Transportation Challenges for Urban Students With Disabilities: Parent Perspectives

Abstract

This qualitative study explored parent perspectives of the transportation difficulties students with disabilities experienced getting to and around school. Participants were parents of predominantly African American and Latino/a high school youth with disabilities from low income neighborhoods. Content analysis of 14 meetings with 5 to 12 parents sponsored by the school district revealed five primary themes concerning transportation: the role of aides, exclusion from school programming, scheduling problems, equipment problems, and physical safety issues. Findings are discussed in regard to students' social and emotional experiences at school. Implications for school policy include improving the integration of transportation within inclusion best practice models. Incorporating parent perspectives can help school administrators and staff enrich the quality of inclusive, socially just education for students with disabilities.

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Transportation Challenges for Urban
Students With Disabilities: Parent
Perspectives
Benjamin C. Graham a , Christopher B. Keys a , Susan D. McMahon a
& Michael R. Brubacher a
a Department of Psychology , DePaul University , Chicago , Illinois ,
USA
Published online: 21 Jan 2014.
To cite this article: Benjamin C. Graham , Christopher B. Keys , Susan D. McMahon & Michael
R. Brubacher (2014) Transportation Challenges for Urban Students With Disabilities: Parent
Perspectives, Journal of Prevention & Intervention in the Community, 42:1, 45-57, DOI:
10.1080/10852352.2014.855058
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45
Journal of Prevention & Intervention in the Community, 42:45–57, 2014
Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 1085-2352 print/1540-7330 online
DOI: 10.1080/10852352.2014.855058
Transportation Challenges for Urban Students
With Disabilities: Parent Perspectives
BENJAMIN C. GRAHAM, CHRISTOPHER B. KEYS,
SUSAN D. McMAHON, and MICHAEL R. BRUBACHER
Department of Psychology, DePaul University, Chicago, Illinois, USA
This qualitative study explored parent perspectives of the transporta-
tion difficulties students with disabilities experienced getting to and
around school. Participants were parents of predominantly African
American and Latino/a high school youth with disabilities from low
income neighborhoods. Content analysis of 14 meetings with 5 to
12 parents sponsored by the school district revealed five primary
themes concerning transportation: the role of aides, exclusion from
school programming, scheduling problems, equipment problems,
and physical safety issues. Findings are discussed in regard to stu-
dents’ social and emotional experiences at school. Implications for
school policy include improving the integration of transportation
within inclusion best practice models. Incorporating parent per-
spectives can help school administrators and staff enrich the quality
of inclusive, socially just education for students with disabilities.
KEYWORDS African American, disability, Latino, low income,
parent perspectives, school inclusion, transportation, urban education
Inclusive education places students with disabilities in age appropriate gen-
eral education classrooms and provides a continuum of supports to meet
student needs (e.g., Brown et al., 2004). Although the Individuals with
Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA, 2004) mandates education
in the least restrictive environment for every school-age child with a disabil-
ity, it does not fully delineate how services should be delivered. The
At the time of this research, Benjamin C. Graham was affiliated with DePaul University in
Chicago, Illinois. Dr. Graham is currently affiliated with the National Center for PTSD,
Dissemination and Training Division, in Menlo Park, California.
Address correspondence to Benjamin C. Graham, National Center for PTSD, Dissemination
& Training Division, VA Palo Alto Health Care System, 795 Willow Road (334-NCPTSD), Menlo
Park, CA 94025, USA. E-mail: BenjaminCGraham@gmail.com
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46 B. C. Graham etal.
placement of students with disabilities in general education classes varies
among states and districts (U.S. Department of Education, 2006). Each stu-
dent’s education team typically develops and implements the student’s inclu-
sive education program through an individual education plan (IEP).
Positive outcomes of inclusion for students with disabilities include
increased social skills, social interactions, and self-esteem, as well as improved
academic skills (Grove & Fisher, 1999). Not all students benefit from their
inclusive programs, and studies of the academic and social development of
students in inclusive programs often produce mixed results (Salend &
Duhaney, 1999). Publications often address inclusion conceptually and do
not study events occurring within the integrated environment (Bennett,
DeLuca, & Bruns, 1997). Advancing inclusion programs requires more infor-
mation on factors supporting and limiting the development and well-being
of students with disabilities.
