10][11][12][13]. The life cycle steps after the farm gate (slaughter, production, distribution, and consumption) account for 10% to 40% of greenhouse gas emissions and 10% to 70% of energy consumption, with a very small contribution to acidification and eutrophication impacts [4,6,7,[10][11][12][14][15][16][17][18]. ...
Global sustainability indicators, particularly in human health, are necessary to describe agrifood products footprint. Nitrosamines are toxic molecules that are often encountered in cured and processed meats. As they are frequently consumed, meat-based products need to be assessed to evaluate their potential impact on human health. This article provides a methodological framework based on life cycle assessment for comparing meat product processing scenarios. The respective contributions of each step of the product life cycle are extended with a new human health indicator, nitrosamine toxicity, which has not been previously included in life cycle assessment (LCA) studies and tools (software and databases). This inclusion allows for the comparison of conventional versus innovative processes. Nitrosamines toxicity was estimated to be 2.20x10−6 disability-adjusted life years (DALY) for 1 kg of consumed conventional cooked ham while 4.54x10−7 DALY for 1 kg of consumed innovative cooked ham. The potential carcinogenic and noncarcinogenic effects of nitrosamines from meat products on human health are taken into account. Human health indicators are an important step forward in the comprehensive application of LCA methodology to improve the global sustainability of food systems.
... Rebound for multiple environmental issues has been addressed by Briceno et al. (2004) and Thiesen et al. (2008), while Weidema et al. (2008) further addressed both midpoint and endpoint indicators. The study from Weidema et al. (2008) is of particular relevance as it shows the differences in the relative score across impact categories by adopting different impact assessment metrics. ...
... Rebound for multiple environmental issues has been addressed by Briceno et al. (2004) and Thiesen et al. (2008), while Weidema et al. (2008) further addressed both midpoint and endpoint indicators. The study from Weidema et al. (2008) is of particular relevance as it shows the differences in the relative score across impact categories by adopting different impact assessment metrics. Beyond simply expressing rebound through multiple indicators, the trade-offs across environmental indicators have been assessed by Freire-González and Vivanco (2017) in terms of the economic structure, the consumption patterns, and the own price elasticity of the demand for energy. ...
Rebound effects have been historically studied through narrow framings which may overlook the complexity of sustainability challenges, sometimes leading to badly informed conclusions and policy recommendations. Here we present a critical literature review of rebound effects in the context of sustainability science in order to (1) map existing rebound research which goes beyond mainstream approaches, (2) unveil and classify current knowledge gaps in relation to sustainability science, (3) outline a research agenda, and (4) provide a knowledge base to support the design of effective policies toward sustainable development. We analyzed the literature in accordance with seven criteria for sustainable assessment: boundary orientedness, comprehensiveness, integratedness, stakeholder involvement, scalability, strategicness, and transparency. Our review identified three main issues: (1) the failure to address the multidimensionality of rebound effects, whereby both negative and positive outcomes may arise simultaneously, (2) the shift toward absolute rebound metrics which enables the contextualization of its effect with respect to science and policy goals, and (3) a general lack of attention to behavioral effects. We conclude that addressing these issues will help rebound research gain explanatory power and relevance for key decision‐makers. We envision that with better alignment with sustainability science, future rebound research could help elucidate trade‐offs in policies, including why certain strategies such as those based on the circular economy might fall short of expectations, and why achieving key goals and targets such as the sustainable development goals is so challenging. This knowledge is crucial for promoting a prioritization of actions and a concrete transition toward sustainability.
... Even for the ozone depletion indicator, for which the relative contribution of the production of the ingredients is the lowest relative to the other indicators ( Fig. 1), the average contribution of each stage is as follows: ingredients (58.7% on average, from 23.3 to 84.4%), distribution (19.4%, from 5.1 to 42.2%), processing (7.2%, from 0.4 to 22.7%), transport of the pizza (6.7%, from 2.7 to 12.2%), use (4%, from 1.4 to 7.3%), and packaging (3.9%, from 0.8 to 11.9%). Such predominance of the ingredient-production stage on the environmental impact is in accordance with the observations of Weidema et al. (2008), who showed that the stage with the greatest impact in the production of dairy and meat products was the agricultural stage. However, several studies have shown that this predominance may vary depending on the impact category considered. ...