TRANSPORTATION
Transportation, both within and outside of school, is a necessary component
of the educational system. Transportation needs are particularly salient for
students with disabilities, who are at an increased risk for injuries and fatali-
ties in the event of an accident compared to children without disabilities
(Falkmer & Gregersen, 2001). However, the transportation needs of students
with disabilities have received only limited attention in the research
literature.
For children with disabilities attending school, IDEIA (2004) integrates
travel to and from as well as in and around school as components of a least
restrictive educational environment. Brown et al. (2004) suggests that
access and mobility for students with disabilities should, to the fullest
extent possible, match that of students without disabilities. Thus, students
with disabilities need transportation that enables them to start and finish
the school day at the same times as students without disabilities, and have
access to the same classrooms and other within-school settings.
Unfortunately, these needs are not always met. Transportation problems for
students with disabilities have been found to be associated with higher
rates of school stressors, anxiety, depression and aggression, as well as
lower rates of school belonging and school resources (Graham, Keys, &
McMahon, this issue).
Given there are few studies with youth, qualitative studies with adults
shed light on the types of transportation problems people with disabilities
experience. Interviews of adults with disabilities revealed that deficits in
transportation and accessibility were significant obstacles to community inte-
gration and positive quality of life (Fresher-Samways, Roush, Choi, Desrosiers,
& Steel, 2003). Frustrations with transportation included the unavailability of
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Transportation Challenges 47
options, as well as the low reliability, timeliness and quality of services.
Specific difficulties included equipment failures, uncomfortable situations
that irritated their physical conditions, and inconsistent scheduling.
Furthermore, inadequate transportation to a destination and difficulty getting
around settings were reported to limit participation in social and employ-
ment activities. Similar to adults with disabilities, transportation issues may
be useful to consider in relation to inclusion for students with disabilities.
PARENT CONCERNS
Parents are key stakeholders and advocates for the inclusive education of
children with disabilities. Historically, parents have been central to the pas-
sage of special education legislation (Turnbull & Turnbull, 1990). They are
critical resources in providing insights into their children’s disabilities, and
articulating the features of inclusive education for students with disabilities
(Grove & Fisher, 1999). The provision by federal legislation for parental
involvement in educational decisions (IDEIA, 2004) underscores the essen-
tial role parents play regarding inclusive programming for youth with
disabilities.
While results are mixed, parents generally report being supportive of
inclusion programs (Bennett etal., 1997), citing both academic and social
benefits (Duhaney & Salend, 2000; Grove & Fisher, 1999). While most par-
ents endorse inclusion policies in general, some have expressed concerns
regarding their own son or daughter’s inclusion. Furthermore, parents’ attitudes
toward inclusion can depend on the quality of the programs being imple-
mented (Lovitt & Cushing, 1999).
Parents commonly report concerns about the expertise and level of
care provided by support personnel, such as bus drivers, school staff, and
aides. Parents suggest these personnel may lack the support and training
regarding their role in responding to student needs and safety issues
(Duhaney & Salend, 2000; Falkmer & Gregersen, 2002). Safety concerns
include falls (Antle, Mills, Steele, Kalnins, & Rossen, 2007) and improper use
of seating devices during travel (Falkmer & Gregersen, 2002).
Parents report a desire for their children to take a wide range of classes
(Fisher, Pumpian, & Sax, 1998), which require appropriate access and trans-
portation within the school building. Lack of access within the school day
can create problems, such as when students with disabilities cannot enter the
lunchroom. Parents also voice concern about lack of equal access to extra-
curricular activities occurring outside of the school day and the subsequent
social benefits denied their children (Fisher, Pumpian, & Sax, 1998). As these
activities are available to students without disabilities, appropriate schedul-
ing and transportation for students with disabilities is necessary to provide
the least restrictive educational environment.
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48 B. C. Graham etal.