... The Bolognese family is thus that with the highest impact on climate change (5.45 kg CO 2 eq/kg of pizza on average), as well as on the indicators particulate matter, acidification, terrestrial eutrophication, and land use. This result is consistent with that of the study conducted by Weidema et al. (2008), which showed that beef had an environmental impact up to five times higher than that of pork. In addition to pizzas containing beef, cheese and vegetables pizzas also showed a high impact on climate change (3.59 and 3.00 kg CO 2 eq/kg of pizza, respectively). ...
There is an urgent need to reduce the strong environmental impact of food production and consumption, which are expected to increase in the coming years due to the growing world population. Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a known method for environmental evaluation worldwide. In the case of food products, LCAs are often carried out on a single representative of a food category, which does not allow an understanding of possible variations in the environmental impact between products belonging to the same category. We aimed to assess and compare the environmental impact of a wide range of food products belonging to the same food category. The study model chosen was industrial pizza, because of its high consumption worldwide and its large range of recipes, as well as its various storage conditions (fresh or frozen), distributors, and nutritional content. Thus, we assessed the environmental impact of 80 pizzas representative of the 2010 French retail market by LCA, using 1 kg of ready-to-eat pizza as the functional unit and the EF 3.0 method for impact characterization. LCA showed ingredient production to be the stage of pizza production with the highest impact. Moreover, statistical analysis of the results showed that the sector and distribution mode of the pizzas do not appear to have an influence on their environmental impact. On the contrary, the pizza recipes have a significant influence on the environmental impact of industrial pizza. Indeed, pizzas containing beef have a significantly higher environmental impact than the others and the cheese content of pizzas positively correlates with their environmental impact. Finally, we observed that the higher the protein, fat, and saturated fatty acid content of the pizzas studied, the greater their environmental impact in most of the studied environmental impact categories. These results could be useful for LCA practitioners who want to strengthen our knowledge on the environmental impact of food and companies that want to develop more sustainable products, as well as for consumers who want to make more sustainable choices.
... Studies that assessed the external costs of meat and other food products already exist in the literature, but no study was found that quantified both the environmental and health-related costs. For instance, Weidema et al. (2008) assessed the potential external costs and benefits of reducing the environmental impact of meat and dairy products in the EU, but the health-related costs were not assessed. The authors concluded that the social costs of meat and dairy could be 20 % lower if the environmental impacts were reduced. ...
The literature on the external costs of food consumption is limited. This study aims at advancing in this field by translating the environmental and health-related impacts generated by the life-cycle of meat into external costs via monetization. The main types of meat consumed in Italy are used as a case study. The potential external costs are estimated via attributional life cycle assessment (LCA), using: i) the ReCiPe method for the environmental impact assessment (fourteen impact categories), ii) the population attributional fractions for the health damage from meat ingestion, and iii) the CE Delft environmental prices for monetization. Results show that processed pork and beef generate the highest costs on society, with an external cost of approximately 2€ per 100 g. Fresh pork and poultry follow, with a cost of 1€ and 0.5€ per 100 g, respectively. For comparison, the potential external costs of legumes (i.e., a plant-based alternative to meat) are estimated to be from eight to twenty times lower than meat (around 0.05€ per 100 g of legumes). In 2018, meat consumed in Italy potentially generated a cost on society of 36.6 bn€. The burden arises almost equally from impacts generated before meat ingestion (mainly associated with the emissions arisen from farming), and after the ingestion (due to diseases potentially associated with meat consumption). A sensitivity analysis on the main parameters revealed a large uncertainty on the final yearly cost, ranging from 19 to 93 bn€. Although more research is needed to improve the accuracy and the validity of the models used in the study (e.g., human health impact assessment, monetization) and to include potential external costs currently unaccounted for (e.g., water use, animal welfare, occupational health), results show unequivocal significant costs associated with meat consumption. We thus advocate for policies aimed at reducing these costs and allocating them properly.
... Similar to previous literature (Durand-Morat et al., 2018;Shew et al., 2019Shew et al., , 2021, this study implemented a Stepwise Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) framework, which combines both human and environmental impacts in an economic (monetization) context (Weidema, 2009;Weidema et al., 2008). The lifecycle impact categories included in the stepwise methodology are outlined in Table 2. ...
Rice producers in the Mid-South of the United States face decreasing groundwater availability and increasing pumping depths which may jeopardize sustainable rice production. Recently, producers have started adopting furrow irrigated rice (FIR) which reduces irrigation requirements by approximately 17 % compared to conventionally flooded rice (CIR). Although driven by water savings and ease of planting and harvesting, as FIR does not require levies to be built, there are both yield (quantity) and milling (quality) concerns with FIR production. While some view FIR as a more sustainable production practice because of its reduced water usage, a comprehensive Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) has not been conducted to compare the two production systems. This study compares the economic (yield differences, NPV of water conserved and milling discounts/premiums) and environmental (a stepwise LCA which monetizes the holistic environmental of CIR and FIR on a per kg of rice basis) differences between CIR and FIR. Profitability results indicate that CIR more profitable and LCA results show that CIR is more environmentally sustainable. These results present a Gordian knot for policy makers and rice stakeholders alike as they struggle between a production practice that has a lower environmental impact (CIR) versus one that conserves water, reduces soil disturbance, and offers more flexibility to respond to market and weather conditions (FIR). Water savings has historically been a key focus of rice production from an environmental sustainability standpoint. Our research indicates that failure to both recognize and quantify holistic environmental metrics besides water savings may provide misleading recommendations.
... The multiple RE insights from the EN, EC, and SO disciplines have drawn the attention of sustainability sciences (Nørgård and Xue, 2016;Weidema et al., 2008). The SU discipline extends the idea of RE to a broader spectrum of environmental issues (i.e., not just energy use), across the entire life cycle and with a long-term view. ...
Circular Economy (CE) has gained great traction over the past few years and is increasingly seen as a way to achieve sustainable development. However, the implementation of CE initiatives often leads to rebound effects (RE), which limits the sustainability potential of CE. Despite the vast literature on rebound effects across several disciplines, such as ecological economics and industrial ecology, there is still a limited understanding regarding the occurrence of rebound effects within a CE context. This paper provides a systematic literature review (SLR) of RE with a particular focus on: (i) definitions; (ii) triggers and drivers; (iii) types and mechanisms; and (iv) measurement approaches. On the basis of the results of the SLR, a conceptual framework of RE is proposed. Furthermore, several gaps for RE research within CE have been identified and lead to the proposition of a number of potential research avenues: (1) expand the research scope and level of analysis to a systemic view; (2) enhance the understanding of RE triggered not only by efficiency, but also effectiveness and sufficiency; (3) expand the time horizon considered for the analysis, so to account for possible delays in the system; (4) deepen the understanding of the relationships between RE and all sustainability dimensions; (5) strengthen the research on the meso level; (6) account for the importance of system structure and system behaviour in the occurrence of RE; (7) model the causal dynamic relationships between important variables to anticipate the potential occurrence of RE; (8) develop robust approaches to estimate the potential RE triggered by CE initiatives. By consolidating the state-of-the-art within RE research and identifying the research directions for exploring RE within CE, this paper establishes a solid foundation for future research in the field.
... Third, we concentrate on studies investigating rebound effects in the context of efficiency improvements and sufficiency-related behavioral changes at the household level. Hence, we do not consider studies investigating rebound effects in other contexts, such as time-use rebounds (e.g., Buhl andAcosta, 2016a, 2016b), rebound effects preceded by production side measures (Weidema et al., 2008), rebound effects following changes in household size and degree of urbanization (e.g., Underwood and Fremstad, 2018), or rebound effects prompted by general increases in household income (e.g., Girod, 2008;Girod and de Haan, 2010). Fourth, we exclude studies that apply restrictive re-spending scenarios i.e. that limit household re-spending of financial savings to one or very few consumption categories (Chalkley et al., 2001;Yu et al., 2013). ...
Indirect rebound effects on the consumer level occur when potential greenhouse gas emission savings from the usage of more efficient technologies or more sufficient consumption in one consumption area are partially or fully offset through the consumers’ adverse behavioral responses in other areas. As both economic (e.g., price effects) and psychological (e.g., moral licensing) mechanisms can stimulate these indirect rebound effects, they have been studied in different fields, including economics, industrial ecology, psychology, and consumer research. Consequently, the literature is highly fragmented and disordered. To integrate the body of knowledge for an interdisciplinary audience, we review and summarize the previous literature, covering the microeconomic quantification of indirect rebounds based on observed expenditure behavior and the psychological processes underlying indirect rebounds. The literature review reveals that economic quantifications and psychological processes of indirect rebound effects have not yet been jointly analyzed. We derive directions for future studies, calling for a holistic research agenda that integrates economic and psychological mechanisms.
... Similar to previous literature Shew et al., 2019a), this study used the Stepwise Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) framework, which combines human and environmental effects in an economic valuation scheme (Weidema, 2009;Weidema et al., 2008). The lifecycle impact categories included in the stepwise method are described in Table 2. Midpoint and endpoint characterization factors are provided (Weidema, 2009(Weidema, , 2015. ...