Despite the centrality of parent input for planning appropriate and least
restrictive educational environments, parents often experience barriers to
participation in their children’s education. Barriers related to income, trans-
portation, time conflicts, English proficiency, and other issues can contribute
to parents of students with disabilities feeling disenfranchised from the
schools (Lovitt & Cushing, 1999). This disenfranchisement is particularly true
for culturally and linguistically diverse, low-income families.
Notwithstanding the importance of parent participation (Xu & Filler,
2008), studies investigating parent perspectives on transportation for students
with disabilities have been limited, and transportation has historically been
considered only a peripheral component of inclusion. In the current study,
we sought parent input about how the transportation needs of their children
with disabilities were being met following a recent school closure and tran-
sition to new schools. Therefore, this qualitative study’s central research ques-
tion is: “What problems and concerns do parents of youths with disabilities
have regarding transportation following a school transition?” The infor-
mation gleaned from this study can assist with conceptualizing inclusion
more fully, building an empirical base for considering transportation and
inclusion, and providing comprehensive, inclusive services to students with
disabilities.
METHOD
Participants
This study was part of a larger evaluation project conducted by a university
team in collaboration with a large urban public school district. Participants
were parents of students with a range of disabilities who had recently tran-
sitioned to their neighborhood or magnet school following the closing of
a school serving predominantly students with disabilities throughout the
district. In the district, 86% of students qualified for free or reduced cost school
lunches.
Fourteen parent meetings were sponsored by the school district during
the transition process. An overarching goal of these meetings was to allow
parents to provide the district administration with feedback on how well
the schools and district were responding to the needs of students. Five to
12 parents attended each meeting, which were typically staffed by school
district leaders and attended by the evaluation team. Two of the 14 meetings
were initiated by the evaluation team, with the joint goals of identifying
student needs and providing advisory input to the evaluation and overall
project. Parents who attended the meetings were primarily those of stu-
dents with more severe disabilities. In most cases, these students traveled
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Transportation Challenges 49
to and from school on specialized school buses serving solely students
with disabilities.
Procedure
Parent perspectives regarding transportation problems to/from school were
assessed via data from the parent meetings. The meetings lasted approxi-
mately 1.5–3 hours. Each meeting was documented by one of four methods:
(a) transcription; (b) detailed field notes/paragraph summaries including
minutes and thematic parent concerns; (c) field notes with itemized lists of
parent concerns; or (d) a combination of the three methods. For this study,
3 transcriptions, 3 sets of detailed field notes, and 16 sets of less detailed
field notes with itemized parent concerns were used for examining the 14
parent meetings (see Table 1). Thematic analyses were conducted to distill
major themes of problems with transportation, with each theme derived
from no fewer than three separate parent contributions. Where multiple
sources of data existed for a specific meeting, these data were checked
across each available data source. While the data presented here focuses on
identifying problems, it is important to underscore that the structure in which
TABLE 1 Summary of Qualitative Data Sources for Parent Meetings
Meeting # 1234567891011121314
Data source Data type
Observer #1 Verbatim transcriptions XX X
Observer #2 Detailed summary with
thematic analysis
X
Observer #3 Notes on meeting &
itemized parent
comments
(incl. quotations)
X XXX X
Observer #4 Notes on meeting &
itemized parent
comments
(incl. quotations)
X XXXX
Observer #5 Notes on meeting &
itemized parent
comments
(incl. quotations)
XX X X X
Observer #6 Notes on meeting &
itemized parent
comments
(incl. quotations)
X
Observer #7 Detailed summary
paragraphs of
meeting
XX
Total data sources per meeting 13231231111111
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50 B. C. Graham etal.
the meetings occurred represented an active effort to solve problems and
ensure quality education for students with disabilities.
RESULTS
From the qualitative analysis of parent meetings, five main issues regarding
the nature of transportation difficulties for students with disabilities emerged:
(a) problems with aides, (b) exclusion from school programming, (c) sched-
uling problems, (d) equipment problems, and (e) physical safety. Whenever
possible, illustrative quotes of the thematic analysis are provided. In some
cases, parent concerns that did not include direct quotes are noted.
Problems With Aides
Aides are assigned to help students in some or all aspects of their school day,
including when indicated, accompanying them on the bus to/from school
and assisting them in moving around within school. Parents expressed sev-
eral transportation-related concerns regarding their child’s aide. First, some
parents stated the aides were not attending to their children as they helped
children get on the bus (“She [the aide] is on the cell phone out the door and
doesn’t sit next to my daughter.”). Also, the appropriateness of gender match
of the aide to student was questioned (“She needs to be checked to see if
she has had an accident … how can a male attendant do this?”), as well as
the high incidence of aide turnover (“Her bus aide is changed again. No
notice … my daughter bonds to these people!”). Some noted the aide was
not physically present to transport their students (“My baby was supposed to
have an aide on the bus. She doesn’t!”), and others noted that a single aide
was assigned to transport too many students at the same time (viz., the
parent reported the aide was moving five students at once).
Exclusion From School Programming
Parents were very concerned that transportation limitations effectively
excluded their children from regular school programs. A primary recurring
problem was exclusion from after-school programming due to the lack of
adequate bus transportation (e.g., “My daughter wants to be in pom-pom, but
they were told they have to be on the bus”; “I talked to Special Ed, and she
wished they could get our kids involved in after school activities, but they
can’t because of the bus schedule.”). Several parents also expressed concern
that their children could not go on bus trips because specialized buses were
not available. In addition, sometimes bus schedules affected classes, as one
parent noted her child was unable to take a music class that occurred in the
final period, after the specialized school bus left (“My daughter could get
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Transportation Challenges 51
music every other week. … You [school staff] put music in the last period and
she has to leave on the bus before that!”). Notably, these reported scenarios
contradict Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) mandates (U.S. Department
of Education, 2006). Lastly, several parents expressed frustration that their
children were not allowed to have lunch off campus like their fellow students
because there was no appropriate transportation.
Scheduling Problems
Difficulties in scheduling were a common concern of parents. For transportation
to/from school, the problem involved both prolonged wait times (“[student]
does not have a 10th period but she is waiting for the bus [required to wait
the duration of the period for the bus]”) and inconsistent pick/up drop off
times (“One day they get home at 3:30 and the next 5:45”). Within school,
parent descriptions of scheduling problems included long passing period
times, including wait times for staff to arrive to assist them. In one case, such
delays resulted in one student not only missing class time but also being
reprimanded by her teacher for being late. Then as punishment, the student
was made to wait outside of the classroom.
Equipment Problems
Several equipment problems were identified in relation to bus transportation
to/from school. Parents identified problems with wheelchair securing devices
on the bus (“The bus driver slammed her brakes and [student’s] chair went
loose. That is when the straps broke.”), as well as a lack of bus driver knowl-
edge in how to use safety equipment (“The bus driver had no idea how to
operate a lift or the straps”). Additionally, concerns were raised that buses were
not air conditioned, which posed a problem for students with fragile health.
One within-school transportation problem shared by parents was the
inefficient use of elevators. One quote illustrates both logistical problems
and subsequent negative responses from nondisabled peers: “There seems
to be problems still with her using the elevator. The elevator kids [all students
with disabilities] are all just lined up. Kids come back and stare at them.” In
another case, a cafeteria lift was broken, requiring students with mobility
impairments to eat in an alternate space at school, removed from other
students. In this example as well as the situation described above, it appears
problems with school elevators/lifts may have a direct impact on students’
psychosocial experiences.
Physical Safety
In several cases, a student’s physical safety was compromised while being
transported. While they were not frequent occurrences, each situation had the
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52 B. C. Graham etal.
potential to harm one or more students with disabilities and in some cases
others as well. Parents described these situations as a result of equipment
failure and personnel training. As noted above, when wheelchair straps broke,
the student fell over, and safety was compromised. A second involved a student
falling over while waiting on the curb because the brakes on his wheelchair
were not properly secured. Another incident happened within the school,
when a student became stuck in the school elevator for over a half hour.