Multiple Inlet Rice Irrigation (MIRI) reduces water use and production costs for Arkansas rice producers. While the water savings from MIRI have been analyzed experimentally, the overall holistic benefits of MIRI rice have yet to be quantified compared to cascade flooded rice. As such, this study evaluates the economic and environmental benefits of MIRI resulting from publicly funded research, in this case the Rice Checkoff, to continue improvements in agricultural sustainability. MIRI acreage associated with public funding from the Rice Checkoff for 2002-2018 were identified by county using producer surveys. Based on MIRI acreage, we estimate cost savings, the future value of water conserved, and reductions in environmental impacts comparing cascade and MIRI rice irrigation. Cost savings range from a low of $138,230 in 2002 to a high of $825,535 in 2008, with a total of $8,655,687 for all years. We estimated the total in situ value of conserved water from MIRI adoption associated with the Rice Checkoff to be $11,133,069. If future funding decisions for MIRI were only made based on cost savings it would underestimate the average total yearly benefits by 128%. Additionally, a Life Cycle Assessment was used to compare single score ecosystem impacts for cascade versus MIRI flooded rice based on 1 kg of rice produced. The single score, calculated as the externalized environmental cost for producing one kg of rice using cascade versus MIRI-flooded rice was estimated at $0.4066 and $0.3814, respectively; a reduction of $0.0252 per kg of MIRI-produced rice. Finally, a benefit-cost ratio of 79:1 was calculated after accounting for savings, in situ value, and reduced environmental impacts provided by MIRI adoption due to the Rice Checkoff. This study provides stakeholders a holistic picture of the economic impacts and environmental benefits provided by water conservation funded projects such as MIRI in Arkansas.
... The plant-based food, especially vegetarian diets, assure health benefits (Nordic nutrition recommendations, 2012;Palmer, 2014). While meat and dairy has been identified as environmental burden more than 10 years ago (Weidema et al., 2008), and messages of concern have been published (IPCC, 2019), solutions are not quick and easy to find; animal husbandry is extremely complex and geographically varied business linking with nutritional, food security and economic issues as well as agriculturally limited opportunities (FAO, 2006;European Commission, 2018b). In general, nutritional, health and environmental benefits have been identified in a planetary diet with limited amounts of meat (Willett, 2019), while the concept of territorial diets -even the Traditional and New Nordic one -in alignment with broader natural and societal circumstances have been accepted (FAO and WHO, 2019). ...
In the newest report of the StratKIT project (Interreg BSR, 2019-2021) Ruralia Institute researchers, as lead authors, describe the complexity and dynamics of sustainability in public procurement and catering services in BSR region. Country oriented developmental targets presented as tree models as well as results of several stakeholder BSR workshops are the key aspects of the document. More about the project: www.stratkit.eu
Global wheat yields must increase to meet current and rising global demand despite the increasing threats to production resulting from climate change. One climate change adaptation strategy in wheat production in the Western Cape of South Africa is conservation agriculture (CA). Using a data set of 1,043 plot-level wheat observations collected at Langgewens and Tygerhoek research farms from 2002 to
2020, this study conducts a stepwise Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) to estimate the environmental and economic impacts of switching from conventional wheat production to CA’s zero tillage (zero-till) and no-tillage (no-till) systems. The results indicate that CA is more profitable and has a higher environmental efficiency, than conventional tillage wheat production. In Langgewens, zero-till and no-till are respectively 113% and 55% more efficient than conventional tillage when comparing
the environmental impact of producing one kg of wheat. Findings also suggest that, compared to 100% conventional tillage wheat production, the adoption of CA systems has led to reductions in environmental damage valued between R269.2 and R402.5 million in the Western Cape.