Several parents also discussed positive changes that occurred as a result
of administrative responses to the problems raised at parent meetings. For
example, following an intervention by the district special education office in
response to parent feedback about inconsistent arrival and departure times,
the situation improved (“I agree the schedule at first was a problem. Now
there is a definite pick-up and drop-off time”). In another meeting, a parent
noted her daughter’s aide had been reassigned to others and advocated for
the aide to be restored to supporting her daughter. In the meeting that
followed, the principal stated that she would communicate with human
resources to make sure the aide would again be assigned to the child.
DISCUSSION
This qualitative study examined parent perspectives on transportation chal-
lenges following a recent school transition for students with disabilities.
Information gathered from parent meetings with the school administration
revealed several themes, consisting of problems with aides, exclusion from
school programming, scheduling, equipment, and physical safety. This study
identifies transportation as a major inclusion issue for parents, and the themes
expressed by parents yield implications for theory, research and practice.
Problems With Aides
Parent input regarding aides revealed concerns that aides were not ade-
quately qualified to work with a particular child, were required to assist too
many students, exhibited high levels of turnover, and were at times inappro-
priately gender matched. Studies assessing parental attitudes toward inclu-
sion have frequently found that caring and qualified personnel are viewed as
central to a positive experience of inclusion and, conversely, the absence of
such sincere, trained adults is a major concern (Duhaney & Salend, 2000;
Green & Shinn, 1994). Although the perceptions of aides are not typically
included in research studies, the views of teachers have been assessed. In a
review of 28 studies on teacher attitudes toward inclusion, Scruggs and
Mastropieri (1996) determined that while two-thirds of teachers support the
concept of inclusion, only one fourth to one third felt they had sufficient
time, training, or materials to implement inclusion successfully. It is plausible
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Transportation Challenges 53
that in some cases aides are also not receiving sufficient training or that
schools lack sufficient resources to effectively meet the needs of students
with disabilities. Given the importance of aides to successful transportation
in particular and inclusion more generally, appropriate resources need to be
dedicated to training, staff–student ratios, and appropriate matching of aides
with students with disabilities.
Exclusion From School Programming
Parents expressed concerns that inadequate transportation prevented their
children from participating in school-related activities. Missed activities
included after-school programs, classes, field trips, and going off-campus for
lunch (a privilege extended to fellow nondisabled students). Prior studies
have shown that parents value the social aspects of after-school programs
(Antle etal., 2007), the incorporation of life skills in classes (e.g., cooking
and sex education), and vocational classes that may lead to future employ-
ment (Fisher etal., 1998). Students with disabilities have also reported anxi-
ety over not being included in academic and recreational activities that are
part of general educational programming (Padeliadu & Zigmond, 1996).
Students with disabilities often need adequate transportation to participate in
academic and social opportunities that they and their parents consider valu-
able elements of education.
Scheduling Problems
Disruptive bus scheduling was a common concern of parents. Problems
included long wait times and inconsistent pick-up and drop-off times. In a
discussion of what constitutes a least restrictive educational environment,
Brown etal. (2004) assert that the school day of a student with a disability
should as closely as possible reflect that of a student without a disability.
Parent reports in this study are not consistent with the district’s policy that the
duration of the school day should not exceed an hour longer or shorter for
students with disabilities compared to students without disabilities.
Transportation problems to and from school and the length of time to get to
school have predicted anxiety and depression for students with disabilities
(Graham etal., 2014 [this issue]). Adults with disabilities reported that trans-
portation problems, including inconsistent scheduling, negatively affect social
and community activities and reduce quality of life (Fresher-Samways etal.,
2003). Addressing these scheduling issues needs to be a primary concern.
Equipment Problems
Equipment problems reported by parents included worn or otherwise dam-
aged transportation and safety equipment and the inefficient use of such
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54 B. C. Graham etal.
devices. Parents reported consequences of equipment problems that included
social stigma, isolation, and potential physical injury. Reports of equipment
problems in the research literature are rare but do occur (e.g., Lovitt &
Cushing, 1999). One reason for equipment problems not appearing fre-
quently in inclusion research is that such studies typically focus on the class-
room needs of teachers or the social and academic concerns of parents,
which often do not include the mechanics of transportation. There may also
be barriers to communication between parents and schools, as well as
between students and parents, which could lead to underreporting of equip-
ment problems.