Summary Increasing globalisation affects agricultural production and trade and has consequences for the sustainability of both conventional and organic agriculture. During the last decades, agricultural production and yields have been increasing along with global fertiliser and pesticide consumption. This development has been especially pronounced in the industrialised countries and some developing countries such as China, where cereal yields have increased a remarkable 2-fold and 4.5-fold respectively since 1961. In those countries, food security has increased, a greater variety of food has been offered and diets have changed towards a greater share of meat and dairy products. However, this development has lead to a growing disparity among agricultural systems and population, where especially developing countries in Africa have seen very few improvements in food security and production. The vast majority of rural households in developing countries lack the ecological resources or financial means to shift into intensive modern agricultural practices as well as being integrated into the global markets. At the same time, agricultural development
The use of energy for cooking is one of the most important sectors for the energy consumption in India. Results of a life cycle inventory are presented for the use of kerosene and liquefied petroleum gas as cooking fuels. The situation in India was investigated through life cycle inventories for the following stages of the life cycle: Extraction of crude oil and natural gas, processing in refineries and fractionating plants, distribution, product transports (including energy imports) and cooking. Environmental impacts are summarized with final calculated ecological profiles for cooking with the two fuels in different cooking scenarios. These results are analysed regarding the origin of the environmental impacts in the life cycle. A direct comparison shows in the majority of the investigated indicators an ecological advantage in the use of liquefied petroleum gas over kerosene. In addition, a reflection on the economic conditions and the social consequences of both life cycles is made.
Many decisions are based on beliefs concerning the likelihood of uncertain events such as the outcome of an election, the guilt of a defendant, or the future value of the dollar. Occasionally, beliefs concerning uncertain events are expressed in numerical form as odds or subjective probabilities. In general, the heuristics are quite useful, but sometimes they lead to severe and systematic errors. The subjective assessment of probability resembles the subjective assessment of physical quantities such as distance or size. These judgments are all based on data of limited validity, which are processed according to heuristic rules. However, the reliance on this rule leads to systematic errors in the estimation of distance. This chapter describes three heuristics that are employed in making judgments under uncertainty. The first is representativeness, which is usually employed when people are asked to judge the probability that an object or event belongs to a class or event. The second is the availability of instances or scenarios, which is often employed when people are asked to assess the frequency of a class or the plausibility of a particular development, and the third is adjustment from an anchor, which is usually employed in numerical prediction when a relevant value is available.
The new IMPACT 2002+ life cycle impact assessment methodology proposes a feasible implementation of a combined midpoint/ damage approach, linking all types of life cycle inventory results (elementary flows and other interventions) via 14 midpoint categories to four damage categories. For IMPACT 2002+, new concepts and methods have been developed, especially for the comparative assessment of human toxicity and ecotoxicity. Human Damage Factors are calculated for carcinogens and non-carcinogens, employing intake fractions, best estimates of dose-response slope factors, as well as severities. The transfer of contaminants into the human food is no more based on consumption surveys, but accounts for agricultural and livestock production levels. Indoor and outdoor air emissions can be compared and the intermittent character of rainfall is considered. Both human toxicity and ecotoxicity effect factors are based on mean responses rather than on conservative assumptions. Other midpoint categories are adapted from existing characterizing methods (Eco-indicator 99 and CML 2002). All midpoint scores are expressed in units of a reference substance and related to the four damage categories human health, ecosystem quality, climate change, and resources. Normalization can be performed either at midpoint or at damage level. The IMPACT 2002+ method presently provides characterization factors for almost 1500 different LCI-results, which can be downloaded at http://www.epfl.ch/impact
The objective of this paper was to investigate the effect of limited grazing time on urination and defecation frequency, spatial distribution of excrement in the paddock, and the resulting nitrogen balance at animal and field level. During a 6-week period in early summer, 60 Holstein Frisian dairy cows (31.0 ± 5.4 kg ECM) were randomly allocated to three different treatments, with grazing at clover-grass pasture during daytime for 4, 6.5 or 9 h daily. Indoor feeding, with a mixture of roughage and concentrates (13% crude protein), was restricted for treatment 4 and 6.5 h to the amount the 9-h treatment could eat. Cows allowed grazing at pasture for 4 h moved more rapidly during pasture, moved longer distance per active hour and used a higher proportion of the time eating, both at pasture and indoor, than the cows allowed longer time at pasture. Limiting the grazing time had no influence on the urination (mean = 0.26) and defecation (mean = 0.37) frequency per cow per hour during pasture. Even though the proportion of time active (eating, drinking, standing or walking), and the actual time active during pasture was different for the treatments, the frequency of urination and defecation per active hour was also unaffected by the treatments. Urine and faeces were distributed in the pasture, without specific hot-spots. The estimated daily N-balance at animal level showed increased N excretion with time at pasture. Assuming that excretion follows the active periods during the day and 7000 kg DM foliage is available on yearly basis, this would result in total excretion at field level of 58, 86 and 108 kg N per ha respectively for treatment 4, 6.5 and 9 h. The results of this experiment show that it is possible to reduce the nitrogen excretion in a grazing system by restricting the grazing time of dairy cows together with restricted indoor feeding while maintaining high foliage intake.