Physical Safety
Parents described a few events involving transportation and physical safety
that showed the potential for harm to students. Parents have previously
reported that when their children use school transportation, they are four
times more concerned with whether the child is properly restrained than
when the child is in a family vehicle (Falkmer & Gregersen, 2002).
Furthermore, students with disabilities are at a higher risk for injury in the
event of a vehicle accident than students without disabilities (Falkmer &
Gregersen, 2001). Parents who have experienced their child falling in the
past also worry whether their child will fall when they are not present (Antle
etal., 2007). Clearly, physical safety is a basic need of all students, and
special care may be required to keep students with disabilities safe going to
and from school.
Implications for Policy and Practice
This study offers several implications for policy and practice related to the
transportation needs of students with disabilities. While our analysis divided
the concerns voiced by parents into different themes, problems with trans-
portation are interconnected. These problems, in turn, can affect student
experiences in complex ways. For example, bus scheduling, equipment
problems, and the availability of aides can all affect whether a student arrives
to class on time, as well as the student’s academic involvement, social devel-
opment, sense of inclusion, and daily psychological comfort. Solutions
focused on a single individual or a small group will benefit a few cases but
will not satisfy the requirements under the IDEIA (2004) in addressing the
complex needs of all students with disabilities. A comprehensive approach
to addressing transportation as part of a larger inclusive plan is needed to
improve student experiences and outcomes.
Given the importance of busing for students with disabilities, enhanced
training of school bus personnel is needed. The inherent divide between
school districts and private bus contractors should be bridged in such a way
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Transportation Challenges 55
that school bus personnel are trained in the unique needs of students with
disabilities and informed about the particular needs and rights of students
who ride the bus. Interventions that link school and bus personnel and build
a sense of teamwork in service provision may help reduce transportation
problems for students with disabilities. In many cases, individual training of
students to use the bus or other modes of transport may improve outcomes
(Watanabe, Uematsu, & Kobayashi, 1993) when conducted in conjunction
with the training of bus personnel and other adults responsible for student
success.
Transportation equipment that is used by students with disabilities
must be part of the routine maintenance and repair practices at schools,
and prioritized in the same way as other features of the built environment
critical to student learning. Thus, a broken school elevator should be
responded to in the same fashion as an inoperative door to a classroom,
and a bus’s wheelchair restraints should be monitored as carefully as its
engine and brakes.
Understanding the perspective of parents of students with disabilities is
a critical component to assessing the effectiveness of the many inclusive
educational features existing outside of the curriculum. This study illustrates
the importance of involving parental voice in shaping how transportation
services are administered for students with disabilities. While this study
focuses on parental concerns, the willingness to listen and act on the part of
the district is also critical. The opening of channels to understanding parent
voice may serve as a best practice in meeting the diverse needs of students
with disabilities. Such practices invite parental involvement in meaningfully
informing school practice, thereby enacting and advancing the educational
rights of students with disabilities.
This study involved the systematic investigation of meetings spon-
sored by the district to help improve the inclusion experience of students
with disabilities. Qualitative methods allowed for parent themes to emerge
across multiple parent meetings. A strength to this approach is that it was
based on the actual parent–district meetings that were held to gather input
from parents and address concerns. A limitation to this method of gather-
ing qualitative data is that not all meetings were documented in the same
fashion. However, only a minority of themes did not include exact
quotations.
CONCLUSION
Parental voice is widely recognized as an important feature in how schools
educate our youth. However, in practice, the power of parent voice to shape
education can vary widely among schools and districts. For families facing mul-
tiple marginalizations due to racism, poverty, and ableism, meaningful parent
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56 B. C. Graham etal.
input is of critical importance. This study demonstrates the potential of struc-
tured, district-supported forums to shed light on parental concerns, including
the important issue of transportation. Creating opportunities to build school–
parent connections and responding in meaningful ways to parental input have
the potential to enhance student learning and overall school experiences.
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